1

Introduction to:
Radio Navigational Aids
2
Lecture Topics
Basic Principles
Radio Directional Finding (RDF)
Radio Beacons
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
Instrument Landing System (ILS)
Microwave Landing System (MLS)
Hyperbolic Navigational System
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Defining Navigation
Navigation is the determination
of the Position and Velocity of a
Moving Vehicle on land, at sea,
in the air, or space.
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What are Radio Navigational Aids ?
Specialised Electronic and Communication Systems used
for navigational purposes.
Long-range systems employ LF and HF bands.
Short-range systems employ VHF and UHF bands.
Microwave frequencies are used for long-range and
short-range systems.
5
Basic Principles of Radio
Navigational Aides
Measuring the distance to a known location by
measuring the round trip time of the Electromagnetic
Waves.
Utilizing the directional radiation pattern of antennas to
find the direction to a known location.
Antenna radiation patterns are of a prime interest in the
field of radio navigation aids.
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Triangulation Systems
A
B
X
|
o
A and B are landmarks of known coordinates
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Line of Position (LOP)
90
o
90
o
180
o
135
o
225
o
270
o
315
o
45
o
315
o
270
o
135
o
45
o
180
o
225
o
A
B
o |
8
Bearings Measurement
A
B
X
|
o
u
A
|
A
|
B
u
B
North
Heading
base-line
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Radio Direction Finding
RDF equipment are used on board of aircraft, ships, and
other moving platforms.
RDF systems employ a radio receiver with a rotatable
Loop antenna.
Loop antennas have a special radiation pattern which is
suited to the RDF function.
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Loop Antenna
one or more loops of wire
connection terminals
base
The loop can be
circular or square.
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Loop Antenna Radiation Pattern
u
Loop
Top View of Loop Antenna Radiation Pattern
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Loop Antenna Orientation
Direction
of
Propagation
Tx
Tx
u
Top View of Loop Antenna
vertically polarised
radio field
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Maximum Induced Voltage
Direction
of
Propagation
Tx
Tx
Top View of Loop Antenna
vertically polarised
radio field
Magnetic
component
u = 0
o
14
Direction
of
Propagation
Tx
Tx
Top View of Loop Antenna
vertically polarised
radio field
Magnetic
component
Minimum Induced Voltage
u = 90
o
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Simple Direction Finder
Rx
Field Strength
meter
Rotating
Loop
Antenna
Bearing is found
by searching for
the minimum
signal. Why ?
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Ambiguity of Simple RDF
Top View of Loop Antenna Radiation Pattern
Tx ? Tx ?
17
Addition of Sense Antenna
Omnidirectional
Antenna
(Sense Antenna)
Loop Antenna
Voltage sum of Loop and Sense antennas
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Cardioid Antenna Pattern
u
Loop Antenna
v is proportional to 1 +cos u
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Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
Amp t/2
Rx
Sense
Antenna
Loop
IF Amp
Detector
IF Amp
Detector
Indicator
Motor
Synchro
Gen.
20
Radio Beacons
A Radio Beacon (RB) is a transmitter used with RDF (300
kHz - 3 MHz).
Technically, RDF can be used to take bearing of any
transmitter operating at the appropriate radio frequency.
Non-directional Beacons (NDB) are used specifically with
RDF.
NDB transmit CW interrupted at regular interval by
identification Morse code.
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Simple Radio Range System
/2
Tx
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Radio Range Antenna Pattern
North
South
East West
A
N N
A
NE NW
SE SW
Morse Code:
A :
N :
CW CW
CW CW
CW =A +N
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VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) provides Azimuth
reading at the aircraft.
No direction finding antenna required at the aircraft
position.
VOR Beacon, transmits continuous signals on one of 20
assigned channels in the 108 - 118 MHz band.
Limited range to line-of-sight, about 100 km.
Several VORs are needed to cover long distance over
land.
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Principle of Operation
Antenna with Cardioid pattern, rotating electrically at the
rate of 30 Hz (Goniometer).
Bearing information is transmitted in the phase of the
signal.
A separate 30 Hz reference signal is transmitted by an
Omnidirectional antenna.
Bearings are calculated from the phase information
received at the aircraft.
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Cardioid Antenna Pattern
0
o
360
o
90
o
270
o
180
o
45
o
135
o
315
o
225
o
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VOR Antenna Pattern
o
North
X
30 revolutions
per second
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o
North
X
30 revolutions
per second
The signal at x is proportional to 1 + cos o
The signal at X is effectively
AM modulated by 30 Hz
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Bearing Calculation
The amplitude of the signal at x is proportional to 1 + cos o
where o

is the bearing of x relative to North.
The Cardioid pattern is rotated anticlockwise at the rate of 30
revolution s per second.
The amplitude of the signal at x is then proportional to:
1 + cos (2t 30 t + o)
The phase difference o

= cos (2t 30 t + o)

cos (2t 30 t)
29
Distance Measuring Equipment
30
Introduction
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is used to
measure the distance between an aircraft and a fixed
point.
Generally the fixed point is a VOR or a destination point
as an airport.
The useful range of DME systems is about 180 km,
corresponding to a roundtrip delay of 1200 m sec.
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System Architecture
Airborne equipment (Interrogator):

Transmitter

Receiver
Ground equipment (Transponder) located at the fixed
point.
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Basic Principle
T
x
R
x
Transponder
1025 1025 - - 1150 MHz 1150 MHz
(126 channels) (126 channels)
962 962 - - 1024 MHz or 1024 MHz or
1151 1151 - - 1213 MHz 1213 MHz
Reply Reply
Interrogation Interrogation
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Operation
The transmitter sends pseudo-random coded
interrogation pulses
The transponder responds by sending reply pulses
using the same pseudo-random pattern.
The onboard receiver intercepts the reply pulses that
conforms to its pseudo-random pattern.
The time difference between sending the pulses,
transponder processing delay, and receiving the pulses is
used in calculating the distance.
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Transponder Access Method
The system employs a random access method.
Up to 50 aircrafts may use the same transponder.
The interrogation pulses are pseudo-random coded.
The receiver only accepts replies that conform to the
same pseudo-random pattern.
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Instrument Landing System
36
Introduction
Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) are designed to guide
an aircraft in its final approach and landing.
Three distinct subsystems are used:

Localiser,

Glide Slope, and

Markers.
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Localiser Plan
Localiser
Tx
90 Hz
150 Hz
5
o
Runway
(top view)
DIRECTION OF APPROACH
(108.1 - 111.9 MHz)
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Localiser
Aids the pilot in lining up his/her aircraft in the proper
azimuth approach to the runway.
Consists of a group of transmitters and antennas
positioned at the far end of the runway.
The antenna radiation pattern has a 5
o
beawidth,
centred along the runway.
The VHF frequencies used for the localise are in the
range 108.1 to 111.9 MHz.
The useful range of the system is about 40 km.
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Glide Slope Plan
Localiser
Tx
90 Hz
150 Hz
5
o
Runway
(top view)
Tx
Tx
1
o
90 Hz
150 Hz
2.5
o
- 2.75
o
DIRECTION OF APPROACH (side view)
(329.3 - 335.0 MHz)
(108.1 - 111.9 MHz)
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Glide Slope
Aids the pilot in making his/her approach at the proper
elevation angle to the runway.
Consists of a group of transmitters and antennas
positioned beside the runway.
The antenna radiation pattern has a 1
o
beawidth, and
elevated about 2.5
o
to 2.75
o
in the direction of approach.
The VHF frequencies used for the glide slope are in the
range 329.3 to 335.0 MHz.
The useful range of the system is about 40 km.
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Frequency Arrangement
90 Hz
150 Hz
90 Hz 150 Hz
1
o
5
o
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Markers Plan
Runway
(top view)
Marker
Tx
Marker
Tx
400 Hz
1300 Hz
6 - 10 km
1 km
DIRECTION OF APPROACH
Carrier 75 MHz
75 MHz narrow
vertical radio beam
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Markers
Markers are transmitters that radiate continuous narrow
vertical radio beams.
The carrier frequency is 75 MHz modulated by special
tones.
The first transmitter is modulated by a 400 Hz tone,
located at 6 - 10 km from the end of the runway.
The second transmitter is modulated by a 1300 Hz tone,
located at 1 km from the end of the runway.
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Microwave Landing System
45
Introduction
Microwave Landing System (MLS) was designed to
handle the increase in air traffic volume and to satisfy
the demand for all-weather landing facilities.
Employs microwave frequencies (5 - 5.25 GHz band)
rather than VHF.
MLS provides better accuracy, ease of application, and
automation. enables landing down to zero ground
visibility.
ICAO-approved replacement for the ILS system.
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Architecture
MLS consists of three subsystems:

Localiser,

Glide Slope, and

Flare.
The Localiser and Glide Slope subsystems serve the
same purpose as in ILS.
The Flare provides information on the actual height of
the aircraft above the plane of the runway.
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Aircraft Height Measurement
u
Flare
Tx
d
Runway
(end view)
h
h =d tan u
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Height Calculation
The angle q made by the aircraft and the runway at the
point where the flare transmitter is situated is measured.
The distance d between the flare transmitter and the
runway is known.
The height is calculated using the equation:
h = d tan u
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Time Reference Scanning Beam
Localiser
Tx
|
Runway
(top view)
DIRECTION OF APPROACH
u
o
A
B
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Operation
The system is based on Time-Reference Scanning Beams
(TRSB), referenced to the runway, that enables an
aircraft to determine precise azimuth and elevation
angles.
The angular position is made by measurement of the
time intervals between the TO and FRO azimuth antenna
beam scan (typically +/- 60o) and UP and DOWN scan
(typically 0o - 30o) of the elevation antenna pattern.
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Calculation
(

A
=
T
t
1 | u
The angles u (or o)

are calculated using the equation:
At is the time difference between pulses and T is the
scanning period from A to B and back to A
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Hyperbolic Navigation Systems
53
Introduction
Hyperbolic systems are based on measuring the
difference in distance between a craft and two known
sites.
Fixed distance difference between the craft and the two
sites lie on a hyperbolic locus that passes between the
sites.
Definition of terms:

base-line

base-line extension

line of position (LOP)

centre-line (CL)
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Basic Concept
A
B
X
CL
LOP
base-line
base-line
extension
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Hyperbolic Navigation
A B
D
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A|
360
o

Ad=
Decca Concept
Decca was the first of several hyperbolic electronic
navigation systems developed during and after World
War II.
It uses radio waves as a means of measuring the
difference in distance between sites.
Master/slave radio transmitters arrangement.
Calculating the difference in distance based on phase
difference measurement.
The range difference is given by:
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Decca Lines
A B
0
o
360
o
or
0
o
720
o
or
0
o
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A Master and two Slaves
A B1
B2
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Decca System
To overcome ambiguities and increase accuracy.
Three bas-lines system.
A set of four transmitters, a master and three slaves,
referred to as a chain.
The base lines identified as Red, Green, and Purple.
The system reading is displayed on Red, Green, and
Purple Decometers respectively.
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Decca Station Topology
purple
green
red
A
B
3
B
2
B
1
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Basic System
Tx
340 kHz
340 kHz 340 kHz
Tx
340 kHz
Master
Slave
Red
340 340
340
Q
340
340
Onboard receiving
equipment
In phase
Red Decometer
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Possible Working System
Tx
340 kHz
X 3 X 4
Tx
340 kHz
Master Slave
Red
85 113.33
Q
85 113.33
Onboard receiving
equipment
In phase
Red Decometer
X 1/3 X 1/4
340 340
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Practical 85 kHz Scheme
X 3 X 4
Tx
85 kHz
Master Slave
85
113.33
Q
85
113.33
Onboard receiving
equipment
In phase
Red Decometer
X 1/6
340 340
113.33
X 8
14.166
85
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Decca Communication Receiver
5f
6f
9f
8f
5f 30f
30f
24f
18f
Purple
Green
Red
Red Slave
Purple Slave
Master
Green Slave
Decometers
Multipliers
In Out
8f 24f
9f 18f
24f
18f
30f
6f
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Thank you for your attention