The Thesis

Jagoda Dworek
Discursive reproduction of
racial attitudes, whitening
and whiteness dominance
in media texts in Peru
Culture, Communication and Globalization
Aalborg University
May, 200
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance
Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes,
whitening and whiteness dominance in media
texts in Peru
!umber o" #ages$ %0
!umber o" c&aracters$'( 000

)u#ervisor$ *ablo Cristo""anini
Declaration of Authorship
+ absolutely certi"y t&at t&is #ro,ect is
t&e result o" my own work-
.........
Jagoda Dworek
/&e total #age count includes "ootnotes and endnotes, but does not include t&e bibliogra#&y, t&e
a##endi0es, #ictures, t&e table o" contents and t&e title #ages
2
Abstract
Key words$ whiteness, whitening, consumerism, media, racism, Latin America, Peru,
discourse analysis, semiotics
!on1w&ite countries constitute t&ree12uarters o" t&e #lanet 3*robyn, 20045- 6ven
t&oug& dark skinned in&abitants outnumber t&e #o#ulation, among t&em t&ere still e0ists a
#revalent notion o" w&iteness su#eriority-- As "ar as a##roac&es toward w&itening di""er
across t&e world de#ending on social milieu, contem#orary trends and &istorical and
cultural &eritage, t&e main 2uestion w&ic& constitutes t&e a0is o" "urt&er divagations is
w&at is t&e "unction o" media te0ts in social construction 3and re#roduction o" whiteness
dominance, whitening and racial attitudes5 in t&e *eruvian social and cultural
environment /&ere"ore, t&esis aims to "ind out w&at im#act mass media #lay in t&e
rein"orcement and re#roduction o" t&e notion o" w&itening and w&iteness dominance7 t&e
#ur#ose is to estimate in w&ic& direction t&e relation goes$ does t&e media construct t&e
reality or t&e social reality a""ect and determine t&e media te0ts8
9ealizing t&e #revalent im#ortance o" iconogra#&y in *eruvian social construction
3"rom t&e !azca: lines to recent advertisements5 one decided to analyze t&e media te0ts:
3si0 sam#le advertisements:5 in"luence, discursive re#roduction o" racial attitudes and
notion o" skin color by and its conse2uences "or t&e society- /&ese advertisements are not
,ust about aest&etic #re"erences, but also, w&ile considering in a wider conte0t, reveal
im#licit statements- /&ese demand an active a##roac& to t&e inter#retation #rocess-
+t is essential to clari"y t&e "our key terms used in t&e #a#er, not only because o"
t&eir incidence, but also because o" t&eir im#ortance- /&ese terms are$ racism,
whitening;lightening, whiteness/paleness and role o" (mass) media and advertisements-
)e#arate section is dedicated "or getting a dee#er insig&t into Latin American 3#articularly
*eruvian5 social structure- +n <atin America issue o" racism &as always been sensitive and
com#licated- /&e stand#oint "or t&is subsection is t&at every nation w&ic& t&roug& &ad
e0#erienced t&e slavery #eriod, couldn:t remain untouc&ed by t&oroug& scars- =or
centuries all w&ite was associated wit& civilization, develo#ment and re"inement- >n t&e
o##osite all t&at &ad to do wit& darker #eo#le was stereoty#ically linked to barbarism,
laziness and #rimitivism- +n conse2uence, a s#eci"ic notion o" docility and racial
?
e0#loitation &as been establis&ed- Colonial re#resentations are still alive w&ic& can be
seen in casta &ierarc&y 39eding, 200($%45- +n <atin America #erson:s race 3in a
symbolical way5 can c&ange to a big e0tent during t&e li"etime @"rom being !egro, to
being Acultural w&iteB 3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5- *o#ular Drazilian #roverb Ael dinero
clarea...B 3money cleans5 39eding, 200($%05 reveals t&e way o" social #romotion- /&at is
closely connected wit& consumerism @ as t&e way in w&ic& <atin countries ado#t
t&emselves to t&e dynamic world and global trends-
9egarding to met&odological a##roac&, one combined discourse analysis with
semiotics- /&is uni2ue combination is a conse2uence o" student:s assum#tion t&at
universal #syc&ological structures in a certain sociocultural milieu take a certain "orm and
are revealed in t&e world o" signs- )igns re"lect certain set o" im#licit meanings and
underlying messages about t&e society- )tudent designed a t&ree1ste# inter#retation
#rocess- =irst, s&e wants to conduct te0tual analysis o" t&e image, a##lying "ive key areas
to discuss media te0t suggested by )elby and Cowdery- )econdly, Dar&tes: terms and
a##roac& toward t&e inter#retation #rocess will be em#loyed- A"ter t&at, treating semiotic
analysis as a stand#oint, one wants to em#loy DA categories and "inally re"lect ac&ieved
results to sociocultual and &istorical conte0ts-
/&esis gives a detailed insig&t into *eruvian social construction and reveals latent
messages about t&e dynamics 3e0#ressed in notion o" w&iteness, lig&tening and w&iteness
dominance5 and directions o" racial attitudes in t&e "ace o" consumerism and
globalization- /&e #a#er in a logical way s&ows &ow advertisements rein"orce t&e notion
o" w&iteness dominance by #ersonalizing t&e ideology, re"erring to social and cultural
milieu, contrasting t&e myt& o" Eestern civilization wit& t&e discursive re#resentation o"
<atin legacy, rein"orcing t&e two"old construction o" t&e society 3us vs t&em5,
constructing sel" and social identity and setting standards "or cultural w&itening o"
li"estyles and atmos#&ere-
6ventually, t&e #a#er gives t&e readers an analytical vision o" t&e "uture trends and
"urt&er dynamics o" t&e situation and t&e #rocess o" discursive re#roduction o" racial
attitudes in t&e region-
'
Table of contents
- +ntroduction--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (
-- *roblem Area------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(
-2- 9easons "or Dealing wit& t&e /o#ic--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------F
2- /&eoretical "ramework--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------0
2-- 9acism--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------0
2--- Colorism---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
2-2- E&iteness and t&e E&iteness /&eories-------------------------------------------------------------------------------?
2-?- )kin E&itening------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- '
2-?-- Dleac&ing )yndrome---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%
2-?-2- Gender------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- %
2-'- )tereoty#es @ *syc&ological A##roac&-------------------------------------------------------------------------------(
2-'-- AUsB vs A/&emB----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------F
2-4- /anning and t&e ADronze )kinB *&enomena-----------------------------------------------------------------------G
2-%- Mass Media 3in t&e conte0t o" racism and w&iteness dominance5--------------------------------------20
2-%-- Advertisements 3in t&e conte0t o" racism and w&iteness dominance5--------------------------2
?- <atin America societies 3#articularly *eru5-------------------------------------------------------------------------------2?
?-- )ocial structure------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2?
?--- Consumerism in <atin America-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
?-2- 9acism and !otion o" )kin Color---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2%
?-?- *eru------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 2(
'- 9e"lections About Met&od---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?0
'-- Met&odology, 6#istemology, >ntology------------------------------------------------------------------------------?0
'--- Met&od------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ?
'-2- )emiotics as a Met&od--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?2
'-2-- =ive Hey Areas to Discuss a Media /e0t---------------------------------------------------------------------??
'-2-2- <inguistic Message------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?'
'-2-?- Coded +conic Message-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?4
'-2-'- !on Coded +conic Message-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?4
'-2-4- /&e 9&etoric o" t&e +mage-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?%
'-2-%- Myt&--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ?%
'-?- Discourse Analysis as a Met&od-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?(
'-?-- *ower, 6lites, Dominance and Control------------------------------------------------------------------------?F
'-?-2- )ur"ace and Dee# )tructures----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------?F
'-'- Design o" t&e /&esis-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------'0
'-4- )am#le Analysis----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- '0
'-4-- )ources------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ '0
'-4--- Advertisement and Discourse-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------'
'-4--2- Advertisement and )emiotics-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------'
'-4-2- 6t&ical Consideration--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------'2
4- Analysis------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- '?
4-- 6m#irical Data-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------'?
4--- /ec&ni2ue o" Analysis-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------'G
4--2- E&y /&ese 6m#irical Data Eere C&osen8------------------------------------------------------------------'G
4--?- E&at is Deing Advertised8------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
)ur"ace )tructures------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
4-2- )traig&t1"orward 9eading o" t&e +mage------------------------------------------------------------------------------42
4-?- Models @ )ub,ects o" t&e Cam#aigns----------------------------------------------------------------------------------42
4-?-- +deal o" t&e Deauty------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4?
4-?-2- Dress Code------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4'
4-?-?- !on1verbal Communication----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------44
4
4-'- Com#osition----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4%
4-'-- Distance and !otion o" *urity o" t&e Dlood-----------------------------------------------------------------4%
4-'-2- Color Code------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4(
4-4- <ogo----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4F
4-%- <inguistic Message-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4F
4-(- Audience----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- %0
4-(-- I*re"erred 9eaders: 1 /arget Audience-------------------------------------------------------------------------%0
4-(--- Gender and Age--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%2
4-(--2- Mode o" addressing--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%?
'-(-2- General *ublic-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%'
4-(-?- *syc&ogra#&ic Jariable-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%4
4-(-'- <i"estyle Marketing-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%%
4-F- *roducers and Mani"estation o" Colorism--------------------------------------------------------------------------%(
Dee# )tructures----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- %(
4-G- Discourses +denti"ied----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%(
4-0- Myt&s and 9&etoric o" t&e +mages------------------------------------------------------------------------------------%G
4-0-- Myt& o" E&iteness----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(0
4-0-2- Eest versus +ndigenous---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(0
4-0-?- E&itening o" t&e Atmos#&ere------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(
4-- Jicious Circle-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(
4-2- /wo"old Construction o" t&e )ociety and its: Discursive 9e#roduction----------------------------(2
%- Conclusions------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ('
%-- *ros#ects----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(%
(- Dibliogra#&y----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (F
Table of figures, pictures and tables
=igure - /&eoretical <ocation o" t&e Conce#t o" Colorism..............-- 2
=igure 2- /&ree1ste# Met&od o" Analysis--....................----- ?2
=igure ?- Model o" Discourse )tructures.............---........- ?G
=igure '- )te#1by1ste# Gra#&ical Model o" t&e /&esis Design ....--........--- '0
/able - <ist o" )am#le Materials "or Analysis........--...........-'?
*ictures A @ A%.............................----''1'F
*icture - t&e <ogo...---............---..............4F
%
1. ntroduction
1.1. Problem Area
!on1w&ite countries constitute t&ree12uarters o" t&e #lanet 3*robyn, 20045- 6ven
t&oug& dark skinned in&abitants outnumber t&e #o#ulation, among t&em t&ere still e0ists a
#revalent notion o" w&iteness su#eriority- /&e #oint is t&at At&eir continued #re"erence "or
contrasting lig&t skin is a testament to t&e im#act o" dominance u#on &uman #syc&eB
3Kall, GG4$ F05-
/&e t&esis will deal wit& t&e issue o" racial a##roac&es, skin lig&tening and w&iteness
dominance in media te0ts in <atin America, in t&e case o" *eru- /&e #a#er will consider
t&e to#ics o" racial attitudes and notion o" skin color and its discursive re#roduction by
and its conse2uences "or t&e society- A##roac&es toward w&itening di""er across t&e
world de#ending on social and #olitical milieu, contem#orary trends as well as &istorical
and cultural &eritage- /&e best e0am#le o" t&is is t&e notion o" Abronze skinB #&enomena
in Eest 6uro#e
2
- /&at causes a #arado0 wit& t&ose o" darker com#le0ion seeking to be
w&iter, w&ile t&e "air1skinned #o#ulation seeks to be darker-
As t&e stand#oint, t&e student &as a##lied discursive theories w&ic& are concerned
wit& t&e ways in w&ic& language, mass media and symbols in"luence meanings- +n t&e
analysis, one e0amines ways in w&ic& discourses conducive w&iteness as t&e invisible
norm and &ow #erce#tion is s&a#ed by mani#ulation o" symbols, 3visual and te0tual5
messages and myt&s 3/&om#son, 2005- 6m#&asis will be #ut mostly on signs, t&us
semiotics a##roac& &as been em#loyed- /&e clue is to consider media te0ts and its
attributes 3signs, te0tual messages, com#osition, colors etc5, t&e meanings w&ic& t&ese
carry and t&eir im#act on social and identity creation-
Dasing on discourse analysis and semiotics, one wants to analyze certain media te0ts
"rom recent advertisements and #romotional cam#aigns, as e0em#li"ications o" social and
#syc&ological a##roac&es and ideological tendencies- /&e #oint is t&at t&ese
advertisements are not ,ust about aest&etic #re"erences, but also, w&ile considering in a
wider sociocultural and &istorical conte0t, reveal im#licit statements- Dy answering t&e
2uestion about &ow *eruvian identity is articulated by consum#tion o" sam#le
2
Dy LEest countriesB + understand all dominantly w&ite countries @ 6uro#eans, Americans, Canadians, and
Australians
(
advertisements and cam#aigns, one wants to veri"y Jo&ansson:s statement, w&ic& claims
t&at AE&ite 3---5 is now also used to construct identity in a globalized cultureB 3Jo&ansson,
GGF$%'5- /&esis aims to catc& t&e nature o" racial dynamics 3e0#ressed in notion o"
w&iteness, skin lig&tening and w&ite dominance5 in *eruvian society in t&e "ace o"
consumerism-
9egarding to certain media te0ts one wants to "ocus on t&e ma,or !uestion, w&ic& is
oriented around t&e category o" dominance$ what role do the images play "in the
development, reinforcement, legitimi#ation, and hence reproduction$ %&an Di'(,
1))*+)*,)-. of whiteness dominance, whitening and racial attitudes/ More broadly
one wants to "ind out w&at is t&e "unction o" media te0ts in social construction in t&e
certain social and cultural environment and in w&ic& direction t&e relation goes$ does t&e
media construct t&e reality or t&e social reality a""ect and determine t&e media te0ts8
>ne wants to e0#lore &ow in <atin American societies, s#eci"ically in *eru,
t&roug& t&e sam#le #romotional cam#aigns, notion o" 3skin5 lig&tening and w&iteness
dominance are created and articulated- Main goal is to estimate discursive re#roduction o"
racial attitudes in media te0ts in *eru- /&esis, in a wider conte0t, divulge #otential
meanings and "unctions o" lig&ter skin in creating identity o" AusB ; Asel"B in o##osition to
At&emB ; Aot&ersB and its relations&i#s wit& class, gender and race-
6ventually, t&e analysis would give t&e readers t&e analytical vision o" t&e "uture
trends and "urt&er dynamics o" t&e situation and t&e #rocess o" discursive re#roduction o"
racial attitudes in t&e considered region-
1.*. 0easons for Dealing with the Topic
Carol Gracias, a "amous +ndian su#ermodel once commented to &ersel"$ AA
ma,ority o" #eo#le in our country are dark1skinned- And most #roducts are targeted at
t&em- )o, w&y do #eo#le want to use only "air girls in ads8:: 3!air, 200?5- /&at is t&e
2uestion student
?
was asking &ersel" every time s&e was #assing a &uge billboard on t&e
corner o" )alevery Avenue and )an =eli#e )treet in <ima- /&e reason "or dealing wit& t&e
#roblem is to get a better understanding o" motives "or w&iteness dominance and im#licit
messages about *eruvian and <atin American societies and get a better insig&t into t&eir
values and social construction o" w&iteness in t&is #articular conte0t-
?
B)tudentB re"ears to t&e aut&or o" t&e #a#er
F
+n t&e area o" racism, colorism and skin color c&anging t&ere are many studies
regarding Asia and A"rica, and, com#aring to t&at, t&ere is a relatively small amount o"
scienti"ic re"lections on <atin America- E&at is more, in sociological re"lections about
race, At&e issue o" skin color tends to get s&ort s&ri"tB 3McClain DaCosta, 2004$25- /&us
t&e aim is to com#lement t&e e0isting academic discussion-
<ast but not least, one wants t&e t&esis to be a #rovocative #oint t&at will give
readers a #ause "or t&oug&t about racism, colorism and dynamics in <atin American
societies 3also in relation to 6uro#ean #erce#tion o" skin tone @t&e "act is t&at in 6uro#e
t&ere is little re"lection on racial issues, t&us a dee#er consideration is needed5-
G
*. Theoretical framewor(
At t&e very beginning o" t&e t&eory section it is essential to clari"y t&e "our key
terms used in t&e #a#er, not only because o" t&eir incidence, but also because o" t&eir
im#ortance- /&ese terms are$ racism, whitening;lightening, whiteness/paleness and
(mass) media. )e#arate section will be dedicated "or introduction into Latin American
social structure and racial issues 3#articularly *eru5-
*.1. 0acism
9acism is discrimination based on racial grou#- According to t&e Merriam1
EebsterMs Dictionary, it is a belie" t&at race is t&e #rimary determinant o" &uman
ca#acities and t&at racial di""erences #roduce an inse#arable dominance o" a #articular
racial grou#- 9acism is also t&e #re,udice based on suc& a belie" 3Merriam1EebsterMs
Dictionary, 2005- <egal de"inition o" racism, according to t&e United !ations
Convention on t&e 6limination o" All =orms o" 9acial Discrimination, states$
the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction
or preference ased on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which
has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, en!oyment or
exercise, on an e"ual footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the
political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of pulic life 3U!, G%%5-
9acism is muc& more t&an individual a##roac& 39eding, 200($4F5- 9acism is an
e""ect o" discrimination #racticed by aut&ority regimes o" certain class de"ined by its
outward c&aracteristics and cultural im#ortance 3in <atin America incidentally
c&aracteristics o" w&ite 6uro#eans5- 9acism is an e0cuse w&ic& ,usti"y des#otic
dominance o" ones over ot&ers 39eding, 200($%5- >ne &as to realize t&at racism it is not
,ust a discrimination o" Dlack, but also o" +ndians 39eding, 200($%G5 and ot&er et&nic
and racial grou#s- /&us, it:s not s&ar#ly outlined #&enomena and its divisions are really
subtle- 9acism is a social belie" t&at some natural di""erences are associated wit&
e0istence or lack o" certain ca#acities or "eatures w&ic& are socially im#ortant and t&at
0
t&ese di""erences are t&e base to establis& distinct in,ustice barriers between social grou#s
w&ic& are called races 3Derg&e, G($2G in 9eding, 200($4G5-
!ormative evaluation o" one:s com#le0ion tone is sometimes related to &istory o"
racial domination 3Kerring N Heit& in McClain DaCosta, 2004$?5- 9acism in academic
discussions is automatically associated wit& w&ite dominance and su#remacy- E&ite is a
racial category w&ic& a""ects and s&a#es individual and social li"e- E&ite is an indicator
o" #ower w&ic& arrange t&e reality o" racial e0#eriences 3Malik, 200($?5- /&us, notion o"
a "air skin tone &as to do wit& racial su#remacy and colonial mentality- =air skin and race
are roots "or categorization and t&e &ierarc&isation o" t&e society- <ig&t skin is related to
#rivilege and access to resources and o##ortunities 3Malik, 200($F105- A/&at:s in
addition to t&e obvious association between caste and intrinsic skin s&ade-B 3)e#ia
Mutiny, 200(5.
According to t&is to#ic, )inger and Himbles em#loyed t&e term Acordial
racismB
'
- +t can be de"ined as a cultural stereoty#e 3)inger N Himbles, 200' in Doec&at,
200G5, revealed by culturally unconscious society members- /&is stereoty#e reveals in a
subtle "orm in social relations- +t is not about cruel mani"estations or direct #ersecutions,
but delicate, sometimes even unconsciously made and slig&tly noticed be&aviors,
o#inions and digressions- /&e cordial racism is distinctly mani"ested in social ine2uality
and concentration o" incomes- !otably, t&is t&eoretical construct doesn:t concern ,ust one
nation, but also ot&er multicultural societies, <atin American included 3Doec&at, 200G5-
>t&er aut&or #resents anot&er ty#ology o" racism- /&ere are two ty#es o" racism$
Anglo,1axon and 2atin- /&e "ormer one is in its nature more "i0ed and de"ined to
concrete se#arated #ersons and #laces- /&e latter, concealed wit& social #re,udices, is not
based on #erson:s origin but on one:s skin color 3Doec&at, 200G5- /&at e0#lains t&e "act
t&at t&ere is a basic di""erence between understanding o" race in U-)- and in <atin
America- /&is di""erence lies in dissimilar assum#tion$ Ain t&e U-)-, racial distinction is
based mostly on individual:s genoty#e 3ancestry5, w&ile in <atin America it is #redicated
largely on individual:s #&enoty#e 3#&ysical c&aracteristics5B 3Goldsmit& et al-, 200%$2'25-
Kowever, recent surveys #artly subverted t&is statement and s&ow t&at racial distinction
in <atin countries de#ends also on individual:s ancestry and t&eir racial identity
3Goldsmit& et al-, 200%$2'?5-
'
w&ic& re"ers to ty#ical "or Drazilian society #re,udices

Anot&er distinction takes into account di""erent levels o" com#re&ension-
According to t&is criteria, t&ere are two levels o" racism- >n t&e macro level, racism is
understood as a structure o" et&nic grou# dominance and su#eriority, w&ile on t&e micro
level racism is a daily discriminatory be&avior and #rocedure 3Jan Di,k, GG2$GF 5- /&e
"ormer reveals itsel" on national level, w&en w&ole society is taken into account, w&ile t&e
latter is inaccessible "rom t&e &ig&er level o" social inter#retation @ it reveals in basic
ordinary social situations and its #resence lies in t&e s#&ere o" individual inter#retation-
*.1.1. 3olorism
9acism is a general trend @ it is about discrimination because o" various
c&aracteristics, bot& e0ternal 3#&eneoty#e5 and latent 3like belie"s, convictions5- /&us,
wit&in racism one can distinguis& many divisions- Colorism is more s#eci"ied and
so#&isticated strain o" racism, w&ic& "ocuses ,ust on su#er"icial as#ects o" &uman bodies
3suc& as skin color5- /&ere"ore, according to Goldsmit& categories, colorism can be
identi"ied wit& <atin racism 3t&e one w&ic& "ocuses on #erson:s #&enoty#e5- !otion o"
w&iteness in <atin American countries is an e0am#le o" colorism$ su#remacy is almost
automatically associated wit& lig&ter com#le0ion, so e0ternal c&aracteristic is an
indication o" su#eriority-
=igure $ /&eoretical <ocation o" t&e Conce#t o" Colorism
Colorism, in its sim#lest de"inition, is a discrimination based on t&e skin tone-
Colorism is a more concrete "orm o" racism, w&ic& is also de"ined as Adiscriminatory
treatment o" individuals "alling wit&in t&e same Iracial: grou# on t&e basis o" skin colorB
3Kerring N Heit& in Oancey, 200'5- /&e term usually is used "or t&e #&enomenon o" non1
2
w&ite #ersons discriminating by t&ose w&o are lig&ter 3not necessary w&ite5 wit&in t&eir
own et&nic grou#s 3/&e =ree Dictionary, 2005- /&ere is a great im#ortance t&at world
attac&es to skin color 3Kens&el, G($(?' 5- )kin color &as so muc& im#ortance, because
it Ais immediately and undeniably veri"iable on sig&tB 3Kall, GG4$(%5- +t:s a "eature,
w&ic& can not be &idden "rom ot&ers: sig&t, and in"luences to an enormous e0tent a "irst
im#ression one is making and, in conse2uence, a""ects one:s sel"1identity- /&e stand#oint
"or t&is statement is t&at identity is not ,ust &ow #erson sees &imsel" but also &ow &e or
s&e is seen by ot&ers- +n t&is conte0t anot&er "unction o" skin color is t&at it serves "or
strati"ication @ t&at means t&at it is a #ower w&ic& allocates #eo#le in t&e social &ierarc&y-
>ne brings t&is t&eme at t&is #oint 3in relation to racism5, because t&e desire "or
t&e w&ite skin can be e0#lained in t&e conte0t o" colorism t&eoretical backdro# 3Malik,
200($?5- Colorism signi"ies t&at lig&ter skin s&ades are "avored and more desirable t&an
darker skin tones- Many cultures e0#erience some kind o" colorism in t&eir ordinary lives
3Jones, 200', in$ Malik, 200($45- /&us, in t&e t&esis, term A<atin racismB will be
alternately a##lied wit& term AcolorismB-
*.*. 4hiteness and the 4hiteness Theories
4hiteness
As it was said be"ore, notion o" a "air skin tone &as to do wit& racial su#remacy
and colonial mentality- =airness o" t&e skin is associated wit& wealt& and desirability, is a
synonym o" grace and nobility 3<eong, 200%$%(5- >btaining lig&ter com#le0ion is
regarded as a social and economic ste# u# 3<uce N Merc&ant, 200?, in$ Harnani, 200($%5-
/&e desire toward w&itening a""ects all social classes in t&e central A"rica region- E&ite
skin is an sign o" t&e status 3*rensamu,er-com, 2005- +t is also an universal value 3Kall,
GG4$(G5- E&iteness is a social and discursive construction 3Moreton19obinson,
200'$vii in *robyn, 20045 E&iteness is a normalized category, w&ic& is instinctively
Ataken "or granted and t&ere"ore invisibleB and t&ere"ore not treated as a race 3/&om#son,
2005-
AConceived o" a legal or cultural #ro#erty, w&iteness can be seen to #rovide
material and symbolic #rivilege to w&ites, t&ose #assing as w&ite, and sometimes
&onorary w&itesB 3/&om#son, 2005- Dy symbolic #rivilege o" w&iteness, one means
notion o" beauty and intelligence identi"ied wit& w&iteness, w&ic& in t&e same time in an
?
im#licit way e0clude blackness and darkness- +t is not ,ust 6urocentrism, because, besides
glori"ying 6uro#ean1based values 3w&iteness included5, it involves devaluation o" non1
w&ites 3/&om#son, 2005-
4hiteness Theories
+n t&e "ield o" w&iteness t&eory, w&iteness is understood not as a biological
construction but as a social category- /&ere are many di""erences in t&eoretical "ocus
toward w&iteness- /&om#son enumerates "our main grou#s o" w&iteness t&eories$
1 material theories @ w&ic& are about w&ites t&at access tangible #rivileges7
1 discursive theories @concerned wit& t&e ways in w&ic& language, mass media and
symbols in"luence meanings- /&ese t&eories e0amine ways in w&ic& discourses conducive
w&iteness as t&e invisible norm7
1 institutional theories @ w&ic& e0amine "ormal and symbolic systems and t&eir
conse2uences7
1 personal 5 relational theories, w&ic& "ocus ways in w&ic& #rivileging mec&anisms
work in #syc&ological or identity s#&eres- 3/&om#son, 2005
+n searc&ing "or t&e dee#er insig&t into t&e #roblem o" discourse re#roduction o"
skin lig&tening, w&iteness dominance and racial attitudes, t&e student decided to a##roac&
t&e researc& area "rom a second angle @ t&at is to "ocus Aon t&e way t&at taken1"or1granted
#erce#tion is organized and s&a#ed by mani#ulations o" symbols and binariesB, suc& as
antonyms$ w&ite1good versus black1worse 3/&om#son, 2005- /&e #oint is to consider
media te0ts and its attributes 3signs, te0tual messages, com#osition, colors etc5 and t&e
meanings w&ic& t&ese carry-
*.-. 1(in 4hitening
As a conse2uence o" mentioned above attitudes to skin color, all sorts o"
Itreatments: "or ac&ieving a desirable skin s&ades or im#roving an undesirable one
3<eong, 200%$%(5 &ave been introduced- /&e stand#oint "or t&is and t&e "ollowing
subsection is t&e "act t&at skin color is c&angeable by known met&ods, Ait can be made
signi"icantly lig&ter or darker, using di""erent a##roac&esB 3Kens&el, G($(?'5-
'
)kin w&itening is a controversial and com#le0 contem#orary issue
4
, w&ic& is not
,ust con"ined to t&e culture o" one sub1continent 3DDC, 200(5- )kin bleac&ing is a
#revalent trend, w&ic& can be noted, to t&e biggest e0tent, in A"rica, Asia and )out&
America- According to some, w&itening is not a discriminatory #ractice, but Aan essential
categorizing mec&anismB 3<eong, 200%$((5- /&ere are #lenty o" reasons "or skin
w&itening w&ic&, to some e0tent, &ave to do wit& construction o" one:s identity in a
multicultural society 3C&arles, 200?5- As a result, in recent decades skin lig&tening
#roducts are growing in #o#ularity 3Jo&nson, 200(5- =ollowing data seem to con"irm t&is
statement$
1 According to t&e Kar#er:s Magazine At&e number o" new skin1w&itening #roducts
t&at &ave been introduced to Asian and *aci"ic markets e0ceeds one1&undred and
eig&ty1nine since 2002- /&e annual growt& rate o" "airness #roducts market is
estimated on 0 to 4 P ,ust in AsiaB 3C&alla#alli, 20025,
1 >ne1 t&ird o" Kong Hong women &ave used some sort o" skin w&itening #roducts
3<eong, 200%$%G5,
1 A=air N <ovelyB, t&e leading bleac&ing brand in +ndian cosmetic market, &as a 2(
million loyal customer base 3Harnani, 200($? 5,
1 t&e most recent data 3>ctober 200G5 "rom t&e +n1Cosmetics, Asian skin w&itening
market is wort& ? billions euro 3Montague1Jones, 200G5-
/&e #otential o" t&e market is even bigger- /&e industry &as recently broadened its
sco#e and now directs its #roducts not e0clusively ,ust "or women, but also "or males
3)e#ia Mutiny, 200(5-
Goon and Crave make a #oint t&at skin lig&tening customs are rooted in colonial,
cultural and &istorical conte0ts 3Goon N Crave, 200? in Malik, 200($'5- <eong con"irms
t&is statement, saying t&at t&e w&itening notion is con"ormed to t&e sociocultural and
&istorical conte0t, Aw&ere Iw&ite: #eo#le &ave consistently belonged to &ig&er social
classes, bot& in t&e colonial era and now as e0#atriatesB 3<eong, 200%$(25-
4
>ne &as to realize t&at t&e &istory o" skin bleac&ing cosmetics and trend toward c&anging skin color seems
to be as long as t&e &istory o" t&e mankind- More t&an ?,400 years ago C&araka wrote about &erbs and
reci#es t&at could lig&ten t&e skin 3)in&a, 20005- )kin w&itening cosmetics were used in ancient time, "or
e0am#le by t&e 9oman 6m#eror !ero and *o##aea 3Montague1Jones Dird, 200G5- /&e #oint is t&at
nowadays skin lig&tening #ractices &ave taken an unbelievably ra#idly growing and develo#ing turn @ skin
w&itening is coming into t&e mainstream-
4
/&e ot&er side o" t&e coin is t&at t&ere is an evidence t&at skin w&itening #roducts
&ave serious mental, #&ysical and emotional &ealt& im#lications 3Malik, 200($?5-
Dleac&ing #roducts are costly and in many cases, cause #ain and &arm and may even lead
to irreversible &ealt& &azards 3Da0ter, 20007 Dussault, 200%5- /&ese cosmetics cause
itc&ing, burning, blistering and darker skin #atc&es, skin irritation or even skin cancer
3Dussault, 200%5- /&e #roblem com#licates t&e "act t&at #oorest #eo#le are t&e most at
risk, because t&e less e0#ensive t&e #roduct, t&e more #erilous it is 3Da0ter, 20005- )ome
o" t&ese #roducts, w&ic& are available on t&e market, contain mercury and &ydro2uinone,
t&e damaging substances 3Jenkins, 2005, some w&itening #roducts contain steroids
3Dussant, 200%5- Dut, regardless o" its alarming conse2uences and des#ite o" many action
and educational cam#aigns against, w&itening in some countries, like Mali, &as reac&ed
e#idemic #ro#ortions 3Da0ter, 20005-
/&ere is no scienti"ic backing o" t&e claims and no evidence or medical study w&ic&
con"irm t&at t&ese "airness cosmetics really work- A!o e0ternally a##lied cream can
c&ange your skin colourB 3)in&a, 20005 -/&ere is no documented bene"it o" skin
w&itening creams nor medical studies w&ic& interc&angeably substantiate its e""ects
3Harnani, 200($( 5-
*.-.1. 6leaching 1yndrome
Kall introduces a term Ableac&ing syndromeB in relation to A"rican Americans
w&o attem#t to internalize w&ite skin A3---5 and ot&er dominant culture criteria as t&e ideal
#oint o" re"erence "or "ull assimilation into American societyB @ namely "or attractiveness
and matrimonial selection 3Kall, GG4$ (?5- <ogically, darker skin is #erceived as
disagreeable and t&reatening 3Kall, GG4$ (F5- Dut t&e syndrome and t&e #re"erence "or
lig&ter com#le0ion is not ,ust a case o" A"rican Americans- )tigmatization o" one:s
"eatures, suc& as skin color, arises Aanyw&ere in t&e world w&ere domination is t&e
#re"erred model o" assimilationB- Dleac&ing syndrome is a cultural #&enomenon, w&ic& is
a way o" reducing #syc&ic con"lict- +t is a mani"estation o" res#onse "or cultural
domination 3Kall, GG4$(2 5-
*.-.*. 7ender
/&e #rivileges o" lig&ter skin are real, but &ave di""erent "orms, de#ends on many
criteria, one o" w&ic& is gender 3Kerring N Heit& in McClain DaCosta, 2004$25- /&is
%
statement con"irms Malik, w&o says t&at #reoccu#ation wit& skin color mainly a""ects
women 3more t&an men5 3Malik, 200($05-
E&iteness is regarded as a marker o" &ig& social status and "emininity 3<eong,
200%$(25, w&ic& is a conse2uence o" t&e "act t&at Awoman are still being sub,ected to a
6urocentric ideal o" beautyB 3Malik, 200($45- /&e notion o" skin w&itening is dee#ly
rooted in woman:s #syc&e and sel"1conce#t- Desire to t&e lig&ten skin tone is a result o"
t&e sel"1&ate and low sel"1esteem 3C&arles, 200?5- =or dark women, t&e skin tone a""ects
sel" esteem, but not sel" e""iciency 3Kerring N Heit& in McClain DaCosta, 2004$25-
)ome women, because o" being darker, su""er "rom an in"eriority com#le0 39ita *atel in
DDC, 200(5- +t is a #eer #ressure, es#ecially man:s e0#ectations, w&ic& #us& women to
w&itening 3Jenkins, 2005-
Anot&er as#ect in t&e discussion is t&at, "or e0am#le in +ndia, on t&e matrimonial
market, a #otential bride:s "air skin is evaluated as a more desirable "eature t&an &er
&ig&er education 3D&illon, 200(7 Dussault, 200%5- =air com#le0ion brings not only
#ro"essional, but also a romantic success- +t is evident t&at notion o" attractiveness, w&ic&
is tied wit& "emales: beauty, &as an im#act on marriages and matrimonial market 3Kall,
GG4$(? 5-
+n a conte0t o" t&e gender wort& to mention t&at t&ese are media Qbecause o" its
#o#ularity and accessibilityR w&ic& &ave mostly set in"luential standards o" t&e women
beauty 3)eck, 200G, see$ 2-%-5- Mass media contributes to t&e #erce#tion o" lig&t1skinned
women as more attractive, moral and se0ually desired t&at darker ones 3!tambwe, 200'5-
Global culture s#reads universal ideas o" beauty, w&ic&, deliberately or not, im#ose
#erce#tion o" w&iteness and w&ite dominance-
*.8. 1tereotypes 9 Psychological Approach
*syc&ological a##roac& is included in t&e #a#er as an e0#lanation and elucidation
o" t&e conce#t o" racial #re,udices- +n t&e introduction student made a #oint t&at racism is
a multidimensional #&enomena and t&e researc&er w&o is going to e0#lore it, needs to
realize t&at t&e #&enomena is bot& rooted in &istorical and cultural &eritage as well as in
#syc&ological structures @ every #erson &as an im#rinted notion o" dominance and
su#eriority 3w&ic& are dis#layed in a "orm o" #re,udices and stereoty#es, inculcated in
every #erson:s mind5, w&ic& 1 under some &istorical and cultural circumstances @ take on
t&e "orm o" racial attitudes- /&at is w&y racism is not a #syc&ological universal
(
mec&anism w&ic& every #erson e0#eriences in a common way, but it is a #&enomena
w&ic&, in a #articular sociocultural milieu is su##orted or strengt&ened by bot& linguistics
and signs 3and its re#resentations5- /&at is w&y one wants to "ocus merely on two
a##roac&es$ discourse and semiotics, kee#ing in mind #syc&ological conse2uences and
connotations o" t&e #roblem- /&e t&ing is t&at, to #ro#erly understand t&e nature o"
investigated area o" discursive re#roduction o" w&iteness dominance and racism, better
com#re&ension o" t&e 2uestion o" stereoty#es is needed- >nly in t&is way one can go into
t&e #rocess o" data collection and case analysis-
)tereoty#e is an incom#lete, #artial image o" every #&enomenon w&ic& is born in
mind, consistently and aut&oritatively #assed "orm generation to generation 3)cott, 20045-
According to J- DystroS, stereoty#e is a common re#resentation, #articularly #ermanent in
t&e tradition and cultural &eritage 3DystroS, GF05- )tereoty#es occur in every culture and
social grou#- As Drown notices, stereoty#es are embedded in our culture and are
Aconveyed and re#roduced in all t&e usual socio1cultural ways 3---5B 3Drown, GG45- /&at
means t&at stereoty#es in some way &ave been inculcated in every #erson:s minds by t&eir
social and culture grou#- )tereoty#es are so dee#ly rooted, t&at constitute a basis o" one:s
#&iloso#&y o" li"e-
*.8.1. ":s$ vs "Them$
)tereoty#es are connected wit& AusB and At&emB ; Aot&ersB antonyms- A>t&erB is a
#erson w&o:s bearing distinct set o" values and w&o is in some way di""erent "rom us-
A>t&erB in many cases means AworseB t&an #eo#le and #&enomena we are not "amiliar
wit&- A negative stereoty#e re"lects t&e c&aracteristics o" At&emB, and by com#aring it
wit& AmyB "eatures it is really &ard to overcome t&e barrier constructed on t&is base-
Anot&er as#ect is t&at t&e dic&otomy AusB and At&emB is a met&od "or social
categorization, w&ic& involves sel"1categorization as a grou# w&ere one belongs- Dy
de"ining t&e Aot&erB is easier to de"ine AusB @ AusB grou# is described by contrasting t&e
"eatures o" ot&ers- /&e e""ect called in#group favoritism a##ears 3)tangor, 200'5- /&at
a""ects social identity and causes tendency to evaluate oneMs own grou# #ositively in
com#arison to ot&er grou#s- Usually t&e #roblem is dee#er @ a #attern o" stereoty#e is not
neutral and a stereoty#e &as a negative connotation- /&is kind o" stereoty#es is called
#re,udices- *re,udices involve Asome negative sentiment directed towards a particular
F
group of people, or at least representatives from that groupB 3Drown, GG45- +t is a way o"
#erceiving ot&ers as morally re#re&ensible-
*.;. Tanning and the "6ron#e 1(in$ Phenomena
$As with s%in lighteners, mass adoption of a s%in dar%ener would raise oth
aesthetic and ideological issues. (...) we have the longstanding paradox that it is
considered aesthetically attractive for a person to e dar% (or &tanned'), yet if the
natural color is too dar% the person encounters racial pre!udice.( (Kens&el,
G($('0 5
Tuestion o" acce#tance "or skin darkening and lig&tening, once readily answerable
3AnoB "or t&e "ormer, AyesB "or t&e latter5, nowadays is muc& more #roblematic 3Kens&el,
G($(?% 5- +n t&e #ast century t&e Ibronze skin: #&enomenon &as develo#ed in t&e Eest-
/&is #&enomena re#resents a contrary 3to w&at was said above5 notion o" celebration o"
tanned com#le0ion- <ig&ter skin s&ades, in Eestern societies originally signi"ied
#ros#erity and until %0s &ad a strong connotation o" an elite and lu0urious standard o"
living- /&en tan became a symbol o" attractiveness and good &ealt& 3<eong, 200%$%F5- +n
U-)- &istory dark skin &as been associated wit& masculinity, Abecause o" t&e eroticization
o" A"rican slavesB 3)e#ia Mutiny, 200(5- /&e trut& is t&at tec&nology and #ractices o"
darkening are more e""ective t&at t&ese o" lig&tening 3Kens&el, G($('5-
Paradox
Kowever, w&ile Ibronze skin: #&enomenon c&anged t&e #erce#tion o" #aleness in
t&e Eest, t&e dee#1seated belie" in t&e natural virtue o" #aleness still #revails in many
#arts o" t&e world 3<eong, 200%$%F5- /&e #arado0 o" skin w&itening ; darkening in an
international #ers#ective is not ,ust a black1w&ite dilemma- +t can be "ound in various
societies 3Kens&el, G($('25- E&ite #eo#le as#ire to ac&ieve a #er"ect tan w&ile ot&ers
undertake many, sometimes risky #ractices in order to lig&ten t&eir com#le0ions 3Merck
C&emicals72007 DDC, 200(5- /an skin is considered attractive and desirable amongst
w&ite, because it gives a message t&at a #erson is likely strong, &ealt&y, well1o"" and leads
an active and &ealt&y li"estyle 3in$ Coo#er, 200G5. /rend toward bronzing skin is
#erceived as #arallel in t&e o##osite direction to t&e w&itening trend- 3in$ <eong,
G
200%$((5 A3.5 t&roug& t&e &istory o" o##ressions and #rivilege based on skin color
seriously com#licates t&e analogy-B 3Coo#er, 200G5
*.<. =ass =edia %in the context of racism and whiteness dominance.
Any media #roduct is a sum o" a great variety o" elements, suc& as$ economic,
#olitical, legal, tec&nological, artistic, institutional and cultural-
+n <atin America cable /J and t&e +nternet are new c&annels via w&ic& global
consumer culture is being #romoted 3Cristo""anini, 200%$0%5- Mass media are #erceived
as an e0ternal "actor w&ic& dictate standards o" beauty- /&ere is somet&ing like
Iwesternized: standard o" beauty 3<eong, 200%$%F5- As )&eetal Mallar said, adverts &ave
always #re"erred lig&t1skinned, lig&t1eyed girls- *erce#tions o" t&e ideal o" beauty go
dee#er t&an skin colour 3!air, 200?5 1 it is a com#le0 #&enomena w&ic& goes be&ind
su#er"icial structures- Asians &ave been "ed by mainstream media wit& t&e conce#t o"
beauty w&ic& bases on t&e "air skin color, w&ic& "or t&e ma,ority o" t&e continent is not
even natural "or t&em 3Kossain, 200F5- /&e re#resentation o" a "emale beauty is usually
based on I"air woman: model- +t &as to do wit& t&e color com#le0, w&ic& Ais t&e legacy o"
a ,umble o" issues, colonialism, class, and a Kollywood culture t&at e0#orts a w&ite1
skinned, blond1&aired idealB 3Janessa Jones, 200' in Malik, 200($5- +" a "oreign visitor
in any <atin country relies only on t&e im#ression w&ic& local /J, beauty contests and
#ublic adverts make, &e #robably will conclude t&at t&e country is in&abited by 6uro#ean
o""s#ring @ w&ites and wit& 6uro#ean look 3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5- Dut mass media
a""ects not ,ust tourists 1 radio, and t&en television, &ave #layed a "unction in #roduction
o" national identity in relation to t&e modern culture 3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5- A/&e
images in t&e media de#ict a color com#le0 t&at crosses cultural boundaries causing a
wides#read global #&enomenonB 3*urkayst&a, 2004 in Malik, 200($'5- /&at means t&at
color com#le0 s&ould be considered in a global conte0ts-
Mass media are #ortraying "airness as a sign o" w&at is adorable and as a standard
"or #rettiness and com#etency 3!tambwe, 200'5- /alking about /&ailand, Dr-
*&uc&areuyot makes a #oint t&at movie stars are #ale, t&us t&ere is an omni#resent desire
to imitate t&em- According to &er, darker com#le0ion is a stigma 3Him, 200G5- )ome
researc&es #ut t&e blame o" t&e #o#ularity o" skin w&itening #roducts, w&ic& in some
countries &ave reac&ed t&e stage o" #lague, on media and t&e ways in w&ic& t&ey #romote
20
Aw&itenessB and A"airnessB as an ob,ect o" desire, #ure and admirable and enviable 3Him,
200G5-
*.<.1. Advertisements %in the context of racism and whiteness dominance.
$)n *ong +ong, a casual wal% around the city will reveal the presence of fair#
s%inned models in most advertisements for expensive products. (...) ,he recent
surge of s%in - whitening products and advertisements for them are also good
examples to illustrate the phenomenon( 3<eong, 200%$%F5-
+n advertisement te0t t&e signi"ication o" t&e image is intentional- Certain
attributes and signs are consciously used in order to transmit a certain, set a priori
message, w&ic& meaning was c&osen in advance 3Dart&es, G%'$2(05- /&is
#ur#ose"ulness is #articularly im#ortant in discursive re#roduction o" racism and
w&iteness dominance in #romotional media te0ts, suc& as advertisements and #ublic
cam#aigns- +t is enoug& to take a look at images #resented in <atin1American: mass
media to realize t&at racism in"iltrates national #ro,ects o" identity creation and attem#ts
o" identity establis&ment- +t is es#ecially noticeable in *eruvian advertisements w&ere
media te0ts use racial ty#es in #romoting lu0ury #roducts suc& as ma,or a##liances,
touristic services or cars 39eding, 200($%5- /o tout to t&e #roducts, advertisements are
usually e0#ensively #roduced, "eaturing ultra1lig&t celebrities or su#er models, Aand
#resenting 3and mi0ing5 bot& traditional and westernized visual signi"iers to evoke
atmos#&eres o" #urity, cleanliness and so#&isticationB 3<eong, 200%$%G5- /&ere are many
te0tual and visual signs, t&at #ut toget&er, convey t&e message o" w&itening- Eritten te0t
o" advertisement is a mani"estation o" t&e #resum#tion o" t&e w&itening 3<eong,
200%$(5-
Dut, basing on t&e case o" Henya, Jenkins claims t&at adverts are giving a wrong
message to women 3Jenkins, 2005- Aut&or notices t&e im#act o" t&e /J and celebrities
on t&e #rocess o" skin bleac&ing$ A+" #eo#le w&o are leaders o" o#inion bleac&
t&emselves, you can imagine &ow dee# t&e #roblem isB 3Da0ter, 20005- 9ecent adverts are
insulting w&en t&ey e2uate lig&ter com#le0ion wit& success and beauty- As General
)ecretary o" t&e All +ndia Democratic Eomen:s Association says, t&ese are A&ig&ly racist
cam#aignsB- According to +ndian aut&ority, adverts o" lig&tening creams and t&ese w&ic&
2
#romote and e2uate "airness wit& success &ave a critical im#act on +ndian yout&s, by
#olluting t&eir mind wit& a wrong image o" t&e reality 3DDC, 200'5- Advertisements serve
a message$ Abe "air or remain in dark oblivionB- Adverts make women insecure about
t&eir looks- /&ese tactics are commonly used, not only by t&e cosmetic industry 3)e#ia
Mutiny, 200(5-
22
-. 2atin America societies %particularly Peru.
-.1. 1ocial structure
$Latin America offers a wonderfully complex racial and ethnic landscape for (...)
oservers, so familiar in its .urocentred civili/ation and organi/ation, so alien it
its complicated multiracial social structure( 3<ombardi, GG$F(45-
/&e stand#oint "or t&is subsection is t&at every nation w&ic& t&roug& centuries &ad
e0#erienced t&e slavery #eriod in its everyday routine li"e, couldn:t remain untouc&ed by
t&oroug& scars- +t &as to do wit& t&e "act t&at <atin America is t&e #roduct o" t&e con2uest
and colonization o" t&e natives by w&ite 6uro#eans- <ater t&e same 6uro#eans im#orted
black slaves "rom A"rica to work in #lantations- /&ese w&ites im#osed t&eir institutions,
"ait&, language and culture u#on t&e con2uered in&abitants o" t&e !ew <and- )#anis& or
*ortuguese were t&e languages o" civilization, C&ristianity t&e only real religion- <ater t&e
ideas o" 6nlig&tenment establis&ed t&is #rocess$ reason, science, logic were t&e #rivileges
o" w&ite #eo#le- =or centuries all w&ite was associated wit& civilization, develo#ment,
re"inement and so on- >n t&e o##osite all t&at &ad to do wit& +ndians, <atinos and Dlack
#eo#le was linked to barbarism, #rimitivism, laziness, lec&ery, brutality- +n conse2uence,
a s#eci"ic notion o" docility and racial e0#loitation &as been establis&ed- /&e
re#resentation o" Ae0#lored slaveB and Ae0#loring lordB &as been stereotypi/ed and
remains present in the #yramidal structure o" social classes Qnot onlyR in Drazil 3Doec&at,
200G5-
)ocial structure in <atin American countries is very &ierarc&ical- /&ere is an
obvious racial &ierarc&y in <atin societies, w&ic& stays in contrary to t&e idea o" e2uality-
/&at is t&e common social com#le0 3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5- Kig& and medium1&ig&
social class consist 20 to ?0 #ercent o" <atin countries #o#ulation 3Cristo"anini, 200%$G(5-
/&ere is a link between skin color and one:s social class- +n <atin America issue o" racism
&as always been sensitive and com#licated- <egal solutions couldn:t resolve t&e #roblem
o" racism, #artly because t&e casta system, w&ic& aut&orize t&e &egemony and
subordination, remains in <atin American minds- +t constitutes a ,usti"ication "or t&e
social de#endency and in"eriority 39eding, 200($4(14F5- +t is a "act t&at #ower elites in
2?
<atin America, w&o regard t&emselves as descendents o" 6uro#ean #eo#le, and consider
#eo#le wit& +ndian or a"ro #&enoty#e as ot&ers @ worse ones, not belonging t&e same
AraceB or et&nic grou#- Members o" u##er social classes get accustomed to consum#tion
o" so#&isticated goods and services 3Cristo"anini, 200%$G%5-
9oots o" t&is strati"ication, w&ic& &as a lot to do wit& #erson:s skin color, reac& t&e
#eriod o" abolition o" t&e slavery 3Doec&at, 200G5- /&ere is an a""irmation o" w&ite skin
su#eriority, bot& in t&eory and #ractice 3)artre, G'G$ 20F in 9eding, 200($%(5- /&e
#arado0 is t&at t&e #erce#tion o" one:s skin color de#ends on t&e #oint o" view$ "or some
#erson can be seen as black, w&ile "or ot&ers one:s com#le0ion is seen as metis 3mesti/o
0
5-
+n <atin America #erson:s race 3in a symbolical way5 can c&ange to a big e0tent during
t&e li"etime @"rom being !egro, to being Acultural w&iteB- /&e relation is t&at t&e &ig&er
on t&e social ladder t&e #erson is, t&e w&iter t&e #erson seems to be 3and ot&er way
around5 3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5- *o#ular Drazilian #roverb Ael dinero clarea...B
3money cleans5 QAlireme 1ios de cholo con mando, de negro con plata y de lanco
calatoB in *eru, $el dinero la"ueaB39eding, 200($%05R reveals t&e a##roac& to and a
way o" social #romotion- 6ven so, t&e mobility on t&e social ladder is #arty limited to
one:s skin s&ade 3Doec&at, 200G5- )till omni#resent is t&e anac&ronistic stereoty#e t&at
no1w&ite grou#s are in some way subordinate to t&em and t&eir social #romotion is
#ossible only t&roug& entertainment 3music or s#ort5 c&annels 3Doec&at, 200G5- +ndians,
blacks 3and to some e0tent mesti/os) are stereoty#ically seen as #oor, ignorant and lazy
ones- +n a conse2uence, in t&e #ublic s#&ere 3es#ecially in &ig& economics and #olitics5
t&ere is no #lace "or +ndians and !egros 3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5-
/&ere is a )#anis& #&rase A2uena presenciaB @ Agood #resenceB, w&ic& re"ers to
being w&ite or #retending to be suc&, is inse#arable re2uired in order to obtain a good
well #aid ,ob 3A2uena presenciaB is o#enly re2uired in ,ob o""ers5- /&is discrimination
can be seen in bot& #ublic and #rivate s#&eres @ even on t&e "amily level 3GonzClez
Manri2ue, 200%5-
)umming u# @ racism is a #roduct o" &istorical &eritage o" colonialism- 9acial
discriminations and #re,udices are rooted in &istorical in,ustice 39eding, 200($%'5-
Colonial re#resentations are still alive w&ic& can be seen in casta &ierarc&y 39eding,
%
Metis 3mesti/o5 is a #erson, w&o is Aneit&er E&ite, nor +ndian, nor DlackB, t&us mesti/o is #erceived as
racially and culturally distinct "rom indigents- 3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5
2'
200($%45- +ne2uality is also traditionally grounded 3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5- 9acism
in <atin America reveals colonial #atterns, and Aclarity o" t&e bloodB kee#s on being t&e
obsession 39eding, 200($(G5-
-.1.1. 3onsumerism in 2atin America
Anot&er "eature w&ic& &as develo#ed over #ast ?0 years in <atin countries is
growing notion o" consumerism and consumer culture 3Cristo""anini, 200%$G25- /o be
more #recise, consumerism in t&e conte0t s&ould be understood as material and symbolic
culture w&ic& is rooted in Eestern societies, es#ecially in !ort& America 3Cristo""anini,
200%$0%5- Consumerism is one o" t&e most sym#tomatic and #revalent as#ects o"
globalization- Eestern consumer culture mani"ests itsel" in #o#ularization and global
ada#tation o" #ractices, customs and mentality 3)terns in Cristo""anini, 200%$G25- /&at is
w&y nowadays culture, consum#tion and globalization s&ould be regarded toget&er-
+n a wider conte0t one &as to mention t&at in <atin America consumerism was
#receded by and &as became so #o#ular #artly because "ailure o" C&ristian democarcy,
mar0ist and &umanistic ideologies in si0ties and seventies 3o" 20
t&
century5 3Cristo""anini ,
200%$G'5- At t&e turn o" eig&ties and nineties "all on many trans"ormations, re"erred as
ArevoluciUn silenciosaB 3silent revolution5 %<avVn, GF(, in$ Cristo""anini, 200%$G45 w&ic&
revealed itsel" in t&e attem#t 3made by international organizations dominated by U-)- and
local elites5 to introduce t&e neoliberal ideology- >ne o" its: e""ects is origin o" american1
like s&o##ing malls-
)&o##ing malls in <atin America #lay two"old "unction$ generate incomes and
#rovide goods, but also are key #oints in t&e creation o" consumerism a##roac&es, &el#ing
a #erson in construction o" &is;&er identity and social recogniction- /&e #oint is t&at t&e
<atin societies became to regard consu#tion as a Bestrategia de avance social y realizaciUn
#ersonalB 3strategy of achieving social promotion and personal reali/ation5
3Cristo""anini, 200%$G%5- )&o##ing malls &ave became a central sub,ects o" new trends
toward consum#tion and consumerism- /&at &as broug&t social and consumer
conse2uences, causing c&anges in t&e s#&eres o" cumtoms, values, li"estyles and social
construction 3Cristo"anini, 200%$G%5- +n <atin countries s&o##ing mall BactWa como
ancla,e de seguridad y com#ensaciUn #sicolUgicaB 3plays a function of anchor for
security and psychological compensation5 3Cristo""anini, 200%$005- /&at is even more
24
visible w&en contrasted wit& disorder #revailed outside, on t&e city streets and #oorer
districts-
A##earance o" s&o##ing malls in <atin America &as c&anged social li"e too-
*eo#le, es#ecially young, Bvan #ara ver y ser vistosB 3go Qto t&e s&o##ing mallsR to see
and to e seen5 3Cristo""anini, 200%$025- /&ere"ore, t&ere are two ty#es o" consumers$
"irst are t&e #oorest w&o visit t&e mass Ato seeB and to #ee# t&e consumer li"estyles- >t&er
grou# consists o" t&e u##er class members, w&o "ully use 3or can allow t&emselves to use5
all #ossibilities and services o""ered by t&e s&o##ing malls 3Cristo""anini, 200%$ 045- +n
conse2uence t&e malls &ave to address t&eir #romotional cam#aigns and res#ond to bot&
grou#s- /&at makes t&e social &ierarc&y and division even dee#er and more visible-
Malls #o#ularity in t&e region is also an e""ect o" t&e "act t&at in <atin America t&e
notion o" attractiveness o" goods im#orted "rom more develo#ed countries &ave always
been &ig& 3Cristo""anini, 200($05- Attraction to w&at comes "rom abroad 3#rimarily
"rom 6uro#e, nowadays mostly "rom U-)-5 3Cristo""anini, 200%$0(5 and "ascination wit&
Eestern items associate t&ese #roducts wit& A3--5 libertad de elecciUn, abundancia,
ri2ueza, consumo, modernidad, coolness, e"iciencia, &igiene, lim#ieza, #roductividad,
etcB 3freedom of choice, prosperity, expensiveness, consumption, modernity, coolness,
efficiency, hygiene, cleanliness, productivity etc5 3Cristo""anini, 200($05-
Desides its socilogical conse2uences 3c&anging mentality, culture and social lives
o" cities: in&abitants5, s&o##ing malls &ave considerably c&anged t&e cities: a##earance
t&emselves 3Cristo"anini, 200%$GF5- /&us, malls a""ect bot& t&e material and symbolic
s#&eres-
-.*. 0acism and >otion of 1(in 3olor
Eort& to remember t&at <atin America &as never been a bi1racial nation 3as U-)-5-
=rom t&e beginning o" its creation, <atin American: nations &ave been c&aracterized by
crossbreeding o" &uman races7 <atin societies dis#lay all range o" skin colors and skin
tone s&ades- /&at is w&y t&e skin color is treated as an indicator and determinant o" one:s
#osition in t&e social #yramid 3Doec&at, 200G5- =or Jenezuelans race is not an Aone1
dimensional individual c&aracteristicB, it is rat&er one o" #lenty attributes to categorize
#eo#le on social and economic scale 3<ombardi, GG$F(45-
2%
/&e issue o" t&e skin color in Drazil is in "act t&e #roblem o" social classes
3Doec&at, 200G5- 6cuador, Dolivia, Jenezuela and *eru sustain t&e con"rontation between
w&ite elites and #oor original in&abitants, mainly +ndian and mesti/os descents 3GonzClez
Manri2ue, 200%5- +n t&e entire <atin America t&e issue o" racism is a taboo, w&ic&
generates an0iety and "eeling o" danger- Multiracial <atin societies maintain t&e reality
marked by lack o" con"idence- +n t&e #ublic s#&ere, racist ideology is unacce#table, w&ile
t&e ideology is #revalent on t&e covered &idden level, not legally recognized and
rationalized 3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5- Aut&orities o""icially claim t&at racial #ractices
and discrimination because o" one:s skin color is not "ormally #racticed 3GonzClez
Manri2ue, 200%5- >n t&e one &and, in an everyday li"e discrimination because o" t&e skin
s&ade is a common #ractice-
As a *eruvian +nternet #ortal, w&ic& #rovides in"ormation on skin w&itening,
reveals, skin is an indicator o" one:s li"estyle, sel"1#erce#tion and sel"1care 3/eledata *eru,
2005- /&ere is a noticeable trend o" Aw&iteningB o" t&e #ublic s#&eres 3like restaurants,
clinics and even universities etc5, w&ic& means t&at t&e more e0#ensive t&e #lace is, t&e
more w&ites one will meet- /&ese #laces are reserved "or t&ese o" "airer com#le0ion
3Doec&at, 200G5- E&iteness is a general universal ambition and common desire w&ic&
sometimes becomes an obsession- /&e goal is to become t&e #erson Alanca#mesti/aB-
/&ere are many advertisements o" w&itening cosmetics, #lastic and aest&etic surgeries
and s#ecial w&itening treatments- /&at reveals t&e scale o" t&e latent racism- 9acism is
es#ecially notably revealed in ,okes, w&ere under t&e cover o" irony, social a##roac&es
and ideology are revealed and o#enly articulated 3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5-
-.-. Peru
*eru, because o" its social and cultural &istory, as well as its geogra#&ical location,
is a com#le0 case- *eru geogra#&ically is divided into t&ree main areas$ coast 3costa, ?000
km o" deserts, beac&es and "erities valleys, w&ere <ima is situated5, mountains 3sierra @
region dominated by Andes5 and t&e ,ungle 3selva, corres#onds wit& Amazonia5-
Kistorically, +nkas: kingdom was situated in t&e mountains, wit& t&e ca#itol on t&e #eak
Mac&u *icc&u- 3ierra is in&abited mostly by +ndians and indigenous <atinos- Most
indgenas 3#eo#le o" indigenous decent5 s#eak Tuec&ua and live in t&e &ig&lands, some o"
native indias in&abit t&e <ake /iticaca region and Amazon 3Denson et al, 200($'?5- 3elva
is in&abited by tribes and original tribal in&abitants- A"ro1*eruvians and Asians in&abit
2(
mostly along t&e cost and make u# ,ust ?P o" t&e *eruvian #o#ulation 3Denson et al,
200($'?5-
*eo#le w&o are living in t&ese two regions 3selva and sierra5 are darker, w&ile
w&ites and mesti/os are living mostly on t&e cost- +t is because, during t&e time o"
colonization, communication trails and commerce centers were located close to #orts and
t&e ocean- /&ese two grou#s 3costa1#o#ulation and sierra and selva in&abitants5 do not
&ave muc& in common- Mentality and li"e styles are di""erent$ w&ile coast #eo#le lead
more 6uro#ean li"estyle, t&ose w&o are living on t&e 6ast "rom t&e coast, conduct more
traditional lives- +t is also connected wit& t&e industry and trade distribution @ ma,ority o"
t&e national commerce and business is located in t&e coast area and urban centers
es#ecially in <ima-
*eru combines two <atin American trends$ on t&e one &and t&ere is a #roblem o"
black slavery and e0istence o" t&eir descendants in t&e society- >n t&e ot&er &and t&ere is
an emerging issue o" indigenous in&abitants @ +ndians- /&at is anot&er reason w&y t&e
case was c&osen$ wit&in one society many social #roblems can be identi"ied- /&at makes
*eruvian society a good e0em#li"ication o" <atin American social situation-
/&us, t&ere is a wide s#ectrum o" races and et&nicities in *eru- +n "act a variety
and socioeconomical and cultural diversion in *eru cause a great "ear 39eding, 200($(5-
*eruvian society can be called bicultural, because it consists o" two a##ro0imately same1
sized grou#s$ indigenous and t&ese w&o are not natives 3Denson et al, 200($'?5- Kowever
t&e second grou# is not uni2ue and consists o" mestizos, Dlack, Asians and ot&ers- +n
*eru indigent in&abitants 3w&ic& are +ndians5 consist 40P o" t&e w&ole #o#ulation
3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5-
/&is division is es#ecially well1de"ined along class lines 3Denson et al, 200($'?5-
Decause o" t&at, racial visible attributes are considered as markers o" #ower and indicators
o" a##urtenance to social classes 39eding, 200($(25- +n *eru, t&ere still e0ists a s&ar#ly
outlined social classi"ication, w&ere indigenous in&abitants are allocated at t&e bottom o"
t&e social ladder 3Dlacker, 200F5- A/&e more a""luent urban class is made u# largely o"
w&ites and "air1skinned mesti/os 3.5 @ t&e latter o" w&om re"er t&emselves as crillos
3natives o" *eru5B 3Denson et al, 200($'?5- U##er #ositions are almost rigorously reserved
"or )#anis& descendants- 9ic& are very ric&, #oor are e0tremely #oor @ in "act t&ere &asn:t
been "ormed so called Amiddle classB- *olitical and economical #ower stays in &ands o"
2F
not numerous elites grou#s o" w&ites and mesti/os lime4os 3residents o" <ima5 3Dlacker,
200F5- >t&er &al" o" t&e *eruvian #o#ulation mainly consists o" #easants 3campesinos)
3Denson et al, 200($'?5-
+t is out o" doubt t&at e0clusive elite grou#s e0ist in *eru- Discrimination &as
became t&e order o" t&e day @ among elites, conservative ideas about race #ersist-
A!onw&ite #eo#le are sometimes discriminated against, es#ecially in u#market bars,
nig&tclubs and discos in <ima7 less so elsew&ereB 3Denson et al, 200($'?5- =or e0am#le,
some elite bars or restaurants in <ima and some e0clusive clubs in #rovinces are well1
known o" re"using admission to non1w&ites 3Dlacker, 200F5-
/erms, suc& as A5egroB, A6ringoB, A7hinoB or A7holoB, w&ic& e0#ress disdain,
are commonly in use 3Dlacker, 200F5- +ndigenous in&abitant o" *eru is called wit&
#e,orative term AcholoB, w&ic& is a #erson o" mi0ed racial origin, es#ecially mi0ed
6uro#ean and !ative American ancestry 39eding, 200($%G5- +n *eru, relations between
mesti/os 1 metis 3#ersons o" mi0ed racial ancestry, o" mi0ed indigenous and )#anis&
decents5 and t&e ot&ers create stereoty#es in many di""erent s#&eres, w&ic& in all give a
com#le0 #icture o" a multicultural and multiracial society 39eding, 200($(05- *eruvian
society is organized on t&e basis o" antagonisms and binary meanings$ u# ; down,
mountains ; coast, w&ic& re"lects itsel" in sociocultural &ierarc&y o" t&e country 39eding,
200($(5- +n *eru everyone is some&ow socially classi"ied- /&ese stereoty#es not always
are e0#licit, but are mani"ested in ,okes and insults or are more o#enly are dis#layed in
mass media 39eding, 200($(25-
<ima, t&e ca#ital o" *eru, is a s#ecial e0am#le o" social con"iguration- Decause o"
its &istorical background it is said t&at t&e city s&ould be Aas w&ite as #ossibleB, w&ere
w&iteness is a synonym o" u##er class and elite 39eding, 200($(?5- <ima is not ,ust a
#olitical ca#ital o" t&e country- <ima is so s#ecial, because gives in an edge t&at only "ew
)out& American cities can only o""er 3Denson et al, 200($F45- Desides being ,ust #olitical
centre o" t&e country, it is also, over seven1milliont& melting1#ot o" #eo#les and races,
w&ere e0tremely ric& live ne0t to aw"ully #oor ones and w&ere at t&e same time, in a clear
and obvious way, w&en ones are #rivileged, ot&ers are "acing #ersistent #re,udices and
discrimination- <ima is also a #lace w&ere ma,ority o" t&e commerce and trade is
cumulated and w&ere unusually clearly t&e distinction between 6uro#ean1like and native
2G
culture and li"estyles is marked- All t&ese "actors make <ima a #er"ect e0am#le "or
studying social and cultural dominance o" racism-
?0
8. 0eflections About =ethod
8.1. =ethodology, ?pistemology, @ntology
Met&odology, understood as c&oices and arguments "or t&ese c&oices t&at t&e
#erson do to make one:s study scientist, is t&e most im#ortant #art o" t&e well done
academic #a#er- Eit&in met&odology two terms &ave to be s#eci"ied$ ontology and
e#istemology- /&e "ormer is a worldview, assum#tion about w&at is knowable in t&e
world- /&e latter is t&e answer "or t&e 2uestion about &ow t&e knowledge is ac2uitted @
"rom w&ere com#re&ension o" t&ings in t&e social world is derived-
Deing aware o" multi#licity o" a##roac&es toward discourse analysis, one
consciously &as c&osen t&e Jan Di,k:s a##roac&- @ntologically, t&is a##roac& includes a
cognitivist vision o" t&e world, w&ic& im#lies universal social structures- /&at means t&at
individual #syc&ological reactions and mental states can be identi"ied and understood-
Cognition is constructed o" re#resentations and symbols- 9egarding to epistemology, one
assumes t&at t&ere are "undamental #rinci#les or rules used to decide &ow social
#&enomena can be known- /&ere are some underlying social #re,udices, stereoty#es,
ideologies and believes w&ic& are re"lected in t&e #ersonal state o" mind- +ts
re#resentations de#end on sociocultural environment, &istorical &eritage and tradition-
/&is e#istemological assum#tion is consistent wit& t&e ontological #osition-
9egarding to met&odological a##roac&, one wants to combine discourse analysis
3Jan Di,k:s a##roac&5 with semiotics- /&is uni2ue combination o" t&e two is a
conse2uence o" t&e student:s assum#tion t&at universal #syc&ological structures in a
concrete sociocultural milieu take a certain "orm and are revealed in t&e world o" signs-
/&us, knowledge about social world can be derived "rom signs: inter#retation- /&e #oint
is t&at media te0ts 3constructed by signs, visual and te0tual messages5 re"lect certain set
o" im#licit meanings and underlying messages about t&e society- /&anks to combination
o" discourse categories 3s#eci"ic way o" looking at media te0ts, terms suc& as
LdominanceB, AelitesB, A#owerB, AcontrolB, LstructuresB5 and semiotics categories 3terms
suc& as linguistic, denoted, connoted messages, Amyt&B5, media te0ts will be accurately
a##roac&ed, and @ &o#e"ully 1 no signi"icant conclusion and in"ormation will be omitted-
/&is way seems to be t&e most a##ro#riate in investigation o" discursive re#roduction o"
?
lig&tening, w&iteness dominance and racial attitudes by in mass media- /&oroug&
inter#retation o" media te0ts will tell us about t&e society in itsI social and &istorical
conte0t and social reasons w&ic& may a""ect t&e #erce#tion o" skin color and #ro#el trend
o" c&anging t&e color o" one:s skin in <atin America-
8.1.1. =ethod
6stablis&ing met&odological t&eme 3semiotic in t&e conte0t o" discourse analysis5
and ontological and e#istemological assum#tions, one can move to election o" more
concrete way o" a##roac&ing t&e em#irical material, w&ic& is called met&od- /o a##roac&
t&e te0t critically, a good understanding o" a #articular t&eoretical conce#t is needed- /&at
is w&y at t&is starting #oint a clear met&od "rom w&ic& to work &as to be c&osen-
>t&erwise, w&en su#er"icially looking at media records some details can be missed- >ne
decided on !ualitative approach to analysis, because t&e #roblem o" discursive
re#roduction o" racial attitudes, lig&tening and w&iteness dominance in media te0ts is
multidimensional, com#le0 and needs a wider inter#retation, t&at statistical 2uantitative
met&ods assure- /&anks to em#loying 2ualitative met&ods, it is less likely to omit delicate
and latent nuances o" t&e #roblem, s#ecially in it:s sociocultural and #olitical milieu-
/&us student designed a three,step inter#retation #rocess- =irst, s&e wants to
conduct te0tual analysis o" t&e images, a##lying "ive key areas to discuss media te0t
suggested by )elby and Cowdery- )econdly, Dar&tes: terms and a##roac& toward t&e
inter#retation #rocess will be em#loyed- =or bot& stages, s#ecial analytical tool was
designed 3a##endi0 5- A"ter t&is, treating semiotic analysis as a stand#oint, one wants to
em#loy DA categories and re"lect ac&ieved results to sociocultual and &istorical conte0ts-
/&at seems to be t&e most a##ro#riate and logical met&odological a##roac& to t&e
considered #roblem-
?2
=igure 2$ /&ree1ste# Met&od o" Analysis
8.*. 1emiotics as a =ethod
=rom a cultural #ers#ective, semiotics can e0#lain meaning "rom signs- +n general,
semiotic is a t&eory o" t&e "unctions o" signs and symbols- )emiotics is an a##roac& to
analyzing semiotic modes 3like visual images5 and language in a critical way- According
to Jan Di,k, sur"ace structures are rank as semiotic 3GG2$0?5 /&us, semiotic is a version
o" discourse analysis- >n t&e ot&er &and, roots o" general discourse studies lie #artly in
semiotics 3Jan Di,k, GG2$G45- /&us, t&ese two met&odological a##roac&es &ave
somet&ing in common @ and t&at e0#lains w&y t&ese &ave been em#loyed in t&e study-
9egarding to semiotics, more concrete method o" t&e #rocess o" inter#retation is
needed- Dasing on #rominent aut&orities in t&e "ield o" semiotics 1 )elby and Cowdery,
and on t&e cultural t&eorist and analyst 1 9onald Dart&es and &is ideas "rom 8hetoric of
the )mage 3G%'5 one wants to merge toget&er and t&en ado#t t&eir models "or
semiological analysis- Dy combining t&ese two a##roac&es im#licit messages will be
revealed and dee#er understanding o" t&e #roblem will be assured- /&e #oint o" t&is
#rocedure is t&at )elby and Cowdery ideas are rat&er tec&nical, being a #er"ect tool in t&e
"irst stage o" skinning o"" t&e media te0t- E&at t&e aut&ors suggest is a #er"ect glossary
??
and a guideline "or inter#retation o" any media te0t- =irst ste# o" analysis is mostly a
te0tual inter#retation o" t&e record, w&ile second ste# is all about conte0tual dee#er
elucidation- Decause Dart&es "ocuses on cultural #&enomena as language systems, &is
conce#tual "ramework "or studying word1and1image relations dis#lays structural
c&aracteristics- /&ese two a##roac&es at some #oint overla# wit& eac& ot&er 3as one can
notice by looking at designed researc& tool @ a##endi0 5, but mostly com#lete eac&
ot&er-
)tudent ado#ted Dart&es: stand#oint, t&at images are #olysemous 3Dart&es,
G%'$2('5- /&at means t&at media te0ts contain many signs and because o" t&at can be not
understood in desired way- /&us, to control "reedom understandings, image #roducers
intentionally use s#ecial tools and #rocedures, w&ic& need to be e0#osed- /&at is w&y t&e
strategy o" analysis is about deconstruction o" t&e image$ aut&or suggests skimming o""
di""erent messages t&at t&e image contains, or @ in ot&er words 1 breaking t&e image
3understood as t&e system o" signi"ication5 into t&ree #arts, t&at o" t&e linguistic message,
t&e coded iconic message, and t&e no coded iconic message 3G%'$2(05-
8.*.1. Aive Key Areas to Discuss a =edia Text
+t is essential to t&ink about t&e media te0t in a critical and analytical way, so one
need to understand and use critical vocabulary and t&eoretical a##roac& suggested by
)elby and Cowdery 3)elbyNCowdery,GG4$?145- =ive key t&emes to discuss any media
#roduct are #resented as "ollow- /&ese are ma,or areas in analysis o" any media #roduct
3)elbyNCowdery,GG4$5- Dy a##lying t&ese key terms one will be able to #roduce a
valid and discerning reading o" t&e media te0t-
%1. 3onstruction @ Aall media te0ts are constructed using a media languageB
3)elbyNCowdery, GG4$'5 and s#eci"ic codes, w&ic& convey certain meanings and
in"ormation 3)elbyNCowdery, GG4$'5- +t is because t&ese codes are coming "orm
a cultural knowledge a grou# to w&ic& t&e media te0t is addressed #ossesses-
%*. /&e media te0t is read and #erceived by t&e audience- /&us, none o" media te0t
can be considered in isolation, wit&out a roug& consideration o" #eo#le to w&om
t&e te0t is addressed- /&e way in w&ic& #eo#le a##roac& and read t&e te0t de#ends
on many "actors, suc& as$ education, social class, #olitical, religious belie"s, race
and gender 3)elbyNCowdery, GG4$45-
?'
%-. >arrative is an e""ect o" mani#ulating and editing in"ormation toget&er
3)elbyNCowdery, GG4$G5- /&e "orm o" t&e media te0t causes a #articular
res#onse to it, regarding to its c&aracteristics and "eatures-
%8. Anot&er key area is t&is o" categori#ation. /&e #oint is t&at t&e media te0t
#rovides certain amount o" in"ormation w&ic& allows 3or not5 to allocate t&e story
t&e image is telling in t&e reality or "iction-
%;. /&e 2uestion o" agencies s&ould be also taken into t&e account w&ile analyzing
critically t&e te0t- A/&e conce#t o" Agency is wider t&an t&e 2uestion o" w&o owns
and controls t&e mediaB 3)elbyNCowdery, GG4$(5- Many ot&er issues are also
involved in t&e #roduction o" media te0t, t&us s&ould be also considered @ suc& as$
#olitical, cultural, "inancial or tec&nological "actors- Dy considering t&is wider
milieu, one moves "rom te0tual to conte0tual study-
8.*.*. 2inguistic =essage
+n mass communication, linguistic message commonly a##ears in almost every
image 3in t&e "orm o" title, dialogue, comic stri# etc-5 /&e te0t is 3to some e0tent5 an
answer "or t&e 2uestion$ what is it9 and it &el#s in identi"ication o" t&e scene and it:s
elements 3Dart&es, G%'$2('5- /&is "irst message is made u# o" all t&e words in t&e
advertisement- /&e linguistic message itsel" o#erates on two levels$ denotational and
connotational- +t serves as one o" t&e tec&ni2ues develo#ed to "i0 t&e "loating c&ain o"
signi"ieds o" t&e image- /e0ts stays in an com#lementary relation wit& t&e image, by
su##lying meaning not "ound in t&e image-
Dart&es comes u# wit& two "unctions o" t&e linguistic$ anc&orage and relay- Eit&
anchorage, t&e te0t &el#s to "ocus one:s attention, in terms o" identi"ication and
inter#retation and lets to c&oose an a##ro#riate level o" inter#retation- /&e te0t directs t&e
understanding o" t&e image, causing reader to avoid some signi"ieds and to receive ot&ers-
/&us, t&e te0t directs t&e reader to a message 3ideology5 c&osen in advance 3Dart&es,
G%'$2('5- +n advertisements te0t linguistic message, as anc&orage, #lays a #articularly
ideological role, directing t&e audience:s #erce#tion- Anc&orage &as a "unction o"
selective elucidation @ w&ic& means t&at is a##lied ,ust to certain o" image:s signs-
Anc&orage assures control o" t&e use o" image- Anc&orage is commonly "ound in #&otos
and advertisements 3Dart&es, G%'$2(45-
?4
+n a system o" relay, w&ic& is less common, te0t and image stand in a
corres#onding relations&i#, w&at means t&at words are constitutive #ieces o" a bigger,
more general story, message is realized on a &ig&er level 3Dart&es, G%'$2(45- Most
systems are actually a combination o" anc&orage and relay-
A"ter reading out t&e linguistic message, we can move to a second, iconic
message- /&e message is o" two ty#es
(
-
8.*.-. 3oded conic =essage
%connoted 5 cultural 5 symbolic message.
/&e coded iconic message is t&e totality o" all t&e messages t&at are connoted by
t&e image- 9eading t&e image on t&is level re2uires a general cultural knowledge, it is a
symbolic message 3Dart&es, G%'$2(25, also called cultural message 3Dart&es, G%'$2(?5-
/&is message consists o" series o" discontinuous signs- Coded iconic message is t&e
visual connotations derived "rom t&e arrangement o" #&otogra#&ed elements- +t s&ould be
remembered t&at t&e order o" t&ese signs is not im#ortant7 t&ey are not linear- /&ese signs
com#rise t&e image- All toget&er t&ey "orm a co&erent w&ole- Coded iconic message is
connoted 3Dart&es, G%'$2(?5- >ne:s interventions in t&e #&otogra#& 3"raming, distance,
lig&ting, "ocus, s#eed5 all e""ectively belong to t&e #lane o" connotation-
8.*.8. >on 3oded conic =essage
%Denoted, denotative 5 literal 5visual message
B
.
/&e signi"iers o" t&is message are constituted by t&e real ob,ects in t&e scene- /&e
signi"iers &ave been #&otogra#&ed- /&e non1coded iconic message is t&e XliteralX
denotation, recognition o" identi"iable ob,ects in t&e #&otogra#&, irres#ective o" t&e larger
societal code- /&e knowledge needed to read t&is message is bound u# wit& one:s
#erce#tion$ /&e reader only needs to know w&at t&e image 3#&oto;#icture;gra#&ics5 and
ob,ects3#resented in t&e image5 are- /&e non1coded iconic message is merely t&e literal
3Xw&at it isX5 reading o" t&e #&otogra#&- <iteral message is denoted 3Dart&es, G%'$2(?5-
Message wit&out a code means t&at t&e signi"ieds are constituted by real ob,ects in t&e
(
/&is distinction is not obvious, because t&e viewer receives at one and t&e same time t&e #erce#tual non1
coded message and t&e cultural, coded message- /&is con"usion in reading t&ese iconic images corres#onds
to t&e "unction o" t&e mass te0ts 3Dart&es, G%'$2(?5-
F
)elby and Cowdery: categories, #resented in subsection '-2-- "ocus mostly on t&is level, com#leting
understanding o" t&e media tests and its: literal descri#tion
?%
#ros#ect- /&is message corres#onds wit& t&e letter o" t&e image 3Dart&es, G%'$2(25- +t is
also called #erce#tual message 3Dart&es, G%'$2(?5- +t is Aw&at is le"t in t&e image w&en
t&e signs o" connotation are mentally deletedB 3Dart&es, G%'$2((5- Denoted image
naturalizes t&e connoted message, es#ecially in advertisements 3Dart&es, G%'$2(G5-
Dot& literal and cultural messages s&are t&e same iconic core 3Dart&es, G%'$2(25,
t&us it is essential to realize relation between t&e two- <iteral non1coded message a##ears
as t&e su##ort "or t&e coded symbolic message- /&e literal iconic image in some way is
im#rinted in t&e second 1 iconic, image- Kowever, wort& to mention t&at in t&e
advertisement image t&e audience never encounters a literal image in a #ure state
3Dart&es, G%'$2(%5- /&e advertisement always conveys a second, im#licit and dee#er
meaning-
8.*.;. The 0hetoric of the mage
+n addition to t&ese modes o" analysis, Dart&es argues t&at attention must be #aid
to t&e composition o" an image- Com#osition is a "actor w&ic& consolidates se#arate
signs into one image in an aest&etic way- /&ere are "our ty#es o" knowledge, w&ic& can
be a##lied in reading t&e image$ #ractical, national, cultural, aest&etic, in order to identi"y
connotative signs 3Dart&es, G%'$2F05- Common domain o" t&e signi"iers o" connotation
is ideology- /&e classi"ication o" t&ese signi"iers 3called connotators5 is called r&etoric,
t&us rhetoric is a signifying aspect of ideology 3Dart&es, G%'$2F25-
8.*.<. =yth
Anot&er category w&ic& can serve in t&e analysis o" any media #roduct is t&e one
o" myth. As 9oland Dart&es claims, myt&s Aare #roducts o" a #rocess secondary
signi"icationB 3in$ <eong, 200%$(5, during w&ic& Avisual signs 3t&e signi"iers5 bond wit&
ideological, #ersisting assum#tions and notions 3t&e signi"ieds5 to "orm new signs and
t&ese are known as Imyt&s:B- Myt&s #reserve and strengt&en t&e values o" t&e ma,or
ideology in t&e society- /&e myt& is an analytical tool t&at can be used in t&e
inter#retation o" t&e advertisement discourse 3<eong, 200%$(5- Myt& is constituted by
communal associations @ connotations, w&ic& are not #ersonal but "amiliar "or a grou# or
social circle-
?(
8.-. Discourse Analysis as a =ethod
9egarding t&e to#ic o" t&e t&esis #a#er, one decided to em#loy discourse analysis
as a met&od o" e0amination- /&e best ,usti"ication o" using t&is a##roac& #rovides
Moreton19obinson, w&o claims t&at w&iteness is a social and discursive construction
3200'$vii, in *robyn, 20045- >ne wants to use t&is 2ualitative met&od, because t&ere is a
great L3.5 relevance o" discourse analysis "or our understanding o" et&nic and racial
ine2ualityB3Jan Di,k, GG2$G25- /&is met&od re2uires a multidisci#linary a##roac&, w&ic&
involves several dimensions o" t&e &umanities- 60amining t&e record "rom angle o"
discourse analysis, gives more insig&t into intellectual and sociocultural conditions,
im#acts and "unctions 3Jan Di,k, GG2$G? 5-
4hat is Discourse/
Discourse is not ,ust about verbal interc&ange o" t&oug&ts but discourse com#letes
t&e meaning o" communication and bears a meaning itsel"- +t doesn:t limit itsel" only to
communication #rocesses- Discourse can be "ound not only in t&e use o" s#oken language
and verbal materials, but also in non1verbal materials$ in written and sign multimodal
communication- Discourse is not ,ust about words @ it is also about styles, modes and
e0#ressions o" one:s #erce#tion- +t is an ine0#ressible structure between visual signs, te0ts
and audience- +n a social world #erson deals wit& many discourses, w&ic& all toget&er
constitute t&e reality- Discourse is a mode o" arranging knowledge, ideas and
understanding 3Merriam1Eebster, 2005- /&e #oint is t&at inter#retation o" social acts is
not an accidental one1o"" action, but a "i0ed structure, "unctional and understanding mode-
Discourse analysis is 2ualitative met&od, conducted due to understand t&e re#resentation
and creation o" meaning t&roug& visual signs, language and images in communication
#rocesses- Discourse is t&e narration o" t&e image @ bot& w&at is being directly
communicated and w&at is being tacitly said- Discourse is an e0#ression o" t&e #revalent
ideology-
Discourse analysis &as two #ur#oses- +t is aimed "or a better account o" 35
structures and strategies o" static and s#oken sources, as well as o" 325 its: relations wit&
sociocultural and &istorical conte0t 3Jan Di,k, GG2$G% 5- /&e #oint is t&at e0amining
discourse in relation to it:s s#eci"ic sociocultural conte0ts is essential- 9egarding to
?F
discourse analysis t&e student wants to analyze 35 relations between discourse and
dominance, #ower and re#roduction o" racism 325 relations between visual and te0tual
messages 3advertisements5 and its conte0t-
8.-.1. Power, ?lites, Dominance and 3ontrol
/&e stand#oint "or t&e t&esis is t&at visual language 3as well as te0tual messages5
is unassignably linked wit& #ower- Discourse is an e""ect o" conscious #roduction 1 ones
are trying to communicate wit& ot&ers- /&is communication is, in some way, #ersuasion-
/&is dominance can &ave a subtle or more visible "orm- +n ot&er words @ in every
discourse dominance and #ower are, to some e0tent, involved- E&en it comes to aest&etic
discourse, #ower and dominance are limited, but in t&e case o" racism @ t&e dominance is
evident-
6very discourse 3te0t or talk5 &as to do wit& #ower and dominance- 6very one is
determined by event models, conte0t models and social cognitions, w&ic& are ideologies,
knowledge and attitudes 3Jan Di,k, GG2$GG5- )ocial #ower is demonstrated in social
control over ot&er #eo#le @ as "ar as mind control is t&e aim and result o" discourse 3Jan
Di,k, GG2$005- *ower and control are &old by certain su#erior grou#s, called elites-
6lites, in case o" racial dominance, are t&ose o" dominant grou#, w&o &ave more #ower
and in conse2uence @ more control over mass media and communication means 3like
cam#aigns, advertising, #ublications, #ro#aganda etc5- /&is elite discourse takes #lace in
a to# @ down direction 3Jan Di,k, GG2$025- +n a conse2uence, A*eo#le may be
controlled to act more or less voluntarily according to t&e interests or w&is&es o" t&e more
#ower"ul- /&at is, it may be muc& more e""ective to control minds o" ot&ers t&roug&
#ersuasion @ by making t&em com#ly out o" t&eir own "ree willB 3Jan Di,k, GG2$05-
/&at is, discourse gives an illusion o" "reedom o" c&oice w&ile #us&ing, in more or less
visible way, to do directed activities or to a certain way o" t&inking-
8.-.*. 1urface and Deep 1tructures
>ne can distinguis& two #arts o" discourse structures- >ne are surface structures-
)econd ty#e are deep 5 underlying structures- /&e "ormer ones are associated wit&
tangible, evident and more visible as#ects o" discourse, w&ic& means t&at t&ese structures
can be e0#erienced 3seen, &eard, read, smelt, "elt5 wit& senses and w&ic& are more direct
?G
and e0#licit- )ur"ace structures include$ gestures, letters, gra#&ic dis#lays, words and so
on- /&e latter 1 dee# structures, are connected wit& cognitive re#resentations, mental
understandings and meanings 3Jan Di,k, GG2$0?5-
/&e relations&i# between t&ese two ty#es o" structures is t&at underlying structures
are e0#ressed by sur"ace constructions- )ur"ace structures #lay role o" codes "or latent
meanings o" dee# structures, t&us sur"ace structures Aare crucial in t&e com#re&ension o"
discourseB 3Jan Di,k, GG2$0?5- Kowever, sur"ace structures: "unction doesn:t come
down to code dee# structures- /&ese structures mig&t be a "unction o" t&e social and
cultural conte0t too @ may be used "or e0am#le to stress di""erences and ine2uality
between AusB and At&emB 3Jan Di,k, GG2$0%5-
=igure ?- Model o" Discourse )tructures 3basing on Jan Di,k, GG2$0?5
'0
8.8. Design of the Thesis
=igure ' @ ste#1by1ste#, gra#&ical model o" t&e t&esis design
8.;. 1ample Analysis
8.;.1. 1ources
Media records let insig&t into t&e im#licit messages t&at society &old 3Malik,
200($% 5- Advertisement is a "orm o" media te0t 3)elbyNCowdery, GG4$?5- +t occurs in
many conte0ts and s#&eres o" social and #rivate lives- Advertisement is a s#ecial "orm o"
communication used in a news#a#er, radio, direct mail, websites, billboards, #osters and
/J- Advertising 3understood as #romotional o#eration5 is one o" elements o" t&e
marketing mi0
G
- +t is a #ublic #romotion o" some #roduct or service 3Eord!etEeb, 2005,
w&ic& a##ears in media and is addressed to general #ublic 3or certain grou#s o"
#o#ulation5- +n ot&er words, it is a #ublic notice w&ic& aims to in"orm #otential
customers, Adirected toward t&e general #ublic or, in some cases, s#eci"ic #ros#ective
G
Marketing mi0, also calledA'*B, consists o" "our areas$ #roduct, #rice, #lace, promotion
'
client grou#s to #rovide in"ormation about t&e time, #lace, contents, and arrangements o"
an auctionB 3Glossary, 2005-
Use o" advanced tec&nology and advertising solutions, t&e com#etition between
agencies and consumerism a##roac& make advertisements im#ortant sources and medium
o" in"ormation w&ic& bears many messages and im#licit meanings @ about bot& t&e
audience and t&e agencies 3so$ about a reci#ient and a sender o" t&e message5- +ts:
universality, accessibility and in"luence it &as u#on t&e #ublic, make advertisements
#articularly interesting records "or analysis-
8.;.1.1. Advertisement and Discourse
Audience AuseB, Aengage inB and A#artici#ate inB most obviously s#oken
conversation, but also in written communication 3Jan Di,k, GG2$45 @ suc& as
advertisements- Advertisement is a s#eci"ic ty#e o" discourse, because an interaction
between t&e audience and t&e record is not direct @ t&e relation between two &as an
intermediate c&aracter, w&ic& &owever doesn:t mean, t&at t&e discourse is less
AdiscursiveB- )tatic, #rinted advertisement is a mean o" communication, w&ic& makes it a
sub,ect o" discourse analysis-
8.;.1.*. Advertisement and 1emiotics
Advertising:s messages go beyond w&at meets t&e eye- A success"ul
advertisement, being one o" t&e communication "orms, works best w&en a##eals to t&e
needs and desires o" t&e audience 3Derger, GFF5. Advertisement, as every image,
contains t&ree messages$ linguistic layer and a #ure image, wit&in w&ic& one can
distinguis& non coded and coded cultural messages 3Dart&es, G%'$2(05- /&us,
advertisement consists o" many signs and written te0ts, w&ic& are #erceived by &uman
senses- +n advertisement te0t t&e signi"ication o" t&e image is intentional- Certain
attributes and signs are consciously used in order to transmit a certain, set a priori
message, w&ic& meaning was c&osen in advance 3Dart&es, G%'$2(05-
8.;.*. ?thical 3onsideration
6ventually, yet im#ortantly, met&odology section needs to include some re"lections
about et&ical as#ects o" t&e study, es#ecially w&en one deals wit& suc& a sensitive issue
'2
like racial attitudes- Decause o" its: #e,orative overtone and social re,ection "or #ublic
discussion regarding to t&e issue 3talking about racism may suggest t&at it really e0ists,
w&at #eo#le touc&ed by t&e #roblem try to decline5, racism is a taboo, es#ecially in <atin
and Asian societies- /&at is w&y, muc& caution &as to be #aid in analysis-
At t&is #oint, ,ust be"ore getting down to t&e inter#retation #rocess, one needs to
acknowledge weak #oints and secondly try to "ind ways to minimize or counterbalance
t&em by controlling "or t&e e""ects t&ey &ave on t&e researc& design- /&e "act t&at analyst
is a w&ite 6uro#ean women may to some e0tent in"luence "indings- /&at is w&y a sel" @
limiting and sel" controlling as well as a strong t&eoretical su##ort are essential 3and t&at
w&at one &as tried to assure over #revious '0 #ages5- Anot&er, #artly et&ical, #oint is t&at
researc&er once lived in *eru and t&us, &er "indings will be based not only on material
analysis but also on #ersonal #erce#tion o" t&e to#ic, as well as &er "ellows: 3w&o were
indigenous *eruvians5 o#inions and re"lections- +n t&is way scienti"ic ob,ectivity was
s&aken, but on t&e ot&er &and a better understanding and in de#t& insig&t into t&e area &as
been obtained-
'?
;. Analysis
Analysis is a long1lasting, multilevel #rocess- +t:s t&e most im#ortant stage o" t&is
t&esis #a#er, t&us a lot o" caution and "ocus &ave been devoted to t&e inter#retation
#rocedures- +t was an ongoing and multidimensional #rocess w&ic& bore "ruits as
#resented below- +n order to get a better understanding o" t&e notions o" lig&tening,
w&iteness, racial attitudes and its: re#roduction on t&e discursive level, it was necessary
to take an in1de#t& look at *eruvian #romotional cam#aigns- >ne conducted a structured
#rocess o" analysis, obeying as muc& met&odological consistency and accuracy as was
#ossible- Dy a##lying discursive w&iteness t&eories, ideas o" racism and colorism, one
wants to uncover latent messages about <atin American societies mingled wit&in
#romotional cam#aigns and t&en re"lect it to t&e societies: com#le0 &istorical, social and
cultural backgrounds- /&at will lead us to "inal conclusions regarding t&e #roblem area-
;.1. ?mpirical Data
>ne decided to analyze si0 images$ t&ese are e0am#les o" #romotional cam#aigns
"or two o" t&e biggest and most #restigious *eruvian s&o##ing malls, w&ic& are Jockey
*laza 3"our images5 and <arcomar 3two images5- /&ese were o#erationally labeled as
"ollows$
!umber +mage name *roducer
A AMi mamaB Jockey *laza
A2 A)oy mu,erB Jockey *laza
A? A>,osB Jockey *laza
A' A=anB <arcomar
A4 A!avidad <arcomarB <arcomar
A% A!avidad Jockey *lazaB Jockey *laza
/able - <ist o" )am#le Materials "or Analysis
All t&ese e0am#les o" #romotional cam#aigns come "rom t&e +nternet or #rivate
collections- /&ese images &ave been s&own in <ima, in t&e "orm o" #osters and
billboards, as well as in t&e "orm o" &andbills and even online1available images- All t&ese
resources are recent @ mostly "rom 200G 3A% was taken in !ovember 200F5- /&is "act
con"irms t&e actuality o" t&e #roblem being investigated and its: aut&enticity-
''
A1
A*
'4
A-
'%
A8
'(
A;
'F
A<
'G
;.1.1. Techni!ue of Analysis
A well done analysis, to be reliable, &as to be conducted according to consistent
and well1considered rules- /&at is w&y t&e analytical tool was constructed- Dased on
literature review and #revious studies "rom t&e sco#e o" media analysis 3"rom semiotics
and DA angles5, student designed t&e table w&ere all analyzed as#ects are included-
3a##endi0 5- /o "acilitate t&e inter#retation #rocess and to assure a &ig&er level o"
reliability, anot&er table &as been created 3a##endi0 25 and a s#ecial combination o"
met&odological a##roac&es was constructed-
Three 1teps of Analysis
+n t&e analysis, a"ter an initial stage o" skimming t&e selected images, wit& res#ect
to met&odological rules and strategies, one will move to a more com#le0 level- Kere, one
will #ull out "irst conclusions, driven "rom straig&t1 "orward reading o" t&e images 3w&ic&
are in terms o" Jan Di,k are called Asur"ace structuresB5 and try to #ull out t&e dee#er
coded messages secretly revealed in t&e cam#aigns 3w&ic& are Adee# structuresB5- /&at
will lead t&e student to "inal stage o" t&e analysis #rocess, w&ic& is t&is o" re"lecting
obtained in #revious stages conclusions to wider sociocultural milieu and t&eoretical
background-
;.1.*. 4hy These ?mpirical Data 4ere 3hosen/
/&e em#irical material w&ic& is t&e ob,ect o" t&e t&esis was care"ully selected- As
it is said, Jockey *laza is At&e newest, biggest, and best in <imaB American1style
s&o##ing centre 3=rommer:s, 2005- +t isn:t situated in &istorical and touristic #art o" t&e
city 3ne0t to t&e Jockey Club o" *eru at Ki#Udromo de Monterrico, at t&e intersection o"
Javier *rado and Avenida *anamericana )ur5 in t&e district o" )urco, one o" #oorest #arts
o" t&e city- *lentitude o" modern world1"amous designer: stores, entertainment o#tions
3cinemas, restaurants, bars etc5 and international brands make t&e visitor "orget t&at &e or
s&e is actually in *eru 3Denson et al, 200($25
0
- /&is #lace reveals universal trends and
global as#iration o" t&e country, s&owing at t&e same time, to some e0tent 1 Acordial
racismB in a way t&at only ric&er lime4os actually actually &ave access to t&e mall and are
buying #roducts- Kowever, as t&e student "ound out, t&ere are no restrictions, written legal
0
/&is is #art o" a larger #rocess$ t&e develo#ment o" consumer societies in <atin America @ see$ ?-
40
rules t&at kee# ot&ers away "rom t&e #lace- /o understand &ow t&e message is #assed to
t&e wider society and to "ully understand its: meaning, one wants to give t&is case a
dee#er insig&t-
+n trying to ac&ieve reliability and accuracy, researc&er decided to widen t&e sco#e
o" t&e study- /o s&ow t&at Jockey *laza is not ,ust an e0ce#tional single case, but an
e0em#li"ication o" a bigger trend, student wants to bring also anot&er e0am#le @ second
biggest modern de#artment store in <ima, <arcomar- /&is mall is s#ectacularly located
and said to be t&e swankest s&o##ing mall in t&e ca#ital 3=rommer:s, 2005 and even
A/&e #remier entertainment centre in <atin AmericaB3Oa&oo /ravelers, 2005- <arcomar,
in contrast to Jockey *laza, is located in t&e very centre o" t&e most e0clusive district o"
<ima, w&ic& is Mira"lores- Kowever, besides it:s accessible location, one will meet t&ere
mostly tourists and u##er class lime4os- Analysis o" <arcomar #romotional materials will
com#ile t&e com#le0 #icture made by analysis o" t&e "ormer e0am#le-
/&ere are many ot&er reasons in "avor o" c&oosing accurately t&ese media te0ts,
some o" w&ic& are$
1 Jockey *laza is t&e biggest and t&e most "amous s&o##ing mall in <ima, t&us, because o"
its: recognition, t&ere are many adverts in several "orms, t&at can be "ound all over t&e
city7
1 /&e media te0ts are addressed #rimarily to women, and @ as it was said be"ore @ it &as a
stronger in"luence on t&eir #erce#tion o" w&iteness and notion o" racial dominance o"
lig&ter skin color7
1 Decause o" t&e cam#aign:s #o#ularity, one can claim t&at it is a good e0am#le o"
*eruvian society
7
, *ictures A? and A', as well as A4 and A% &ave somet&ing in common 1 treat about t&e
same even 3C&ristmas5 or s#ecial loyalty #rogram "or "ans 3A'5 or regular customers
3A?5-
Dy #ulling t&ese images in #airs, some additional in"ormation about *eruvian
society in a conte0t o" analyzed #roblem o" racism and w&itening, can be obtained-
/&e student &ersel" e0#erienced t&e #o#ularity o" t&ese cam#aigns7 t&ese were mostly issued w&en s&e
was in *eru
4
;.1.-. 4hat is 6eing Advertised/
A##roac&ing t&e analysis one &as to answer t&e 2uestion o" w&at is o""ered by
advertisements- /&e answer to t&is 1 seemingly easy 2uestion, in t&e case o" s&o##ing
malls 3not only Jocker *laza and <arcomar5 is more com#le0 and demands more
consideration- /&e #oint is t&at American1style malls &ouse a wide variety o" smaller or
bigger stores, restaurants, service #oints, bouti2ues and so on 1 eac& o" w&ic& o""ers ot&er
concrete #roducts or services- Kowever, as a w&ole, t&e mall o""ers a AspaceB and t&e
AatmosphereB created by t&e com#ilation o" &osted stores, decoration, music,
arc&itecture, and @most im#ortant @ #eo#le buying and visiting t&e #lace-
ACon luces, colores y sonidos 2ue atraen los sentidos, con ca#acidad de generar
condiciones climCticas #ro#ias, con seguridad interna, con #osibilidades de reunir
la "amilia, com#rar, comer, entretenerse y #agar servicios, el gran centro comercial
desdramatiza la vida y crea un oasis alternativeB 3:ith the use of lights, colors and
sounds which attract senses, with the aility to generate appropriate climate
conditions, with assured security, with possiilities of gathering the family,
uying, eating, entertaining and paying the services, ig shopping malls
disdramati/e the life and create an alternative oasis5 3Cristo""anini, 200%$005-
/&is atmos#&ere in "act can:t be seen- /&us, t&e malls o""er also a certain @
consumer way of living- /&e American way o" living and all t&at it means "or #eo#le in
<atin America, 6astern 6uro#e and Asia- /&ere"ore, t&e item being advertised is not
actually tangible- +t:s neit&er a #roduct, nor a concrete service- Kowever, "or t&e use o" t&e
t&esis, t&is Aatmos#&ereB and Ali"estyleB can be o#erationally be called AserviceB, but in
"act t&is term is very broad @ t&e mall cannot actually sell t&e service @ it is an Aadded
valueB- E&at t&e advertisement cam#aign o""ers is a li"estyle connected wit& creating
s#ecial needs and su##ly "or s#ecial set o" #roducts and services @ t&us t&e cam#aign
a##eals to li"estyle and it o""ers a concrete standard o" living-
6m#loying #romotional cam#aigns 3suc& as t&ose analyzed5 s&o##ing malls are
trying to win consumer interest and allegiance, #erusing at t&e same time "or concrete
way o" living- As it will be s&own below, cam#aigns are so#&isticated and re"lect u##er
42
"eelings- Advertisements being analyzed use s#ecial connotations and symbols by
s&owing relation between concrete service "eatures and abstract values-
1urface 1tructures
;.*. 1traight,forward 0eading of the mage
/&e scenes #resent sim#le, uncom#licated situations- >ne can see a young w&ite
woman &olding a red candle in bot& &ands, w&ic& lig&tens &er "ace and t&e w&ole #icture
3A%5, a young mot&er w&o gives a #iggy back ride to a little girl and bot& are broadly
smiling 3A5, a w&ite woman w&o is looking somew&ere and is not involved in t&e action
between audience and t&e message 3A25,w&ic& gives an im#ression t&at it is accidentally
caug&t woman:s gaze- Anot&er #&oto #resents an e0tremely #ale women w&o looks
directly into t&e lens @ t&ere is no action and t&us t&e image is very stable and static, it:s a
"ace to "ace relation- +n ot&er sam#le one can see an Asian women, standing on t&e "uzzy
background and looks somew&ere "urt&er3A'5, or two young women sitting around t&e
table on <arcomar:s terrace overlooking t&e sea, bot& turn and look on t&e le"t 3it:s out o"
viewers: reac&5, "irst woman smokes, table is set 3co""ee, cake, ,uices5, t&ey are in t&e
middle o" lunc& and conversation 3A45-
/&ese scenes don:t involve many #ro#s, are not crowded 3mostly individual5, and
on t&e "irst sig&t it can seem t&at, because o" its sim#licity, t&ese images don:t convey any
dee#er and more com#le0 message- Dut not&ing is more misleading-
;.-. =odels 9 1ub'ects of the 3ampaigns
/&e main c&aracteristic w&ic& all t&e advertisement being analyzed &ave in
common is t&at t&e cam#aigns are about concrete real #ersons- /&e images don:t #resent
still nature or gra#&ical or so#&isticated meta#&orical abstractions- +n eac& o" t&ese
images models act @ #roducers didn:t use t&e tec&ni2ue called candid camera in s&owing
t&e scenes 3even in t&e case o" t&e A4 #&oto, w&ic& was taken outdoors, in t&e natural real
settings, models seem to be&ave in an unnatural arti"icial way5- 6veryt&ing is com#letely
designed in order to convey certain concrete meaning- +n t&is conte0t and by t&e target
receivers t&ere is little #lace "or ambiguity o" meanings$ t&e message is as directly as it s
only #ossible given 3es#ecially in t&e case o" Jockey *laza advertisements5-
4?
Anot&er t&ing w&ic& all sources &ave in common is t&at t&e models are young,
attractive, slim, and #ale women- +n one case bot&$ a young woman and a little girl 3about
"our5 are #resented toget&er @ t&is is connected wit& t&e to#ic and relates to t&e s#eci"ic
occasion "or w&ic& t&e image was #roduced @ it is about Mot&er:s Day- /&e image "or
<arcomar C&ristmas 3A45 #resents two young women too- >t&erwise, t&e rest o" #ictures
#resent only one model, usually centered wit&in t&e "rame- E&at is more, usually t&ere is
no background articulated$ be&ind t&e models: back t&ere is a #lain setting, w&ic& because
o" it:s colors, underline t&e contrast- /&ese tec&ni2ues convey a message o" individualism
and sel"1"ocus, giving a notion o" distinction- Models are sub,ects o" t&e cam#aigns
t&emselves @ deconte0tualization o" t&em, background doesn:t convey any message,
serves only to em#&asize t&e contrast 3A, A%5, or to s&ow t&e unity between t&e sub,ect
and t&e background 3A?5- /&e sub,ect in t&at #articular case belongs to t&e background,
toget&er wit& it makes a #er"ect com#osition and even illuminates it- /&e tec&ni2ue
em#loyed s&ows t&at t&e w&ite model belongs to t&e world, creating a #er"ect unity wit&
t&e environment-
/&e models are in t&e main "ocus o" t&e #&oto, t&us are mediums w&ic& convey a
certain message >ne deals &ere wit& a #arado0 t&at t&e cam#aigns, o""ering intangible
items 3w&ic& are atmos#&ere and a certain way o" living5, are about concrete real #ersons
@ t&at means t&at t&ese services s&ould be #ersonalized wit& t&e concrete, substantial
#erson and t&eir individual c&aracteristics-
;.-.1. deal of the 6eauty
/&ese women can be described wit& t&e "ollowing #&rases$ blond &air 3A, A2,
A?, A%5, beauti"ul wide w&ite smiles 3A, A45, t&ey smirk 3A?, A', A%5 and big blue or
green eyes 3A, A2, A?, A4, A%5- E&at:s more, all t&ese "igures wear neat 3A, A?, A',
A4, A%5 or strong 3A25 makeu#, #resent elegancy, symmetry and #er"ectness o" &uman
body #ro#ortions- /&ey #ossess all ideal 6uro#ean1like, su##orted by Kollywood and
Eestern #roductions and images, "eatures 3e0ce#t A'5- /&ey set an ideal o" beauty and
convey t&e direct message about t&eir ideality to t&e #ublic- /&e model is not a Aman on
t&e streetB, but s&e is in some way s#ecial 3A25, time &as sto##ed "or a w&ile 3A%5- /&is
sur"ace structure doesn:t need any dee#er consideration @ t&e establis&ment o" &e ideal
Eestern s#lendor and glam is immediately s#elled out- /&ere"ore, t&is establis&ment o"
t&e ideal o" t&e beauty com#rises t&e "irst layer, w&ic& is t&e automatic and instinctive
4'
reading o" t&e image, t&us available "or t&e w&ole grou# o" #otential audience 3bot& t&e
target audience and t&e general #ublic 1 and t&ose w&o actually see t&e image5- Dee#er
meanings and covered meanings need to be revealed in t&e intellectual #rocess o"
re"lection and inter#retation-
;.-.*. Dress 3ode
)ome #ictured models wear elegant, &ig&1"as&ion out"its 1 es#ecially in t&e case o"
A4 1 conveying t&e message o" yout&, elegance, e0#ensiveness, ,oy, rela0ation and
Eestern li"estyle and modern international look- Clot&ing gives a message o"
e0ce#tionality, elitism, &ig& 2uality o" li"e, elegance, "east, courtesy 3A%5, and
6uro#eanization o" dressing customs$ in t&e case o" A image t&e "amily is wearing ,eans
and #olo necked sweaters seeming to say t&at t&eir lives &ave an international dimension,
"amily leads a modern li"estyle- /&ey are wearing color"ul chullos, *eruvian style &ats @
but in t&e conte0t t&ese &ats look a bit ridiculous, giving a message t&at tradition is ,ust a
decoration, is somet&ing additional to t&e modern li"estyles- /&is combination o" di""erent
cultures and traditions conveys t&e tension o" #ostmodern style- /&ese &ats remind
tradition, roots in *eruvian culture @ &owever t&is is a ty#ical souvenir item, #roduced
mostly "or tourists, so t&e #otential 3es#ecially by t&e general #ublic5 reading could be$
t&ese are tourists, "oreigners, not1us, "igures belong to t&e At&emB social grou#- Girl:s
clot&ing in #ink rein"orces a modern, Eestern stereoty#e o" a baby1girl-
+n ot&er cases t&e dress code is not visible 3A2, A?, A'5- +n t&e case o" #ictures
w&ere t&ere is no dress code, t&at can suggest t&at clot&es and dress code is less relevant-
Clot&es are not t&e key to understand ing t&e message, it:s all about "ace @ &owever, t&ere
is no 3or ,ust a slig&tly5 "acial e0#ression, t&us it is all about skin color 3t&e only visible
distinctive "eature o" t&e model5 @ t&us t&e service o""ered s&ould be identi"ied wit& t&e
"ace:s s&ade 3A2, A?5- Model seems to be naked @ t&at gives a "eeling o" #urity and
natural look, associated wit& neutrality, naturalization o" #aleness 3A?, A'5- E&at is t&e
clue o" t&ese materials 3A2, A?, A'5 is t&e #aleness o" t&e model, &er "ace color and
e0#ression, not t&e out"it, w&ic& in "act is ,ust a cover- E&at is more, out"it can be easily
re#laced, c&anged, modi"ied, but dowers and "acial c&aracteristics are not ac2uired @
rat&er to a ma,or e0tent t&ey unc&angeable and naturally inborn-
44
;.-.-. >on,verbal 3ommunication
!on1verbal communication is a broad term w&ic& consists o" many detailed "acial
e0#ressions, gestures, work o" t&e bodies 3body language and #ositioning;movement5 and
interactions- Dy looking at t&e sam#le #icture one notices t&at t&e actresses: "aces are
directed towards t&e lens 3A, A?, A%5, bodies directed in ot&er direction 3A5, non1
rela0ed #osture 3all5, touc& gives a sense o" intimacy 3A5, widely smiles, #resenting
#lain, w&ite teet& 3A, A45, or "aint smile 3A%5, blue eyes 3A, A2, A?, A%5, delicate 3A,
A?, A', A4, A%5 or strong 3A25 makeu#, long blond &air 3A%, A, A?5 and ideal "air
com#le0ion 3all5- )miles convey a message o" &a##iness, care"ree li"estyle- /ouc& s&ows
care and concern wit& t&e "amily gives at t&e same time an im#ression o" care"ree
c&ild&ood- Use o" gesture o" giving 3A%5 t&e lig&t, makes &er image and t&e w&ole #icture
lig&ter, saying t&at lig&tness is a gi"t "rom t&e te0t:s #roducer-
Action line is &orizontal 3A, A2, A?, A%5 or diagonal 3A' and A45$ "rom t&e
centre o" t&e #icture on t&e rig&t 3A'5 or le"t 3A45, to t&e #lace w&ere t&ey look, action
line in e0tended by sub,ects: gaze- +n some cases gaze is directed somew&ere "urt&er 3A2,
A', A45, no "acial e0#ression 3A2, A? 1 stability, calm, #restige, gravity o" t&e situation5
and no eye contact 3A2, A', A45- +n t&ese #articular cases view1line goes out o" t&e
#icture 3"ocuses on somet&ing w&at is out o" viewers: reac&5, to t&e "uture, w&ic& gives an
im#ression t&at t&e model is above t&e reality- E&en models: gaze is directed to t&e le"t
3A45, somew&ere over t&e #icture 3w&ere t&e s&o#s are, not on t&e beauti"ul landsca#e in
t&e background1 ocean, cli""s5, one can derive t&e message t&at w&at really counts is
s&o##ing and t&e <arcomar s#ecial atmos#&ere-
+n ot&er cases 3A, A?, A%5 model looks directly into t&e lens, eye contact@ s&e:s
"ocused and looks directly at t&e reader, w&ic& makes &er "ace look "ocused and serious,
w&ic& is associated wit& neat elegancy, coldness, it gives &er an attribute o" sublimity,
su#eriority- +t is not an accidental gaze caug&t, s&e is staring at t&e #ublic, #rovocative
look, w&ic& demands a dee#er consideration and inter#retation-
Use o" et&nicity in <arcomar #romotional cam#aign 3A'5 made t&e model and t&e
w&ole image s#ecial$ t&e model is neit&er w&ite, nor dark, so mi0ed et&nicity can be read
as #rovocation and evoke curiosity-
4%
;.8. 3omposition
Mostly one1dimensional, s&allow "ocus was used- /&ere is no in1de#t&
#ers#ective, or multidimensional com#osition- /&e #lainness o" t&e com#osition serves
to em#&asize t&e "oreground @ models and t&eir "eatures- +mages A2 and A? were
asymmetrically cro##ed- /&at suggests t&at t&ere is a &al" o" everyt&ing$ t&e service
being o""ered com#letes t&e meaning, makes t&e reality total, w&ole, assures integrity
3A?5-/&is com#osition is not structured, indicates con"lict 3A25 and tells t&at t&e w&ole
#erson as a #erson;&uman being is not im#ortant 3&er #ersonality, c&aracteristics etc5 @
w&at counts is "ace and &er skin color-
/&e relation wit& t&e #ublic is com#le0$ in two cases t&e contact wit& t&e #ublic is
direct, t&e model seems to be a Amen on t&e streetB, t&ere is no #&ysical barrier created- +n
ot&er cases t&ere is a barrier build by #ro#s 3color"ul bulbs A% or c&airs A45, by t&e lig&t
tone used or by lack o" eye contact and t&e action line-
;.8.1. Distance and >otion of Purity of the 6lood
Use o" #ro#s and camera angle create a certain im#ression o" distance and
inaccessibility 3A4, A%5 or ot&er way around 1 give a "eeling o" intimacy and availability
3A, A2, A?5- /&e "act t&at t&e natural or arti"icial barrier is set in t&e images 3A%, A45
makes t&e models untouc&able #rototy#es- Distance created by bottom1line$ s#arkly balls
or bulbs in red and orange 3A%5 creates t&e barrier between t&e image and t&e audience,
makes t&e "igure seem to be dominating over t&e line- /&is line gives t&e #icture a dreamy
accent-
+n t&e case o" A, t&ere is no distance between "igures and t&e audience, t&ey are
standing almost ne0t to us, t&us @ t&e audience s&ould #ersonalize and imitate t&e "amily
3#resented as sam#le5- <ack o" distance is striking in A? case @ gives an e0tremely strong
"eeling o" intimacy, "amiliarity and no distance- Kowever, cold colors create a barrier-
/&us t&e message is given directly, but t&e #erson is not available "or all-
/&e image o" mot&er and daug&ter 3A5 gives t&e im#ression t&at all *eruvian
"amilies com#ly wit& t&e model #resented and all look like t&is- /wo generations o"
e0tremely #ale beauti"ul "emales give a message t&at t&e #urity o" t&e blood is #reserved
and t&e w&iteness o" t&e society is t&e leading social "orce-
4(
;.8.*. 3olor 3ode
)et o" colors used do not give t&e #ictures a realistic "eel, t&ey are more #icture1
#ostcard ty#e o" images- /wo kinds o" color modes were a##lied$ in some cases use o"
#redominant s&ar# tones 3A%5 in some use o" #redominant lig&t 3A, A?5 and cold colors
3A25- +n case o" A% t&e #roducer used AC&ristmas colorsB 1 red reminds t&e viewer o" t&e
warmt& o" "amily celebrations- 9ed is also a color o" elites , w&ic& at t&e same time #lays
a role in t&e *eruvian society- C&oosing a lig&t color code is a #rocedure w&ic& sets
lig&ter tones as a normal *eruvian color, w&ic& describes ty#ical modern *eruvian
"amilies and gives a "eeling o" normalization;standardization o" w&iteness- 60tremely
#ale com#le0ion 3A'5 indicates #urity- )ubtle brig&t colors w&ic& s&ows milky1w&ite
woman, t&e #icture is very lig&t and &er "ace occu#ies t&e w&ole #icture- Unnatural
illumination o" t&e image conveys a message o" dreamy atmos#&ere and sublimity 3A?5-
)ome use s&ar# accents @ like #ink in t&e A image, t&is s&ar# accent directs ones
attention to w&iteness o" models and em#&asizes t&e #aleness o" t&e sub,ects- *ink
chullos 3A5 @ is a visible accent, makes t&eir look more e0#licit, distinctive, but w&en
one removes t&ese #ink &ats, t&e #icture is still readable, #ink steals attention and directs
t&e "ocus to models: "aces- E&iteness is not ,ust an individual value but a "amily "eature-
E&iteness determines ones "uture and designs ones: li"e #at&-
/&e A advertisement a##eals to every woman:s #reoccu#ation wit& t&eir
c&ildrens: "utures @ t&e "uture seems to be 3literally and "iguratively5 brig&t, associated
wit& elegance, modernism, ,oy o" living- A##eals to emotional signi"icance o" kid:s "uture
and sel"1satis"action and deriving #leasure "rom li"e, care"ree "amily li"e, associated wit&
#articular social #ositioning @ no #reoccu#ation wit& t&e reality 3money or social
#roblems5, "uture is seen in lig&t colors 3A5-
Cold #rimary colors 3blue in A25 conveys a message o" stability, stativity,
su#eriority and ma,esty- Colors used suggest so#&isticated taste, and give smoot& look o"
t&e #icture- Cold colors create low modality, so no1realistic "eel w&ic& suggests &ig&
2uality- Kig&ly unnatural s&ade o" eye:s color, w&ic& conveys t&e message t&at t&is blue
&as a second meaning, meaning o" #urity, com#uter gra#&ic #&oto 3A25- +n t&e case o" A4
set o" colors is di""erent$ #redominant colors are inter alia blue, green, yellow, w&ite,
#ink- /&is wide range o" tones, models: #aleness is e0#osure by t&e back1 and middle1
ground, w&ic& suggests realism, &owever t&e e""ect is arti"icial- +n A4 case one deals wit&
4F
smoot& mi0 o" #ictures, #ink #ullover in centre o" t&e image is also concentration o" t&e
attention- 6legance, elitism and modernism are #ersonalized wit& brig&tness 3A2, A?,
A%5- +t is connected wit& notion o" sel"1identity @ t&e reader &as a c&oice 1 &e or s&e can
remain Ain t&e darkB or realize &is;&er as#irations and ,oin Abrig&t sideB 3A%5-
;.;. 2ogo
Jockey *laza uses a s#eci"ic emblem- /&e logo &as a sim#le s&a#e and is built
wit& basic colors- /&e logo consists o" t&ree gradual circles, smaller in bigger-
*ic- , t&e logo
/&is construction suggests #rogress and dynamics- +n analyzed cam#aigns t&e
emblem, w&ic& is relatively small, distinguis&es itsel" "rom t&e advertisement- +t is #laced
in t&e strategic #lace, #laying "unction o" a AdotB
2
, w&ic& com#letes t&e signi"ication and
directs t&e inter#retation- As t&e item being advertised is t&e atmos#&ere and li"estyle @
t&e logo can be inter#reted as t&e button, w&ic& allows one to enter @ t&e world o" J*
?
illusion-
/&ere is strong corres#onding relations&i# between te0t, logo and image, ,ust
inter#retation o" t&e t&ree at t&e same time gives a correct message- /&e item and t&e J*
emblem are o" t&e same size, t&us t&e AentranceB to t&e world o" #leasure in "act direct
t&roug& t&e s&o##ing mall 3A?5-
;.<. 2inguistic =essage
+n all cases linguistic te0ts re"lect to t&e scenes and t&e audience "eelings- /&at is
w&at t&e designers want t&e audience to associate wit& t&e images- /e0ts #lay role o"
anchorage, w&en t&e linguistic message is rooting t&e inter#retation 3A, A2, A?, A%5 as
well as relay 1 w&en te0t in t&e "ooter com#letes t&e image and t&e te0t above 3A, A2,
A4, A'5- +n A' t&e #roducer s#eaks directly to you, no r&etorical "igures are used 1 t&e
2
+n Eestern culture #eo#le write "rom le"t to rig&t, dot is #laced in rig&t bottom corner @ t&at crowns t&e
meaning- /&e same &a##ens wit& t&e logo @ it is #laced in t&e rig&t bottom corner- 6ven it:s s&a#e reminds
one o" a dot-
?
J* @ Jockey *laza
4G
message is clear and obvious @ te0t #lays a clear role o" relay- /&ere is a weak connection
between image and te0ts @ it is a commi01like style, so te0ts com#lete t&e #icture 3A45-
/&e most suggestive e0#ression is used in A% case- /&e te0ts claims$ $.sta
5avidad iluminamos los sue4os del PeruB 3eng- A/&is C&ristmas we illuminate *eruvian
dreamsB5 /&is "igurative ty#e o" language conveys a message t&at i" one s&o#s at J*, &is
or &er dreams will come true- /&is r&etorical "igure, by a##ealing to &uman as#irations
and C&ristmas generates emotional res#onse- /e0t &as an overtone o" wis& and a""irms
w&at is #resented in t&e #&oto- 6lli#sis is used @ t&e #roducer doesn:t directly say w&at is
t&e clue, somet&ing is missing, but out o" conte0t one can conclude w&at is going on- /&e
te0t #lay a role o" anc&orage @ it &el#s in inter#retation and directs t&e #rocess o"
analysis-
)trong emotional connotation uses also A image @ B;i ma!or amiga es mi
;ama. <eli/ 1ia ;ama. 3e como "uieres serB 3eng- LMy best "riend is my Mot&er-
Ka##y Mot&ers: Day, Mummy, ;And in a "ooter in two tones lig&ter "oil$; QJ*R knows w&o
you want to beB5-E&at can be derived "rom t&e "irst statement is t&at J* rein"orces "amily
relations 1 kid is grate"ul "or taking &er to t&e mall and @ in logical conse2uence 1 "or
making &er li"e easy and ,oy"ul 3by using J* services5- Kere t&e "riends&i# is conditioned
wit& material incentives-
Kowever t&e message in t&e "ooter &as muc& more im#ortance$ J* knows w&at
your ambitions are, and can assure you to realize your wis&es- /&e e0#ression Ase como
quieres serB @ it:s elli#sis, somet&ing &as been omitted, somet&ing is necessary to
com#lete t&e construction, but in t&e conte0t t&e message is understandable @ t&ere is
somet&ing unsaid, a silent #resum#tion t&at t&e receiver is not t&e one s&e;&e wants to be-
A+ know w&at you want to beB could be inter#reted as t&e talk down to us, it is a
statement wit& an emotional a##eal- /&e slogan em#loyed by t&e mall roots t&e
inter#retation, giving t&e im#ression t&at t&e reader wants to be like t&is w&ite model @ in
every dimension$ bot& #syc&ological and #&ysical- /&e mall knows w&at your ambitions
are, and can assure you to realize your wis&es- /&us, at t&e time o" reading t&e media
te0ts, t&e audience is not w&at t&ey want to be- /&is message a##eals to bot& target
audience 3to w&om t&e #roduct being o""ered is directed5 and t&e wider #ublic, by using
strongly suggestive e0#ression, in com#arison wit& t&e reality- As a conse2uence t&e te0t
%0
re2uires a certain emotional res#onse$ A+ want to be t&e one "rom t&e #ictureB and J*
services assure you a better li"e and brig&ter "uture-
+n A2 case, t&e #&rase A3oy mu!er, soy especial. ;es de la ;u!erB 3eng-B +:m a
woman, +:m s#ecial- <ady:s Mont&B5 suggestively directs inter#retation- /&e model is
already s#ecial, t&e ideal wit& w&om every woman w&o comes to t&e center s&ould
#ersonalize- Dut @ because o" lack o" eye1contact and t&e s&ot 3"rom t&e bottom5 it is not
#ossible to relate to t&e model @ s&e is out o" reac&, one can only tend to ac&ieve &er
3social, cultural, economic5 level- /e0t doesn:t #rovide in"ormation, but generates
emotional res#onse and em#loys strong se0ual connotation- +nstead o" #lural A<adies:
Mont&B t&e singular A<ady:sB is used, giving a suggestive notion o" individualism and
em#&asizing t&e model:s s#ecialness-
Eit& A? 1 $,odo entra or los o!osB 3eng- A6veryt&ing enters t&roug& eyesB5 t&e
te0t immediately brings t&e connotation wit& greed 1 one gets w&at &e or s&e wants, t&us
s&ould allow &is or &er eyes 3w&ic& see ,ust su#er"icial cover, ,ust t&e outside5 dictate
your li"estyle 3in contrary wit& A- de )aint 60u#ery$ B)t is only with the heart that one
can see rightly= what is essential is invisile to the eye-B
'
/e0t closely corres#onds wit&
t&e image and directs attention to t&e model:s eye-
;.C. Audience
>ne can distinguis& two grou#s o" t&e audience- /&ere is a di""erence between
general #ublic 3w&ole #o#ulation o" #eo#le w&o see t&e cam#aign5 and t&e target
audience 3w&ic& consists o" t&ose to w&o s#eci"ied meanings and #re"erred readings are
directed and t&e items being o""ered are designed5- Kowever, cam#aigns deliberately
convey a certain meaning 3in an a##ro#riate, readable way5 to bot& grou#s- /&is
universality demands use s#ecial tec&ni2ues and r&etorics-
;.C.1. DPreferred 0eadersE , Target Audience
/&e message directed to t&e target audience @ t&ese ones w&o actually use t&e
service being o""ered and w&o can a""ord it, can be called$ ApositiveB- /&e overall
message includes t&e desirable readers into t&e e0clusive grou# o" customers and service
users- /&e mode o" addressing and t&e way o" audience #ositioning is #recisely designed
@ t&e goal is to nail t&e s#eci"ic individuals- /&ere"ore, because o" its: e0clusive role, t&e
'
B/&e <ittle *rinceB, c&a#ter YY+
%
cam#aigns a##eal to #articular audiences and re2uire s#ecial "eatures$ educational
background, economical and social status-
9egarding to audience:s educational bac(ground and intellectual capabilities,
images are understandable mostly "or mall customers, "or t&ose w&o know w&at kind o"
#lace it is and w&at sort o" service it #rovides 3are "amiliar wit& t&e atmos#&ere and t&e
#articular li"estyle5 @advertisements don:t directly say w&at t&ey o""er 3A%, A, A2, A?5-
/&e cam#aigns are aimed "or t&ose w&o &ave ambitions and dreams to "ul"ill 3A%5, "or
t&ese ones w&o "eel s#ecial 3A?5- Cam#aigns are designed "or t&ose w&o &ave a wider
social knowledge 3"- e0- know w&en Mot&er:s Day or <adies: Day are celebrated, ones
w&o understand Eestern values A5, w&o are ca#able o" understanding t&e meta#&orical
meaning o" t&e te0t and image 3A2, A?5- <arcomar demands also o#en1minded attitude
and a good command o" +nternet, t&e A' is directed to =acebook users t&us younger
generations, w&o need a s#ecial additional motivation 3as e0tra gi"ts5, A4 calls to &ig&
social inter#ersonal abilities, t&ose w&o go to t&e malls not ,ust "or s&o##ing, but also to
s#end leisure time, to socialize-
+n regard to economic status, cam#aigns, because o" t&e e0clusive nature o" t&e
service being o""ered, are targeted "or #articular social grou#s$ &ig&er and intermediate
managerial, administrative or #ro"essional, su#ervisory or clerical and suc&
4
- /&us &ig&er
economic status in re2uired because o" t&e "act, t&at #otential customers, to w&om t&e
advertisement is directed, &ave to a""ord t&e service and can not stand out "rom t&e ot&er
customers #o#ulation 3A%, A?5- /&at is related to item being o""ered$ credit card @ t&us,
"or t&ose ones w&o can really a""ord t&e costs o" t&e card, and ,ust "or t&em, s&ar# class
dimension 3A?5- /arget grou# consists also o" t&ose w&o can a""ord costs o" modern
li"estyle 3A45, w&o are u#1to1date wit& #rogressive modern trends, w&o "eel s#ecial 3A25,
w&o treat tradition as an accent, decoration, w&o want to imitate 6uro#eans and
#ersonalize Eestern values- /&e advertisement is designed "or t&ose ones w&o assure
t&eir c&ildren t&is AEesternB li"estyles and c&ances "or t&e "uture, w&en t&eir "uture is
brig&t @ as actress: com#le0ion- /&e connotation is t&at modern mot&er &as a modern
c&ild, t&us it is directed ,ust "or t&ose w&o actually lead an e0#ensive li"estyle 3A5-
Cam#aigns #resent a s&ar# class dimension 3A2, A%5, rein"orced by colors 3dark
and brig&t #ulled toget&er5, lig&t concentrated in t&e center 3w&ic& means t&at is more
4
Categories according to )elby N Cowdery, GG4-
%2
relevant53A%5- Advertisements are aimed to u##er and middle 1 class social grou#s
3because o" its location, 2uality and nature o" service o""ered5 @but as it was said, t&e
middle1class doesn:t really e0ist in *eru$ t&e society is s&ar#ly divided itsel", t&us t&e
advertisement is in "act aimed mostly to &ig&er social classes- A##eals to values o" &ig&er
social classes suc& as &ig& aest&etical standards 3A45- +mage A2 is directed to t&ose w&o
"eel "ull o" value liberated woman, w&o "eel 3or want to "eel5 su#erior in some way- /&e
social division is #articularly strong in t&e case o" A image 1 t&ere is not&ing *eruvian
about t&ese "igures 3besides t&e &ats5- /&ey do not #ersonalize t&emselves wit& lower
*eruvian social classes 3w&o mostly sustain traditional li"estyles5- A4 gives a strong #oint
in t&e discussion too$ members o" lower social classes are in t&e background, somew&ere
in <ima, u##er class s#end t&eir "ree time in <arcomar, are not #reoccu#ied wit& t&eir
economical status, can a""ord t&is li"estyle, seem to look "or t&e same social class
members 3to kee# t&e #urity o" race;social class5- <arcomar cam#aigns in "act do not
e0#licitly say t&at t&e advertisement is directed to *eruvians, it gives an im#ression o" an
international cam#aign, social class @ middle and u##er$ t&ose w&o deserve t&e bonus
3A'5-
/&e cam#aigns, by using strongly suggestive e0#ression, in com#arison wit& t&e
reality, re2uire a certain emotional res#onse @ #re"erred reading o" t&e image by t&e target
audience s&ould be$ A+ want to be like t&e one "rom t&e #ictureB- /&e services assure you
a better li"e and brig&ter "uture-
+n t&e #revious subsection, in regard to construction, one made a #oint about
#&ysical barrier created by #ro#s, "ocus, lens ty#e and camera angle- Kere anot&er kind o"
barrier &as emerged$ because o" t&e nature o" service o""ered @ t&e atmos#&ere as a
service can be understood ,ust by t&ose like sub,ects #resented in t&e images, ot&ers
cannot actually access t&e service being o""ered @ t&e advertisement creates an invisible,
meta#&orical barrier, w&ic&, ironically is even &arder to overcome-
;.C.1.1. 7ender and Age
/&eory section #roved t&at gender #lays a role w&en it comes to consum#tion and
#urc&ase c&oices- /&e notion o" beauty a##eals "ar more to "emales- Attractiveness is
generally "ound to be muc& more valuable t&an any ot&er single as#ect a woman can
#ossess-
%?
/&e images a##eal in some cases e0clusively to women 3A, A2, A'5, in ot&er to
bot& genders 3A4, A% and A' 1 "or bot& women and men, t&e indicator &ere is not gender,
but economic #osition and strong correlation between status and #aleness5, but wit&
strong age dimension @ younger generations 3A', A45, or rat&er well1o"" #eo#le, so
middle1age audience 3A?5, t&ose #ro"essionally active-
Kowever, somet&ing interesting is going on in t&e case o" A4 image$ it is
addressed directly to young women, but t&e message is also indirectly addressed to men
1 <arcomar as a #er"ect #lace to meet nice1looking #ale girls-
;.C.1.*. =ode of addressing
Advertisements encourage t&e audience w&at to "eel and t&ink about t&e service
being o""ered$ it su##orts t&e notion o" J* as an e0clusive #lace, wit& modern and #ro1
s#ective services 3A%5- +t directs #eo#le:s "eelings in a way t&at t&ey are su#erior 3A25-
/&ere are two tec&ni2ues used in audience #ositioning$ soft sell and hard sell.
Eit&in so"t sell in"ormation is given by im#lication only, in"ormation is communicated in
an im#licit way 3A2, A, A4, A%5- /&e service is not directly being o""ered @ by s&owing
Jockey *laza:s #reoccu#ation wit& "amily and mot&er1daug&ter relations, t&e s&o##ing
mall indirectly conveys t&e message t&at modern mot&ers s&ould go "or t&e malls:
services, in order to ac&ieve t&e li"estyle #resented on t&e billboard 3A5- /&e media te0t,
by creating a "amiliar atmos#&ere, is warm, intimate, very #ersonal @ s&owing t&e
#roducer:s #reoccu#ation wit& its customers: "amily lives and t&e message &as an
emotional a##eal- +t is rein"orced by s&ot1size @ w&ic& cerates a "ace1to1"ace situation
3A5- +m#licit emotional a##eal is readable w&en t&e advertisement makes women "eel
in"erior to t&e model, it a""ects t&eir as#irations and stimulates t&eir needs 3A25-
Anot&er tec&ni2ue o" audience #ositioning is called hard sell @ w&en service
advantages are directly communicated and in"ormation is interc&angeably given- /&e
#roducer #ositions t&e reader by telling &im or &er t&at service is not "or everyone @t&at
conveys notion o" e0clusiveness and uses rational arguments 3A'5-
+n t&e case o" A? and A4 one can talk about mix o" so"t sell 3im#lication5 and
&ard sell$ service o""ered is s#ecial @ "irst im#ression is given in a meta#&orical way
3so"t5, but a"ter a dee#er consideration one can see t&at t&e #roducer actually uses &ard
sell @ by #ointing e0#licitly to t&e bene"its o" t&e service$ buy it and get w&at you want
3A?5- +n A4 on t&e one &and t&e receiver deals wit& &ard sell 1 te0ts w&ic& surround t&e
%'
image, image #lus s&ort descri#tion #lus #rice o" t&e certain item 3w&ic& could be a
C&ristmas gi"t5, rational arguments- Dut on t&e ot&er &and one can distinguis& so"t sell
tec&ni2ue$ service is s&own in t&e conte0t$ &ow t&e s&o##ing mall s&ould look like and
w&o we are looking "or 3A45-
+n all cases t&e receivers are emotionally communicated- /&e audience is
addressed in a #articular way$ t&e advertisement acknowledges t&eir so#&istication, is
warm and intimate and creates a "eeling o" directness and e0clusiveness o" t&e message
3A%5- Advertisements em#loy in"ormative overtones 3in t&e case o" lady:s mont&5 and use
a""irmative statements 3A25- Audience is re2uired to be active, t&e target audience is
a""ected and involved in t&e advertisement, w&en it uses im#erative suggestive overtone
3A'5, t&e image calls "or inter#retation 3A?5- +n ot&er cases audience is a""ected but not
involved in t&e advertisement and t&e reader is passive 3A, A%5- /&e #roducer talks
down to t&e audience and acknowledges one:s devotion and rewards "or it 3A'5-
6ventually, t&e tec&ni2ue o" dual mode o" addressing is a##lied @t&at is w&en t&e media
te0t on t&e one &and is #us&y, and on t&e ot&er @ gives an intimate message, w&ic&
acknowledges one:s e0ce#tionality, uni2ueness and elitism, t&us uses bot& command and
statement 3A45-
;.C.*. 7eneral Public
+n t&e case o" t&e wider grou# @ t&e general #ublic 3w&ic& consists o" all w&o
#otentially can see t&e cam#aign5, t&e advertisement conveys t&e message too- /&e social,
economic and educational background is not so strictly restricted- /&is message can be
called AnegativeB @ it gives in"ormation about t&e nature o" service and its: e0clusiveness-
/&e message #lays a selective "unction, ordering society and rein"orcing social
&ierarc&ies-
Moreover, one &as to be aware o" t&e #ossible meanings w&ic& can be #ulled out
"rom t&e image 3not necessarily according to t&e #roducer:s intention5- /&e c&ain o"
A#ositiveB meanings communicated in t&e images gives t&e ordinary reader o" t&e media
te0t ot&er signi"ication, w&ic& is marginalized- /&e #roducer o" t&e media te0t 3because o"
it:s social, economical, cultural or educational background5 can even not be "ully
conscious o" t&ese latent messages, w&ic& can also connote wit& coldness, domain,
%4
re#ression and alienation and negative su#remacy and dominance o" w&ites over <atin
societies-
;.C.-. Psychographic &ariable
As it was said be"ore, every media te0t a##eals to certain #syc&ometric variables
and #rovokes a #syc&ological res#onse- /&e stand#oint is t&at society consists o" #eo#le,
regarded not ,ust as units, but as individuals- /&at is w&y advertisements a##eal to needs,
sel"1identity and @ in relation to t&at 1 construct a certain brand image-
Drand image in t&e case o" A% is #articularly strong @ J* as a #lace w&ic& Aknows
w&o you want to beB, t&us t&e service &as a strategic meaning in #rocess o" sel"1identity
creation 3A%5- /&e brand image constructs t&e sel" identity w&en t&e "ollowing condition
is naturalized$ it is natural t&at i" you are young modern mot&er or i" you are w&iter t&an
ot&ers around, you will go "or J* services @ t&at can give you, besides tangible #roducts,
emotional bene"its, suc& as ,oy, &ig&er social status and &ig&er social #osition in ot&ers
eyes 3A5- 6rand image is created by t&e relation t&at J* takes care o" your c&ild:s
"uture, brand e0#resses one:s #reoccu#ation wit& "amily and notion o" modern "amily
li"estyle, elitism 3A5- /&e brand is associated wit& ideal o" women, w&o want to reac&
t&e ideal o" t&e beauty and "eel s#ecial 3A25, t&e #roducer #resents an image o"
e0#ensiveness, it correlates wit& &ig& economic status, and@ conse2uently @ wit& #aleness
3A?5, lu0ury 3s#a services o""ered "or "ans5 w&en t&e advertisement says not&ing about
t&e #rice or 2uality o" nature o" <arcomar s&o##ing mall, but says a lot about t&e li"estyle
and a##eals to sel"1identity and one:s as#irations, t&us #eo#le c&oose t&e mall because it
e0#resses t&eir sense o" sel" identity 3A'5- Motivation to c&oose <arcomar is not ,ust t&e
2uality o" t&e #lace 3t&ere are not many signs indicating t&e 2uality5, but t&e atmos#&ere
and c&ance to meet ot&er #eo#le, as #resented in t&e advertisement 3A45- /&e billboard
#lays a role o" an in"ormal invitation$ i" you are not like t&em, do not come, it:s not a
#lace "or you 3A45-
)ervice gives a #articular meaning associated wit& emotional im#ortance o" social
#ositioning and #ros#ects "or "uture 3A%, A?5- /&e advertisement a##eals to t&e &uman
need "or sel" and social acce#tance, to ambitions and as#irations @ service is related wit&
elegance, so#&istication, a way to "ul"ill one:s dreams, making one:s li"e easier 3A%5
tendency o" neglecting traditional values 3A5 and distinguis&ing one:s "amily "rom
ot&ers @ adding t&e value o" s#ecialness, elitism and social division 3A, A45, associated
%%
wit& #revalent &uman need to socialize and to communicate wit& ot&ers, to #ersonalize
and to rest 3A45- Advertisement a##eals to every woman:s need to "eel s#ecial and
e0ce#tional in males: eyes 3A2, A45- /&e message is clear @ J* services can assure you
being s#ecial and can underline one:s "eminity @ t&at makes one:s c&ances on a
matrimonial and ,ob market bigger 3A25- Cam#aign em#&asizes a need to meet every
w&im 3A?5, associated wit& elegance, sel"1care and &ig& sel"1esteem 3A25- /&e #re"erred
reading o" t&e te0t is$ A+ can a""ord t&e credit card @ + can a""ord t&e item + want to buy, +
like, + identi"y mysel" wit& t&ose w&o "ul"ill t&eir dreamsB @ wit& visible "ocus on mysel"
@ everyt&ing QA,odoBR w&ic& enters t&roug& eyes$ everyt&ing w&ic& really counts is
tangible and can be #urc&ased wit& 3#lastic or not5 money 1 A,odoB, even #aleness,
ob,ecti"ication o" w&iteness 3A?5- /&ere is a clear association wit& &uman vanity and t&e
tendency to distinguis& ones "rom ot&ers 3A'5, es#ecially w&en sel" identity is
em#&asized by t&e o##osition us 3"ans5 versus t&em 3ot&ers5 3A'5-
;.C.8. 2ifestyle =ar(eting
/&e tec&ni2ue o" li"estyle marketing is about a##ealing in t&e #romotional
o#erations to li"estyles, making items being o""ered #art o" one:s li"estyles, w&ic&
constitute and determine ones way o" living- +mages a##eal to t&e "act t&at #eo#le desire
to belong and to #ersonalize t&emselves wit& a #articular grou# and t&us, lead a li"e
according to t&is grou#:s determinants- /&is tec&ni2ue &as been legibly a##lied in
analyzed media sources- Advertisements a##eal to a modern "amily li"estyle 3A5 by
creating an illusion o" "amily idyll- /&e model acting as mot&er is concerned wit& t&e
"amily, s&ows #reoccu#ation wit& &er relatives- Message derived "rom t&e image seems to
say$ A+ &ave to assure t&e best "uture "or my c&ild, t&ere"ore + c&oose J*B- /arget
audiences in t&e case belong to a #articular grou# o" #eo#le w&o &ave &ig& as#irations
concerning t&eir "amilies, w&o are loyal to &ig& standards 3not traditionalists5- *er"ect
way o" s#ending one:s leisure time and to strengt&en bonds wit& t&e "amily is to go to t&e
#lace, w&ic& @ by t&e "act o" entering into @ assures a &ig&er economical status 3A, A45-
A non1traditional but liberated, brave, individualistic way o" living is being o""ered-
<i"estyle o""ered in t&e advertisement is a &ig&er level attitude to li"e, advertisement is
aimed to ac&ievers, modern ambitious #eo#le, 3not traditionalists53A45- Advertisements
a##eal also to "ocus on ,oy- <i"estyle being o""ered seems to say t&at Ayou can get w&at
you want, and everyt&ing you really want and need can be "ound in J*B- /&us t&e media
%(
te0t coveys t&e message o" individualism, "ocus on sel"1satis"action, "or t&ose w&ose basic
living needs are satis"ied, w&o get more "rom li"e 3A?5- /&e service gives a c&ance to "eel
more 6uro#ean, bringing t&em closer to t&e modern, Eestern li"estyle 3A, A4, A%5-
E&en t&e scene #resented in t&e #&oto is a casual situation 3A45, t&e li"estyle
dimension is very strong$ t&e scene o""ers a concrete way o" living, o" s#ending t&e "ree
time, dressing and talking @ care"ree way o" living and consumerism-
;.B. Producers and =anifestation of 3olorism
Dot& Jockey *laza and <arcomar are *eruvian malls @ t&us, as a w&ole are not
#arts o" international mall c&ains 3&owever stores and s&o#s &osted are5- /&e #oint is t&at
t&e malls: owners and #roducers o" t&e #romotional cam#aigns are *eruvians @ &ence
belong to t&e same nation and et&nic grou# as t&e audience and general #ublic- /&e
discursive #ractices identi"ied bear t&e stigma o" colorism, understood as more s#eci"ied
and so#&isticated strain o" racism, w&ic& "ocuses e0clusively on su#er"icial as#ects o"
&uman bodies 3suc& as skin color5- E&at t&ey are actually doing is discriminating #ractice
wit&in t&e same Iracial: grou#-
Deep 1tructures
;.). Discourses dentified
Analysis o" t&e sam#le si0 images #rovide us wit& many discursive categories, w&ic&
are, to bigger or smaller e0tent, em#loyed in t&e te0ts- /reating discourse as an
ine0#ressible structure between visual signs, te0ts and audience w&ic& in direct or more
meta#&orical ways conveys a certain message and constitutes t&e #erce#tion o" t&e reality,
student identi"ied eig&t grou#s o" discourses, w&ic& are$
1 35 ambition and sel"1satis"action, individualism7
1 325 "eminity7
1 3?5 modernity7
1 3'5 cultural w&itening 3o" atmos#&ere and li"estyles57
1 345 2uality, &ig& standard o" living, elegance7
1 3%5 symbolic #ower and dominance7
1 3(5 e0clusiveness, selectiveness, elitism @ money, e0#ensiveness
%F
1 3F5 social strati"ication, social &ierarc&y, su#eriority, us versus t&em 3w&ic& &as to
do wit& stereoty#ed t&inking5
)am#le advertisements, in a discursive way try to re#roduce a certain notion o"
uni2ueness and rein"orce t&e conce#t o" sel"1satis"action 35- /&at is in contrast wit& <atin
legacy and values, w&ic& #ut t&e notion o" collectiveness as a social im#ortance,
es#ecially in #oorer social grou#s 3Denson et al, 200(5- /&e discourse stimulates t&e
audience:s ambitions, s&owing as a #rototy#e Eestern li"e a##roac&- /&at brings t&e
discourse o" modernity 3?5 @ discourse conveys t&e conce#t o" u#1to1date, o#en1minded
individual #erson, wit& a strong international dimension- /&e discourse o" "eminity 325
can be also read out @ individualistic "ocus on sel"1satis"action o" any "emale is a
mani"estation o" Eesternized modern tendencies being ado#ted t&roug& t&e media te0ts-
Discourse o" 2uality, &ig& standard o" living and elegance 345 &as to do wit& t&e term
o" AtasteB- /aste is socially relative and is tied to one:s #lace in t&e class structure in t&e
society- /aste #lays a distinctive "unction, because it unites 3#eo#le w&o s&are t&e same
taste5 and it se#arates 3distinguis&ing #eo#le w&o &ave ot&er tastes5- /aste is a clear
stable signal w&ic& we send to ot&er #eo#le-
9egarding to 3%5 category @ discourse o" #ower does not em#loy t&e common and
tangible attributes o" #ower and domination, nor involve #olitical su#remacy- /&e
discourse conveys a AvelvetB symbolic notion o" #ower @ by creating #&ysical and
meta#&orical barrier, t&e #roducer creates an im#ression, w&ic& is conse2uently
discursively re#roduced in every Jockey *laza image- /&is consistency in creating t&e
notion o" symbolic #ower and dominance, con"irms onesel" in t&e conviction o" its:
rig&tness and legitimacy-
As a result o" 345 and 3%5, #articular discourse o" e0clusiveness, selectiveness and
elitism emerged 3(5, w&ic& in conse2uence evokes t&e discourse o" social strati"ication
and &ieratic division o" AusB vs- At&emB 3F5- E&at is being indirectly said t&roug& t&e
sam#le #romotional materials is t&at money and e0#ensiveness are attributes o" elitism
and t&ere"ore, in a meta#&orical way, are "actors w&ic& are w&itening t&e li"estyle and t&e
image o" t&e elite grou#- /&at strengt&ens social strati"ication, making division on AusB
3t&ose w&o #osseses t&e symbolic attributes o" #ower5 and At&emB even s&ar#er-
Discourses 3?5, 3'5, 345, 3(5 and 3F5 bring t&e term o" consumerism, w&ic& a""ects bot&
grou#s o" t&e audience- +mages em#loy t&e discourse o" material and symbolic culture
%G
w&ic& imitates t&e Eestern e0am#les and ado#ts Eestern modern customs- =ollowing t&e
consumer li"estyle one creates &is or &er social and #ersonal identity, assuring social
#romotion, and secondly @ #ersonal satis"action-
/&ese discourses take #lace wit&in a wider discourse t&eme, omni#resent in all o"
t&ese discourses, w&ic& is racism- Kowever t&e racial attitudes and connotations are
served in a subtle and almost invisible way, t&us t&e student came u# wit& t&e category o"
velvet racism @ communicated by im#licit meanings- +t is related to t&e term Acordial
racismB, introduced by )inger and Himbles 3200' in Doec&at, 200G5- As it was re"erred in
2- section, cordial racism is a delicate 3even5 unconsciously made demonstratios
revealed in be&aviors, o#inions and digressions w&ic& mani"est #ersecutions on t&e skin
color basis-
;.1F. =yths and 0hetoric of the mages
/reating myt& as a communal e0#ression o" s&ared associations and a #roduct o"
secondary signi"ication, one can distinguis& t&e "ollowing areas$ w&iteness as a natural
value 3A, A2, A%5, w&ic& connotes a brig&t "uture 3A%5 and Eestern civilization 3see
'-'---5- E&iteness sets a correlation between economical status and a##earance 3A?,
A', A%5 and t&us orders t&e society 3A45 by reminding social division and racial #urity
3A5- >ne can identi"y also a myt& sel"1satis"action and notion o" uni2ueness 3A?5 and
w&ite nym#& 3A%, A?5, as a symbol;#ersonalization o" "eminity as a value 3A2, A'5,
es#ecially in t&e society determined by machismo
>0
-
Eit& regard to w&at was said above and t&e com#osition as#ect, one can
eventually move to t&e r&etoric o" t&e image, w&ic& is an aest&etic consolidation o"
tec&nical structures and meanings derived "rom secondary signi"ication: analysis- +mages
r&etorically are about su#eriority o" w&iteness 3underlined by use o" lig&t, colors and
models5 3A2, A?, A5 connected wit& social strati"ication 3A%5 and division on AusB vs-
At&emB, associated wit& one:s skin color 3A', A45, Aw&iteningB o" one:s li"estyle and
naturalization o" w&iteness 3A?, A4, A5-
%
De"ined as Bsel"1satis"action and notion o" uni2uenessB 3Merriam1Eebster, 2005 and AXe0aggerated
aggressiveness and intransigence in male1to1male inter#ersonal relations&i#s and arrogance and se0ual
aggression in male1to1"emale relations&i#sB 3)tevens in$ )oong, GGG5
(0
;.1F.1. =yth of 4hiteness
/&e most signi"icant is t&e myt& o" naturalization o" w&iteness, w&ic& sets w&ite
as a standard- /&e myt& o" w&iteness is related wit& t&e wider myt& o" Eestern world-
Dot& a""ect social and sel"1identity o" every #erson- E&iteness is a social construction,
#revalent in analyzed #romotional cam#aigns- Drings bot& material and symbolical
#rivileges$ t&ese cam#aigns a##eal mostly to t&e latter one @ "eeling o" su#eriority and
racial segregation and division-
E&iteness is a common desire and &ence services being o""ered are means in
reac&ing;ac&ieving, at least symbolically, t&e goal- )ervices being o""ered will not
actually bleac& one:s skin, but will do it in a meta#&orical way$ giving intangible
indicators o" su#eriority- /&ese items give a s#ecial sense o" uni2ueness 3instead o"
common universality5- /&e message is obvious and #lays a dual "unction$
1 gives t&e "eeling o" unusualness and e0clusiveness o" u##er classes, and a""irms
com#etences and legitimacy o" t&eir li"estyles7
1 conveys message "or #oorer and lower social classes w&ic& seems to say$ Ayou
don:t suit to t&e world being o""eredB-
+n conse2uence it creates t&e antonym us vs t&em and in conse2uence en"orces t&e
stereoty#es-
)kin color is one o" many indicators o" belonging to t&e social class, but t&e most
diagnostic 1 su#er"icial "eatures are symbols o" aut&ority and social #ower- +n *eru all
#eo#le are some&ow classi"ied 39eding, 200($(25 according to #revalent belie" about
su#eriority among ot&ers- +n t&e rationalized world everyt&ing &as to &ave it:s cause and
reason- /&at is w&y w&iteness constitutes, e0cuses and ,usti"ies social ine2uality and
social &ierarc&ies- E&iteness is a #erce#tible "eature w&ic& arranges t&e social reality-
;.1F.*. 4est versus ndigenous
E&ite models used in t&e advertisements connote, generally s#eaking, t&e Eestern
6uro#ean world- Eest is contrasted wit& t&e indigenous local world- +t is es#ecially
articulated in t&e A image, w&ere *eruvian chullos are used ,ust as a dressy addition,
tradition is ,ust a decoration, but doesn:t create a core o" t&e modern li"estyles- Use o"
myt& o" Eestern civilization culturally suggests w&iteness, w&ic& is synonymous wit&
beauty and #urity- Desides t&e e0ternal connotations, w&iteness o" t&e Eest connotes also
rationality @ as "ar as t&e )#aniards were #eo#le o" reason in o##osition to t&e +ndians,
(
develo#ment, com"ort, modernity, wealt&- /&e o##osition, in every dimension o" t&e
meaning is w&at remains dark @ indigenous- All t&ese c&aracteristics com#ose a wider
term, w&ic& is, using Dart&ess terms t&e myth of 4estern civili#ation- +t is contrasted
wit& t&e myt& o" 2atin legacy$ connoted wit& darkness 3bot& literally @ darkness o" skin,
as well as "iguratively @ darkness o" "uture, regress, backwardness, underdevelo#ment5-
;.1F.-. 4hitening of the Atmosphere
+t is crucial to realize t&at in <atin America t&ere is a relation t&at t&e more
e0clusive an item is, t&e w&iter t&e models are, w&o are o""ering it seems to be 39eding,
200($%5- /&us, kee#ing in mind w&at was said be"ore @ t&ere is no one concrete item
being o""ered, but w&at t&ese cam#aigns intend to #romote is t&e atmos#&ere and t&e
certain li"estyle and atmos#&ere @ as #articularly e0clusive- As Doec&at says, Aw&itening
o" t&e atmos#&ereB is a tec&ni2ue used in <atin America in #ublic #laces, es#ecially t&ese
e0#ensive ones 3Doec&at, 200G5- /&is tendency is #articularly visible in analyzed cases-
E&itening o" t&e atmos#&ere in t&e wider social conte0t is a mani"estation o" t&e <atin
tendency toward Ablan2uamieno de la razaB 3whitening of the race) 3Doec&at, 200G5-
E&itening o" t&e race is an e""ect o" commonly standing stereoty#es o" w&iteness
su#eriority- /&us, w&at is basically o""ered and re#roduced in media te0ts is cultural
w&itening 3instead o" skin w&itening5-
;.11. &icious 3ircle
Jicious circle is a meta#&orical e0#ression w&ic& describes a situation w&en eac&
#roblem creates anot&er and t&e solution o" one di""iculty in a c&ain o" circumstances
creates a new #roblem and increases t&e obstacles w&ic& aggravate t&e original #roblem
3/&e =ree Dictionary, 2005-
/&e antonym us vs them evokes #re,udices and social strati"ication- Dasing on
analyzed media te0ts and on one:s own e0#eriences, one can conclude t&at in *eru t&is
antagonistic relation &as became a vicious circle$ t&e more sources re#roduce and racial
attitudes o" w&iteness domination and w&itening culture, giving t&e w&iteness t&e leading
role in setting social relations, t&e stronger social strati"ication and #ower o" t&e myt& o"
w&iteness and su#eriority o" Eestern civilization is-
Anot&er dimension o" vicious circle is t&at #revalent use o" myt& o" w&iteness
con"irms rig&tness o" social divisions in t&e conte0t o" consum#tion- Consum#tion
(2
determines social #osition, t&is #osition in t&e conse2uence determines t&e consum#tion-
/&at &as to do wit& consumerism and its: social and #syc&ological roles- /&e market
#lays a role o" t&e arena "or social division @ t&is is w&ere social division overla#s t&e
ideology- !otion o" clarity o" t&e blood @ ideology and social construction overla#-
>t&er as#ect o" t&e situation is t&at t&e glori"ication o" w&iteness goes #arallel
wit& devaluation o" darker skin s&ades and w&at was called above as A2atin legacyB- /&e
more Eestern values are glori"ied, t&e more backward +ndian value system, culture and
&eritage seem to be- /&at in conse2uence evokes t&e "eeling o" in"eriority- /&at is a clear
indicator o" social duality 3see 4-- @ subsection below5-
+n #ast times su#eriority was an attribute o" 3Eestern5 con2uerors and t&eir
cultures- !owadays t&e w&ites are in #ower too$ Eestern tourists are t&e enormous "orce
w&ic& drives t&e economy and markets and constitutes an e0am#le w&ic& #ro#els
*eruvian consum#tion- /&us w&iteness dominance outlasts alt&oug& it &as evolved-
As it was said, *eru, es#ecially <ima is a melting1#ot t&at consists o" many et&nic
grou#s- /&ese cam#aigns are not aimed ,ust against one s#eci"ic racial;et&nic grou#, but
create a barrier 3bot& #&ysical and meta#&orical5 t&at divides society into two categories$
AusB 3ones to w&o t&e #roducts are addressed, t&ese ones w&o actually are going to
buy;use t&e item being o""ered5 and At&emB 3ot&ers, t&e general #ublic5- Kowever, images
are aimed at bot& t&e aimed grou#5, t&e broad grou# o" Aot&ersB, w&ic& assembles all,
w&o, according to one1dimensional division, are #us&ed on t&e <atin legacy side-
;.1*. Twofold 3onstruction of the 1ociety and itsE Discursive 0eproduction
/&e two"old construction o" t&e society is seen bot& in meta#&orical way 3as
discursive re#roduction5 and well as in tangible way- E&at is more, t&is dual construction
o" t&e society is &istorically and traditionally 39eding, 200($(5- +t is obviously seen in
media te0ts, inter alia in advertisements and #romotional cam#aigns- 6ven t&e "act t&at
one can distinguis& two grou#s o" t&e #ublic to w&om t&e advertisements are directed
3"irst one$ t&ese ones w&o actually are going to buy;use t&e item being o""ered, second
grou# consists o" t&ose ones w&o read t&e o##osite message$ t&e #lace and t&e item is not
"or you, kee# away "rom t&e #lace5- 6lites are identi"ied wit& mesti/os, and in o##osition
to t&e grou# o" Aot&ersB- /&is s&ar# distinction o" us versus ot&ers is im#rinted in
*eruvian minds and rein"orced by discourses w&ic& take #lace in media- /&e
advertisements being analyzed are mani"estations o" common belie"s and at t&e same time
(?
rein"orce t&e notion o" social duality- /&is is anot&er e0#ression o" so called vicious circle
in w&ic& *eruvian society currently "inds itsel"-
6stablis&ing t&e borders is a reaction "or recent tendency toward #au#erization and
social disorganization 39eding, 200($('5- /&at on t&e one &and creates social ine2uality
and on t&e ot&er &and disable #eo#le "rom social mobility and gives a legitimization and
strengt&ens t&e two"old social construction and gives t&e sense o" stability- /&ese borders
are s&ar# and are becoming even more acute in t&e "ace o" #revalent t&reat o" soiling t&e
#urity o" t&e race- /&at in a conse2uence a""ects t&e s&ar#ness o" social distinction in a
discursive mode-
('
<. 3onclusions
/wo"old inter#retation #rocess$ identi"ication o" discourses 3using discourse
analysis a##roac&5 and myt&s 3em#loying semiotics: categories5 gave a strong basis to
draw "inal conclusions- Discourses identi"ied and myt&s w&ic& &ave been recognized are
consistent and &ence entitle t&e student to answer t&e 2uestions, w&ic& consist t&e a0is o"
t&e #a#er- Combination o" semiotics and DA &as s&own t&at in analyzed cases discourses
narrate the myths @ and rein"orce t&e meanings, creating an ideological background "or
its: in"luence-
+n t&e t&e *eruvian social construction, iconogra#&y, "rom t&e !azca: lines to
recent #ublic advertisements, #lays a #revalent role- +mages 3nowadays and ever since5
#ass a very strong message, w&ic&, because o" legal e""orts "or assuring #olitical
correctness and "ormally avoid racial statements and attitudes, are verbally and obviously
"orbidden- +n a conse2uence, some messages can not be e0#licitly verbally said- /&at is
w&y #roducers go "or a more subtle ways o" conveying messages- /&ese demand active
a##roac& to t&e inter#retation #rocess-
>ne deals &ere wit& a paradox t&at t&e cam#aigns, o""ering intangible items are
about concrete models @ t&at means t&at t&is services s&ould be #ersonalized wit& t&e
concrete #erson and &er c&aracteristics- /&e "act t&at models are young, attractive, slim
#ale women and #ossess ideal 6uro#ean1like, su##orted by Kollywood and Eestern
#roductions and images "eatures, directs our inter#retation-
/&is observation con"irms t&e statement t&at <atin racism implies latent
discrimination- /&at can be called emotional racism, not ideological one 3GonzClez
Manri2ue, 200%5- 9acism is not ,ust t&e ideology w&ic& establis&es somebody:s relations
wit& ot&ers- +t also a""ects #erson:s relations wit& &imsel" 3GonzClez Manri2ue, 200%5-
/&at &as to do wit& ne0t conclusion-
*roccess o" t&e inter#retation corroborated also t&e "act t&at a##roac&es toward
w&itening di""er across t&e world de#ending on social and cultural milieu, contem#orary
trends as well as &istorical &eritage @ in t&e case o" *eru messages &ave a strong
emotional overtone and a##eal to e0clusively <atin values and li"estyles, called in t&e
#a#er as A2atin legacyB- Discourses rein"orce t&e general myt& o" 4estern civili#ation
(4
and its: com#onents and make t&em a #art o" t&e ideology and social construction, w&ere
<atin legacy is indirectly connoted wit& stigmatization- =yth of whiteness &as been
naturalized to a &ig& e0tent, becoming an unconscious value w&ic& arranges t&e society-
/&e #ower is in &ands o" *eruvians and t&ey are w&o induce t&is discoursive
discussion and w&o deliberately give t&e certain message to t&e receivers- *roducers o"
t&e #romotional cam#aigns belong to t&e same nation and et&nic grou# as t&e audience
and general #ublic- /&at is w&y one concluded t&at t&e situation can be regarded in terms
o" colorism- *ower doesn:t em#loy t&e common and tangible attributes o" domination,
neit&er involve #olitical su#remacy- /&e discourse conveys a Avelvet$ symbolic notion
of power @ by creating #&ysical and meta#&orical barrier, t&e #roducer created an
im#ression, w&ic& is conse2uently discursively re#roduced in images- *roducers use
many tec&ni2ues, more or less so#&isticated, to convey t&e message- /&e use o" models
and s#ecial settings 3colors, lig&t, #ro#s, lens5, connected wit& use o" s#eci"ic language
and #lace o" logo rein"orce t&e overall discursive re#roduction o" racial attitudes and its:
narration o" everyday li"e situations-
Analysis con"irmed also t&e claim t&at *eruvian society is organized on t&e basis
o" binary meanings w&ere target grou# o" consumers is contrasted wit& t&e grou# o" a
wider general #ublic- Cam#aigns convey bot& #ositive and negative messages$ t&is
universality demands use s#ecial tec&ni2ues and r&etoric- Analysis con"irmed t&at s&ar#
distinction on 3su#erior5 AusB versus 3stigmatized5 AothersB is im#rinted in *eruvian
minds and rein"orced by discourses w&ic& take #lace in media- /&at o##osition is
#articularly dangerous w&en it comes to t&e situation w&en t&e #roducers deliberately
discriminate ot&er *eruvians, addressing to t&em, via o#en media te0ts, strongly racial
barbed concealed meanings and arousing strong in"eriority com#le0 related to t&eir darker
skin tone- E&iteness is a #erce#tible "eature w&ic& rationally arrange and #uts t&e society
in &ieratic order- /&e way in w&ic& t&e #syc&ic con"lict and stabilization is assured by
a##ealing to one:s skin tone and creating on t&is base social distinction is a mani"estation
o" bleaching syndrome, w&ere skin color is a mean o" symbolical domination- /&e
advertisements being analyzed rein"orce t&e notion o" social duality- /&is is anot&er
e0#ression o" so called vicious circle in w&ic& *eruvian society currently "inds itsel"- /&at
con"irms t&e statement t&at in *eru all #eo#le are some&ow classi"ied 39eding, 200($(25-
(%
9&etoric o" t&e image is connected wit& notion o" self,identity @ t&e viewer
remains Ain darkB or ,oins Alig&t sideB, w&ere t&e "uture seems to be 3literally and
"iguratively5 brig&t- >ne can derive tangible advantages as well as emotional bene"its,
suc& as ,oy and &ig&er social position in ot&ers eyes- +mages a##eal to #revalent &uman
need to socialize and to #ersonalize t&emselves wit& a #articular grou# and t&us, lead a
li"e according to t&is grou#:s determinants-
9egarding to t&e #rocess o" w&itening, one concluded t&at w&at is being bleac&ed
in t&e sam#le te0ts is not skin @ models are not w&iter *eruvians, but naturally w&ites,
w&o com#ly Eestern ideal o" t&e beauty- >ne deals &ere wit& cultural lightening o" t&e
atmos#&ere and li"e1styles, two key "actors w&ic& a""ects t&e construction o" sel" and
social identity- /&at consists a #art o" a wider #rocess w&ic& is called consumerism-
4hitening of the atmosphere is a dynamic #rocess w&ic& goes in two directions$ media
te0ts in general rein"orce racial attitudes and create social world and at t&e same time are
being rein"orced by t&em and conditioned by social reality- 3ultural whitening is a
source o" #ower and is a way in t&ese countries ado#t t&emselves to t&e dynamic world
and global trends-
/o sum u# @ discourses and myt&s 3being mani"estations o" #revalent social
ideology5 stay in contrast wit& t&e #o#ular statement t&at $ B)t is only with the heart that
one can see rightly= what is essential is invisile to the eyeB
(
- /&e media te0ts #lay a
signi"icant role in t&e in t&e develo#ment, rein"orcement, legitimization, and t&ere"ore
re#roduction o" racial attitudes by s&owing t&e ideology, re"erring to social and cultural
milieu, contrasting t&e myt& o" Eestern civilization wit& t&e discursive re#resentation of
Latin legacy, rein"orcing t&e two"old construction o" t&e society 3us vs t&em5,
constructing sel" and social identity and setting standards "or cultural w&itening o"
li"estyles and atmos#&ere-
<.1. Prospects
/&e notion o" w&iteness and its: discursive re#roduction go troug& #ermanent
c&anges- Kence, one wants to close t&e #a#er wit& a t&eoretical divagations about
(
B/&e <ittle *rinceB, c&a#ter YY+
((
#ros#ects and #otential dynamics o" t&e situation in t&e *eruvian and, generally s#eaking,
<atin societies-
Oancey adduces &istorical "acts w&ic& con"irm "luidity o" notion o" w&iteness-
Oancey s&ows, At&at some et&nic 6uro#eans, suc& as 9ussians, *oles, and +talians, w&o
were not considered w&ite in t&e early twentiet& century, &ave now become #art o" t&e
w&ite #o#ulationB3in$ Tian, 200'$G45- )imilarly, t&is #rocess can nowadays or in a near
"uture embrace ot&er nationalities and et&nic grou#s- Asians and <atin Americans, in "ace
o" a #rocess o" c&anging t&e de"inition o" w&iteness, will eventually im#lement a w&ite
racial identity- +t will be caused by #&enoty#ic similarity between <atinos and w&ites
3Oancey, 200?, in$ Golas&1Doza, 200?$'?'145- +n a conse2uence, w&ites will remain a
ma,ority grou# and continue to occu#y &ig& #osts 3at t&e strati"ication &ierarc&y5- /&at is
t&e &y#ot&etic situation w&ic& &as to do merely wit& <atinos in U-)- /&is grou# is
culturally and &istorically distinct "rom indigenous *eruvian +ndians- /&e basis "or
w&iteness domination is di""erent, too- /&ere"ore it is more likely to &a##en in case o"
U-)-, t&an in case o" *eruvian society- Kowever, analysis con"irmed t&at w&at is
&a##ening now in *eru is a tendency o" naturalization o" w&iteness and setting it as a
natural and desirable value, t&us t&is scenario may eventually, in remote "uture come true-
Anot&er o#tion is t&at, i" notion o" su#remacy o" w&iteness and racial in"eriority o"
indigenous <atinos grow stronger in t&e "uture, new w&ite <atin et&nicity will be created-
<atinos s&are wit& 6uro#eans t&e same basis o" language, religion, et&os, culture, law, art
and imagination 3)antos N Kallewell, 2002$%(5- /&is new et&nicity may emerge on t&e
intersection o" <atin be2uest and Eestern legacy @ t&en t&e cultural w&iteness o" t&e
grou# will be t&e leading "orce 3!abuco, GG?$?G, in$ )antos N Kallewell, 2002$%(5-
Eit&out no doubts, social c&anges are essential "or building t&e common *eruvian
et&nical and social identity- /&e vicious circle &as to be aborted and one can sa"ety say
t&at "or #oliticians and social leaders it is t&e most emerging task to do- /&ere is an urgent
need to revise omni#resent stereoty#es derived "rom #revalent ideology- Kowever, it:s a
com#licated #rocess, because, as <i##mann re"ers, integration and disturbance in t&e
created stereoty#es could be com#ared to t&e attack at t&e "oundations o" oneZs world
3<i##mann, G%45-
(F
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Jagoda Dworek

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Discursive reproduction of racial attitudes, whitening and whiteness dominance

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