EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles

Electrical Machines
Motor Generator
Electrical Mechanical Mechanical Electrical
energy energy energy energy
We will study the following machines:
Induction motor
Synchronous generator and motor
DC motor
We will also look into transformers useful in electrical power
distribution.
BUT.
!irstly" we need to look at the basic concepts of electrical
machines:
#otational motion and $ewton%s &aw
Magnetic field and magnetic circuits
'rinciples behind motor" generator and transformer action
The &inear () machine
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
Chapter 1: Intro. to Machinery Principles
1.1. otational Motion
Machines rotate on a fi,ed shaft.
= !ngle of rotation measured from a fi,ed reference
point.
"nit: radians #rad$ or degrees #$.
% !ngular &elocity
-t is analogous to linear .elocity" v. Therefore"
/+.+0
"nit: radians per second #rads
'1
$.
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1

2
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
3ngular .elocity can also be e,pressed in terms of other
units.
f 4 !ngular &elocity in re&olutions per second.
/+.10
n % !ngular &elocity in re&olutions per minute.
/+.50
% !ngular acceleration
-t is analogous to linear acceleration" a. 6ence"
/+.70
"nit: radians per second s(uared #rads
')
$.
*or(ue+ T is produced when a force e,erts a twisting action on a
body. "nit: ,e-ton'meters #,m$.
(efinition:

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'erpendicular distance
|T| 4 !orce applied between line of force and
a,is of rotor
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
T 4
.or/+ W is produced from the application of force" through a
distance" r.
!or linear motion:

= dr !
!or rotational motion" work 4 application of tor(ue T through an
angle
/+.80
6owe.er" when the tor9ue applied is constant"
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!
r
(irection of
tor9ue
,

EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles

/+.:0
"nit: 0oules #0$.
Po-er+ P is the rate of doing work.
/+.;0
"nit: .atts #.$.
3pplying this definition for rotating bodies" and assuming tor9ue is
constant"
/+.<0
E9uation /+.<0 is &ery important=
-t describes the mechanical po-er on the shaft of a motor or
generator.
#eal" #eacti.e and apparent 'ower in 3) )ircuits
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( ) t v
= 2 " "
= I I
= # #
&oad
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
eal po-er+ P % power supplied to load.
"nit: .atts #.$
eacti&e po-er+ Q 4 energy that is stored and released in the
magnetic field of inductor or electric field of capacitor
"nit: 1olts'ampere reacti&e #1!r$
!pparent po-er+ S 4 power that >appears? to be supplied to load
if phase angle differences between .oltage and current are ignored.
"nit: 1olt'amperes #1!$
1.). ,e-ton2s 3a- of otation
!or an ob@ect mo.ing in a straight line" $ewton%s &aw is gi.en by:
ma =
where:
4 net force applied to the ob@ect
m 4 mass of ob@ect
a 4 resulting acceleration of ob@ect
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
-n analogy" $ewton%s &aw of rotation for a rotating body is gi.en
by:
/+.A0
where:
T 4 net tor9ue applied to the ob@ect
$ 4 /unit: 0
4 resulting angular acceleration of ob@ect
1.4. *he Magnetic 5ield
The con.ersion of energy from one form to the other in motors"
generators and transformers is through the presence of the
magnetic field.
The production of a magnetic field by a current carrying conductor
is go.erned by !mpere2s 3a-:

= I dl %
H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the current I. -n B-
units" % is measured in !mpere'turns per meter.
What if we ha.e more than + conductorC
Then" use the total current passing through the closed path" i.e. $
turns each carrying the current I. Therefore"
/+.+20
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
The magnetic field intensity" % can be considered to be a measure
of the 6effort7 re(uired by the current to create a magnetic field.
The relationship between the magnetic field intensity+ H and the
produced magnetic flu8 density+ B is gi.en by:
/+.++0
The unit of magnetic flu, density is *esla #*$.
-n /+.++0" is the permeability of the material in which the
magnetic field is produced. -t represents the relati&e ease of
establishing a magnetic field in a gi.en material.
The permeability is usually written as:
where:

&
4 permeability of free space 4 7 , +2
D;
6Em

r
4 relati.e permeability of a gi.en material compared to
free space.
$ote:
permeability of air 4 permeability of free space.
steels used in modern machines ha.e
r
of 1222 to :222.
!inally" we define the magnetic flu8 present in a gi.en area by the
following e9uation:
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
/+.+10
where d' is the differential unit of area. -f the flu, density" B is
uniform o.er the crossDsectional area '" then:
/+.+50
The unit of magnetic flu, is .ebers #.b$.
E8ample: *he simple magnetic core
1$ 9btain an e8pression for the magnetic field intensity+ H
using !mpere2s 3a-.
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A
crossDsectional
area" 3
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
)$ *he magnetic flu8 density+ B of the simple core is:
4$ *he total flu8 in the core due to the current I in the -inding:
1.:. Magnetic Circuits
-n the simple magnetic core" we find that:
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
)ompare this to:
-t is possible to define a magnetic circuit in which magnetic
beha.iour is go.erned by simple e(uations analogous to those of
an electric circuit.
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current I in the coil
of wire
magnetic flu, in
the core
produces
.oltage " in an
electric circuit
current I flowing in
the circuit
produces
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
I( " =
/+.+70
F 4 .oltage or electromoti.e
force /emf0
F 4 magnetomoti.e force
/mmf0
- 4 current 4 flu,
# 4 resistance of circuit

4 reluctance of circuit
We ha.e two new 9uantities for the magnetic circuit:
magnetomoti.e force"
reluctance"

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+1
I
$ turns
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
The magnetomoti&e force+ F is e(ual to the effecti&e current
flo- applied to the core" i.e.
/+.+80
The mmf is measured in ampere'turns.
Bimilar to the .oltage source" there is a polarity associated -ith
the mmf source. This is determined by the flu8 flo- in the
magnetic circuit determined using the Gri)ht-hand rule%:
*I+ +in)ers o+ the ri)ht hand curl in the direction o+ the current
+lo,in) in a coil o+ ,ire- the thum. ,ill point in the direction o+
positive mm+/0
Therefore" for the simple magnetic core:
The reluctance

is analogous to resistance ( in an electric

circuit. -ts unit is ampere'turns per -eber
#!. turns;.b$.
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I
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
(ue to the analogy" reluctances in a magnetic circuit obey the same
rules as resistances" i.e.
+. if the reluctances are connected in series:
1. if the reluctances are connected in parallel:
-n order to obtain an e,pression for the reluctance" we look back at
the flu, e,pression for the simple magnetic core obtained
pre.iously:
/+.+:0
We know that in the magnetic circuit:
/+.+;0
6ence" the reluctance of a material of length l and crossDsectional
area ' is gi.en by:
/+.+<0
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
Permeance+ P 4 reciprocal of reluctance /analogous to
conductance 10
Magnetic circuits assist in analysing magnetic problems. 6owe.er"
the analysis carried out are appro8imations due to the following
assumptions employed in the analysis:
+. assumptions in reluctance calculations /mean path length0
1. no lea/age flu8
5. no fringing effects crossDsectional area of air gap e9uals
that of core.
7. Permeability of ferromagnetic materials is usually
assumed to be constant or infinite.
E.en so" magnetic circuit analysis is the easiest tool for flu,
calculations gi.ing satisfactory results.
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&eakage flu,es present in a simple
magnetic core.
!ringing effects in airgap.
6ence" effecti.e crossD
sectional area of airgap is
larger than crossDsectional of
core in reality.
$
B
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
E8ample: Magnetic Circuits
3 ferromagnetic core is shown in !igure '+D1. The depth of the
core is 8 cm. The other dimensions of the core are as shown in the
figure. !ind the .alue of the current that will produce a flu, of
2.228 Wb. With this current" what is the flu, density at the top of
the coreC What is the flu, density at the right side of the coreC
3ssume that the relati.e permeability of the core is +222.
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722 turns
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
The magnetic circuit:
There are three regions considered for this core. The reluctances of
these regions are:
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
The total reluctance is thus
3nd the magnetomoti.e force re9uired to produce a flu, of 2.228
Wb is
6ence" the re9uired current is
The flu, density on the top of the core is
The flu, density on the right side of the core is
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
1.<. Magnetic beha&iour of ferromagnetic materials
Typical BD6 cur.e for ferromagnetic materials:
% B =
Slope of ='> cur&e % permeability+
)learly" constant in ferromagnetic materials.
3fter a certain point" increase in mmf gi.es almost no increase in
flu," i.e. material has saturated.
6?nee7 of cur&e transition region" operation point for most
electrical machines.
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+A
/or B0
F /or %0
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
3d.antage: get higher = for a gi&en &alue of >.
The most important ferromagnetic material is iron.
What will happen when current changes direction /i.e. ha.e
alternating current0C

'ath B)(E!
3 assume flu8 in core is @ero at t 4 2
3DB current increases" flu8 increases as well /as in saturation
cur.e seen pre.iously0.
BD)D( )urrent decreases but flu, traces different path
(DED! )urrent increases again but flu, path doesn2t go
through ! as seen before.
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I
t
/or B0
F /or %0
3
B
)
(
E
!
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
When MM5 is applied and remo&ed" flu, path !=C is traced.
!t C+ F % A but flu8 A
*o force flu8 % @ero #i.e. B % A$

This phenomenon is known as >ysteresis.
Why does hysteresis occurC
$eed to look at the atomic structure before" during and after the
presence of an e,ternal magnetic field.
=efore magnetic field is applied:
Within a metal" there are small
regions
-n each domain" atoms are aligned
with a small magnetic field.
But
each
domain field are randomly aligned
in material.

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E8ample of metal structure
before the presence of a
magnetic field.
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
.hen e8ternal magnetic field is applied:
(omains pointing in direction of field gro-s.
(omains in other directions realign to follo- e8ternal field.
6ence" magnetic field increasesB
!s more domains align" the total magnetic flu, will maintain at a
constant le.el" i.e.
.hen magnetic field is remo&ed:
(omains will try to re.ert to its random state.
But some remain aligned.
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=efore e8ternal field applied
!fter e8ternal field
applied
(irection of e,ternal field
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
6ence" to change alignment such that net field % A"
must apply energyB
E8ample:
+. apply
1. e,ert a large mechanical shock
5. heat up the material
Bo" turning domains in a ferromagnetic structure re9uires energy.
Energy losses in ferromagnetic core
Two types of losses:
+. Hysteresis loss energy re9uired to accomplish the
reorientation of domains during each cycle of ac current
applied to the core.
Tra@ectory of flu, builtDup in material is different for
increasing and decreasing current applied" i.e. hysteresis
loop.
E.ery cycle of 3) current will dri.e the material around the
hysteresis loop once.
Energy loss area enclosed in hysteresis loop.
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
1. Eddy current loss produced by induced currents in the
material. /We will come back to this0
Both losses cause heating of core material and needs to be
considered in machine or transformer design.
Bince both occur within the metal core" these losses are lumped
together and called core losses.
3et2s recapC.
5!C*:

7. )urrentDcarrying wire produces a magnetic field" B.
8. E,istence of ferromagnetic material /mainly iron0 increases B
and pro.ides easy path for magnetic flu, flow.
Electrical machines /motors or generators0 and transformers are
de.ices made up of iron and windings carrying current.
The basic principles behind the operation of these de.ices are
caused by the effect of magnetic field on its surroundings:
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
Effect +: 'resence of a coil of wire in a timeDchanging
magnetic field induces .oltage /transformer action0
Effect 1: !orce is induced on a currentDcarrying wire in the
presence of magnetic field /motor action0
Effect 5: 3 mo.ing wire in presence of a static magnetic field
induces .oltage /generator action0
&ets look closer at each of these effects.
1.D. Effect 1: 5araday2s 3a-
*lu2 passin) throu)h a turn o+ coil induces volta)e e
ind
in it that
is proportional to the rate o+ chan)e o+ +lu2 ,ith respect to time/0
!araday%s &aw in e9uation form:
or for a coil ha.ing $ turns:
/+.+A0
$egati.e sign induced &oltage acts to oppose the flu, producing
it /3en@2s 3a-0.
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dt
d
e
ind

=
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
!ssumption for e(. #1.1E$: same flu8 present in each of $ turns.
,ot true in reality /due to leakages0=
e-rite 5araday2s 3a-:
/+.120
where is flu8 lin/age of the coil:
/+.1+0
"nits: .eber'turns.
5araday2s 3a- is the basis of transformer action" i.e. ha.e static
coils /or conductors0 in a .arying magnetic field.
But !araday%s &aw also applies if you ha.e:
Mo.ing conductor in a stationary field
Mo.ing conductor in a .arying field
Back to eddy current losses
Cause: The timeD.arying flu, also induces &oltage+ hence s-irls
of currents to flow+ -ithin the ferromagnetic core.
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles

Effect: heat is dissipated by the s-irls of current flowing within
the resisti.e core. Energy loss si@e of current paths.
Solution: 3amination of ferromagnetic core" i.e. break up core
into thin strips" separated by insulation to limit the areas in which
eddy currents can flow.
1.F. Effect ): Induced force on a current carrying -ire
)harges mo.ing in a magnetic field e,perience a force.
-f the mo.ing charges are a current flowing in a conductor" a force
acting on the conductor is obser.ed.
Heneral e9uation for the force induced on the conductor:
/+.110
6ence" force magnitude:
/+.150
/ 4 angle between conductor and the flu, density .ector0
Direction of force: 5leming2s left hand rule
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Magnitude of
current in wire
&ength of wire in the
direction of current
flow
Magnetic flu,
density .ector
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
Ir
Manchester United 5ootball Club
!irst finger: !iel
,ote: -n the book" the right hand is used but with different fingers
representing different 9uantities. (o not mi, them up= Stic/ to one
con&ention and remember only itB
E8ample: 3 conductor placed on rails connected to a () .oltage
source in a constant magnetic field.
Bince all .ectors are
perpendicular:
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+ =
5irst finger:
BeCond finger:
ThuMb :
ThuMb : Motion
5irst finger: 5ield
BeCond finger:
Current
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
The force can also be obser.ed as result of the interaction between
the original field and the field created by the current in the
conductor.
This effect is basis of electric motor action" i.e. tor9ue /force0
produced to mo.e the motor.
-n electrical motors" construction is such that the windings /i.e.
current0 and magnetic field are all acting in perpendicular
directions.
WhyC To achie.e ma,imum force=
1.G. Effect 4: Induced &oltage on a mo&ing -ire
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
$ow" take the same conductor on rails e,ample abo.e. But" take of
the () .oltage source and connect and .oltmeter instead. /$ote:
The conductor is still placed in a constant magnetic field region.0
Then" mo.e the conductor to the right. What do we getC
Foltage is induced in the system=
We know:
3nd in the e,ample:
Easy because = is constant and all are in perpendicular
directions=
Heneral e9uation for the induced .oltage:
/+.170
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Felocity .ector of
the wire
&ength .ector of
wire
Magnetic flu,
density .ector
V
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
$ote: The .alue of l is dependent upon the angle at which the wire
cuts through the magnetic field. 6ence a more complete formula
will be as follows:
/+.180
where 4 angle between the conductor and the direction of the
( ) B v

.ector.
Direction of force: 5leming2s right hand rule
This effect is basis of generator action" i.e. induction of .oltages
in a mo.ing wire located in a magnetic field.
1.E. *he 3inear DC machine
-t operates on the same principles and e,hibits the same beha.iours
as real generators and motors.
Construction: )onducting bar placed on a pair of smooth"
frictionless rails in a constant" uniform magnetic field.
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5+
5irst finger:
BeCond finger:
ThuMb :
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
To in.estigate its beha.iour" 7 basic e9uations are re9uired:
+. !orce production on a wire in the presence of a magnetic field:
/+.1:0
1. Foltage induced on a wire mo.ing in a magnetic field:
/+.1;0
5. Jirchoff%s .oltage law for the machine:
/+.1<0
7. $ewton%s law for the bar lying across the rails:
/+.1A0
The fundamental beha.iour of the simple () machine will be
e,amined through three cases.
Case 1: Starting the 3inear DC machine
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
+. The switch is closed and current is allowed to flow in the bar.
!rom Jirchoff%s .oltage law:
/+.520
$ote: e
ind
4 2 because the bar is at rest.
1. With current flowing downwards in the bar" force is produced
on it.
(irection of mo.ement:
5. Based on $ewton%s law" bar will accelerate to the right. This
motion will cause &oltage to be induced across the currentD
carrying bar.
(irection of induced .oltage:
7. The induced .oltage will cause the current flowing to be
reduced. &ook back to Jirchoff%s .oltage low:
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EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
8. This reduction in current will be followed by a decrease in the
force production since
E.entually"
2 =
. 3t which point:
3nd the bar will mo.e at a constant no'load speed"
/+.5+0
Case ): *he 3inear DC machine as a motor
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v
e
ind
i

t
t
t
t
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
!ssume the linear () machine is running at no'load and under
steady state conditions" i.e. steady state .elocity of v
ss
.
E.ent Iutcome
+
load

applied opposite to the

direction of motion /i.e. to left0
1 $egati.e Bar slows down / i.e. v 0
5 #eduction in bar speed /v 0
-nduced .oltage will
7 #eduction in induced .oltage
-ncrease in bar
8
!orce inducedEacting on bar
increases to the
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"
B
(
v

e
ind
i/t0
l
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
This force will increase until it is e(ual in magnitude but opposite
in direction to the load force" i.e. load
=
" which will occur at a
lo-er speed v.
The force induced in the bar is in the direction of motion of the
bar and po-er has been con&erted from electrical form to
mechanical form to keep the bar mo.ing.
The con.erted power is:
/+.510
The bar is operating as a motor because po-er is con&erted
from electrical to mechanical form.
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5:
Electrical power
consumed
Mechanical power
created
v
e
ind
i

t
t
t
t
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
Case 4: *he 3inear DC machine as a generator
The () machine is assumed to operating under noDload steady
state conditions.
E.ent Iutcome
+
app

applied in the direction of

motion /i.e. to right0
1 'ositi.e Bar speeds up / i.e. v 0
5 -ncrease in bar speed /v 0
-nduced .oltage will
7
When
)urrent direction"
8
!orce inducedEacting on bar
increases to the
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"
B
(
v

e
ind
i/t0
l
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
This will continue until app
=
which will cause the bar to reach a
new steady state and mo.e at a higher speed v.
The re&ersal of current means that the linear () machine is no-
charging the battery" i.e. it is acting as a generator that con&erts
mechanical po-er into electric po-er.
The amount of power con.erted is:
,ote:
Bame machine can act as both motor and generator.
(ifference lies in the direction of e,ternal force applied with
respect to direction of motion.
-n both operations" induced .oltage and force are both
present at all times.
Machine mo.ement is al-ays in the same direction.
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Mechanical power
consumed
Electrical power
created
EEEB413 Electro-Mechanical Systems Introduction to Machinery Principles
Starting problems -ith the 3inear DC machine
3s stated pre.iously" when the linear machine is started" there is no
induced emf present" i.e.
2 =
ind
e
. Therefore" the starting current is
gi.en by:
/+.550
3s we can see"
( i
start
+
.
Typical machines ha.e small and are supplied with rated 1"
therefore the i
start
will be &ery high /more than +2 times rated
current0.
)onse9uence: 'ossibility of se.ere damage to motors.
Solution: insert an e8tra resistance into the circuit during starting
of motor.
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