Which Polymers Code for an Organisms Traits

Posted on December 24, 2013 by Maxim Peptide

Proteins are responsible for coding an organisms traits. A genetic code will define how sequences of nucleotide
triplets known as codons will determine the sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. n general there are
three nucleotide codons in nucleic acid sequences that will create one amino acid! though there are some
e"ceptions to this rule. #ost genes use the same $%A codon table to create these patterns! known as the standard
genetic code! which is altered based on the specifications needed for a gi&en organism.
%ot all genetic information is transmitted or stored within the genetic code. '%A contains sequences that can be
used for regulating this process as well as chromosomal structural areas! intergenic segments and non(coding '%A
that is used to phenotype different types of cells. These elements follow a separate set of rules that is not within the
codon amino acid paradigm that helps to regulate the genetic code.
Transferring the Genetic Code
The genomes of organisms are typically stored in the '%A!
though &iruses contain this information in the $%A! which is
used to code the proteins for different genes.
)enes that are coded for proteins contain tri(nucleotide
codons that contain the instructions for an amino acid.
*ach of these sub(units contains a deo"yribose sugar!
a phosphate and one of four different nucleobases!
guanine! adenine! cytosine or thymine.
The double heli" of '%A +oins two strands together
using hydrogen bonds in a base paring. These bands
typically match thymine with adenine and guanine with
cytosine. $%A matches thymine with uracil and
contains ribose instead of deo"yribose.
The coded proteins are transcribed onto molecules with the $%A polymer. n prokaryote the $%A will act as
m$%A and ribosomes will act on a chain of amino acids known as polypeptides. This process of transferring
$%A to a certain amino acid is powered by guanosine triphsosphate and requires a number of factors to allow
for translation. t$%A must be pro&ided with complementary anticodons to the m$%A so it can be co&alently
charged with the amino acids at their CCA ends by aminoacyl t$%A synthetases. This has a high specificity rate
for the cognate amino acids and the t$%A alike which is one of the ma+or reasons why these en,ymes are
capable of maintaining the translation of the protein sequences.
'ifferent amino acids can be encoded with up to si" different codon sequences. This can be compared to using
bioinformatics! comparing codons to different words or a piece of data that is necessary to create a whole message.
n this e"ample a nucleotide would be a bit! or the smallest possible unit that can be used to make a functional
message.
This allows for a wide degree of &ariation both between different kinds of organisms and within the same species.
-igh amounts of &ariation ensure that organisms are able to adapt to their en&ironment! helping to ensure sur&i&al
o&er time.
Varying the Genetic Code
.light &ariations in the genetic code ha&e been predicted as early as /010 with the study of mitochondrial genes.
.ince this disco&ery a &ariety of alterations to the mitochondrial code! both large and small! ha&e been
disco&ered.
2iruses use the same genetic code as the organism that is acting as their host! so being able to predict and
modify the genetic code of an organism could interfere with their ability to function. -owe&er! there are some
types of &iruses that are able to work within the modification of a genetic code in their hosts. .ome bacteria or
archaea use common start codons and alter the proteins used by the species that they in&ade to get around this
as well.
.ome proteins can be substituted for the standard stop codons depending on how the messenger $%A
interacts with these sequences. This allows different codes to be e"pressed simultaneously in a single
organism! creating a difference in their growth conditions. n spite of this! the codes in these organisms will be
&ery similar. All coding mechanisms contain a reading code and t$%A ribosomes that mo&e in the same
direction and translate the code into amino acids three units at a time.
)i&en these alterations in coding! 34 unnatural amino acids ha&e been added to the protein sequence to create
unique codons since 544/.
.ome predictions to the genetic code can be performed if the genes encoded on a particular genome can be
identified. f researchers compare the '%A from some amino acids to the proteins in other genomes! they can get
an idea of how these traits will be displayed. *&olution conser&es protein sequences! which helps make it possible
for obser&ers to predict how amino acids will be translated from different codons.
A program called 6AC7 can be used to automatically predict different e"pressions of the genetic code by seeking
out different amino acids in a homologous protein domain and how they are aligned with the codons.
Mutations and Errors
'uring '%A replication you may occasionally see errors known as mutations that occur as the second strand
polymeri,es.
#utations can impact the de&elopment of the phenotype of an organism! particularly if the protein code
sequence was affected by this change. These mutations occur around once e&ery /4 or /44 million times during
polymeri,ation based on the ability of the polyerases to perform this function.
f a mutation disrupts the frame sequence it can result in a &ery difference cell from the original! impairing
the protein and causing in &i&o alterations in coding. A properly encoded protein sequence is essential for the
proper growth of the organism to ensure that it will be able to sur&i&e against different challenges it will face in
the en&ironment! so alterations in the protein sequence can often result in the organism dying before it becomes
&iable. Therefore the inheritance of a mutation is quite rare.
n some cases a mutation can result in a genetic disease being inherited such as 'owns syndrome in humans.
These types of occurrences typically pre&ent the organism from reproducing! limiting the chances that these
traits can be passed on.
.ome alterations to the protein sequence do not do any harm! or e&en ha&e a positi&e effect! allowing the
organism to better withstand new changes to their en&ironment or reproduce at a better rate. n this case these
traits will be passed on more quickly! causing a change in the population of organisms as a whole. This process
is known as natural selection.
Though not always considered a form of life! &iruses use this mechanism as a means of sur&i&al. Their $%A is
capable of mutating &ery quickly! allowing it to work around the immune system of the animals where it in&ades.
When working with large groups of organisms like *. coli that reproduce &ery quickly using ase"ual means a
mutation can be helpful for ensuring sur&i&al. This is known as clonal interface which causes a high amount of
competition in organisms.
There is also a phenomenon known as degeneracy that refers to the redundancy of the genetic code which causes
a lack of ambiguity. This may be helpful to an organism if some errors in their genetic code cause a silent mutation
that does not affect the structure of the proteins because the o&erall hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity is kept equal by
substituting the position of amino acids. These types of errors can lead to a shared ancestry of t$%A synthetases
that are related to the patterns created by the codons.
Resource Box8
http899en.wikipedia.org9wiki9)enetic:code;Transfer:of:information:&ia:the:genetic:code