Aff K Core

SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
Aff K Core Author Soup and Related Items
Aff K Core Author Soup and Related Items............................................................................................................1
Aff K Core Author Soup and Related Items ............................................................................ 1
A-to no value to life....................................................................................................................................................9
A-to no value to life ........................................................................................................................ 9
Aff versus K Overdetermination............................................................................................................................10
Aff versus K verdetermination ............................................................................................. 10
A-to our !v does not assume our spe"ifi" pro#e"t$Alt..........................................................................................11
A-to !"our #v does not assume our spe$ifi$ pro%e$t&Alt .......................................................... 11
A-to %a"&lash impossi'le in the (orld of our K Aff)............................................................................................1*
A-to !'a$(lash impossi)le in the *orld of our K Aff+ ............................................................. 12
A-to A""idental +ar$,is"al" K...............................................................................................................................1-
A-to A$$idental ,ar&-is$al$ K .................................................................................................. 1.
A-to A""idental +ar$,is"al" K...............................................................................................................................1.
A-to A$$idental ,ar&-is$al$ K .................................................................................................. 1/
A-to A/am'en K.......................................................................................................................................................10
A-to A0am)en K .......................................................................................................................... 11
A-to A/am'en K.......................................................................................................................................................11
A-to A0am)en K .......................................................................................................................... 12
A-to A/am'en K.......................................................................................................................................................12
A-to A0am)en K .......................................................................................................................... 13
A-to A/am'en K.......................................................................................................................................................13
A-to A0am)en K .......................................................................................................................... 14
A-to A/am'en 'are life..........................................................................................................................................19
A-to A0am)en )are life ............................................................................................................ 19
A-to A/am'en muselmann-spe"ifi".......................................................................................................................*0
A-to A0am)en muselmann-spe$ifi$ ......................................................................................... 20
A-to Apo"al4pti"$S"enario 5lannin/ K.....................................................................................................................**
A-to Apo$al5pti$&S$enario 6lannin0 K ...................................................................................... 22
A-to Apo"al4pti"$S"enario 5lannin/ K "ont6...........................................................................................................*-
A-to Apo$al5pti$&S$enario 6lannin0 K $ont7 ............................................................................ 2.
A-to %adiou...............................................................................................................................................................*.
A-to 'adiou ................................................................................................................................... 2/
A-to %adiou...............................................................................................................................................................*0
A-to 'adiou ................................................................................................................................... 21
1
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to %adiou...............................................................................................................................................................*1
A-to 'adiou ................................................................................................................................... 22
A-to %adiou...............................................................................................................................................................*2
A-to 'adiou ................................................................................................................................... 23
A-to %adiou...............................................................................................................................................................*3
A-to 'adiou ................................................................................................................................... 24
A-to %ataille .............................................................................................................................................................*9
A-to 'ataille ................................................................................................................................. 29
A-to %ataille..............................................................................................................................................................-0
A-to 'ataille .................................................................................................................................. .0
A-to %ataille..............................................................................................................................................................-1
A-to 'ataille .................................................................................................................................. .1
A-to %ataille..............................................................................................................................................................-*
A-to 'ataille .................................................................................................................................. .2
A-to %ataille..............................................................................................................................................................--
A-to 'ataille .................................................................................................................................. ..
A-to %ataille..............................................................................................................................................................-.
A-to 'ataille .................................................................................................................................. ./
A-to %audrillard........................................................................................................................................................-0
A-to 'audrillard ........................................................................................................................... .1
A-to %audrillard........................................................................................................................................................-1
A-to 'audrillard ........................................................................................................................... .2
A-to %audrillard........................................................................................................................................................-2
A-to 'audrillard ........................................................................................................................... .3
%utler her stan"e on politi"s is dan/erous..............................................................................................................-3
'utler her stan$e on politi$s is dan0erous .............................................................................. .4
A-to %utler K6s..........................................................................................................................................................-9
A-to 'utler K7s ............................................................................................................................. .9
A-to %utler K6s...........................................................................................................................................................0
A-to 'utler K7s ............................................................................................................................. /0
A-to Chernus K..........................................................................................................................................................1
A-to Chernus K ............................................................................................................................ /1
A-to 7eath 7rive Ar/s................................................................................................................................................
A-to Death Drive Ar0s ................................................................................................................. //
A-to 7eath 7rive Ar/s...............................................................................................................................................0
*
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to Death Drive Ar0s ................................................................................................................. /1
A-to 7eath 7rive Ar/s...............................................................................................................................................1
A-to 7eath 7rive Ar/s...............................................................................................................................................2
A-to 7eath 7rive Ar/s...............................................................................................................................................3
A-to 7eath 7rive Ar/s...............................................................................................................................................9
A-to 7eath 7rive Ar/s..............................................................................................................................................00
A-to Death Drive Ar0s ................................................................................................................. 10
A-to 7eath 7rive Ar/s..............................................................................................................................................01
A-to 7eath 7rive Ar/s..............................................................................................................................................0*
A-to 7eath 7rive Ar/s..............................................................................................................................................0-
A-to Death Drive Ar0s ................................................................................................................. 1.
A-to 7e'ate %ad) K6s.............................................................................................................................................0.
A-to !De)ate 'ad+ K7s ................................................................................................................ 1/
A-to 7e'ate %ad) K6s.............................................................................................................................................00
A-to !De)ate 'ad+ K7s ................................................................................................................ 11
A-to 7eterren"e K6s..................................................................................................................................................01
A-to Deterren$e K7s ..................................................................................................................... 12
A-to 7eterren"e K6s..................................................................................................................................................02
A-to Deterren$e K7s ..................................................................................................................... 13
A-to 7eterren"e K6s..................................................................................................................................................03
A-to Deterren$e K7s ..................................................................................................................... 14
A-to 7eterren"e K6s..................................................................................................................................................09
A-to Deterren$e K7s ..................................................................................................................... 19
A-to 7eterren"e K6s..................................................................................................................................................10
A-to Deterren$e K7s ..................................................................................................................... 20
A-to 7eterren"e K6s..................................................................................................................................................11
A-to Deterren$e K7s ..................................................................................................................... 21
A-to !delman$5oliti"al Spe"ta"le K..........................................................................................................................1*
A-to #delman&6oliti$al Spe$ta$le K ........................................................................................... 22
-
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to !delman$5oliti"al Spe"ta"le K "ont6................................................................................................................1-
A-to #delman&6oliti$al Spe$ta$le K $ont7 .................................................................................. 2.
A-to !delman$5oliti"al Spe"ta"le K "ont6................................................................................................................1.
A-to #delman&6oliti$al Spe$ta$le K $ont7 .................................................................................. 2/
A-to !delman$5oliti"al Spe"ta"le K "ont6................................................................................................................10
A-to #delman&6oliti$al Spe$ta$le K $ont7 .................................................................................. 21
A-to !delman$5oliti"al Spe"ta"le K "ont6................................................................................................................11
A-to #delman&6oliti$al Spe$ta$le K $ont7 .................................................................................. 22
A-to !pistemolo/4$,ethods 1st "ont6......................................................................................................................12
A-to #pistemolo05&-ethods 1st $ont7 ........................................................................................ 23
A-to !pistemolo/4$,ethods 1st "ont6......................................................................................................................13
A-to #pistemolo05&-ethods 1st $ont7 ........................................................................................ 24
!8perts 9ood.............................................................................................................................................................19
#8perts 9ood ................................................................................................................................ 29
!8perts 9ood.............................................................................................................................................................20
#8perts 9ood ................................................................................................................................ 30
!8perts 9ood:S"ien"e............................................................................................................................................21
#8perts 9ood:S$ien$e ............................................................................................................... 31
!8perts 9ood:5osner 5rodi"t.................................................................................................................................2*
#8perts 9ood:6osner 6rodi$t .................................................................................................. 32
A-to !8tin"tion K ....................................................................................................................................................2-
A-to #8tin$tion K ....................................................................................................................... 3.
A-to !8tin"tion K ....................................................................................................................................................2.
A-to #8tin$tion K ....................................................................................................................... 3/
A-to !8tin"tion K ....................................................................................................................................................20
A-to #8tin$tion K ....................................................................................................................... 31
A-to !8tin"tion K ....................................................................................................................................................21
A-to #8tin$tion K ....................................................................................................................... 32
9enealo/4 K.............................................................................................................................................................22
9enealo05 K ................................................................................................................................. 33
A-to 9usterson K6s...................................................................................................................................................23
A-to 9usterson K7s ...................................................................................................................... 34
A-to 9usterson K6s...................................................................................................................................................29
A-to 9usterson K7s ...................................................................................................................... 39
A-to 9usterson K6s...................................................................................................................................................30
.
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 9usterson K7s ...................................................................................................................... 40
A-to 9usterson K6s...................................................................................................................................................31
A-to 9usterson K7s ...................................................................................................................... 41
A-to ;iroshima K Alts..............................................................................................................................................3*
A-to ;iroshima K Alts ................................................................................................................. 42
A-to ;iroshima K Alts..............................................................................................................................................3-
A-to ;iroshima K Alts ................................................................................................................. 4.
A-to ;iroshima K Alts..............................................................................................................................................3.
A-to ;iroshima K Alts ................................................................................................................. 4/
A-to ;iroshima K Alts..............................................................................................................................................30
A-to Kato K...............................................................................................................................................................90
A-to Kato K .................................................................................................................................. 90
A-to Kato K...............................................................................................................................................................91
A-to Kato K .................................................................................................................................. 91
A-to Kato K...............................................................................................................................................................9*
A-to Kato K .................................................................................................................................. 92
A-to Kato K...............................................................................................................................................................9-
A-to Kato K .................................................................................................................................. 9.
A-to Kovel.................................................................................................................................................................9.
A-to Kovel ..................................................................................................................................... 9/
A-to Kovel ................................................................................................................................................................90
A-to Kovel .................................................................................................................................... 91
A-to Kovel.................................................................................................................................................................91
A-to Kovel ..................................................................................................................................... 92
A-to Kovel.................................................................................................................................................................92
A-to Kovel ..................................................................................................................................... 93
0
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to Kovel.................................................................................................................................................................93
A-to Kovel ..................................................................................................................................... 94
A-to <ormativit4$5re-=iat$S"hla/-stl4e K6s ............................................................................................................99
A-to <ormativit5&6re-=iat&S$hla0-stl5e K7s ............................................................................. 99
A-to <ormativit4$5re-=iat$S"hla/-stl4e K6s...........................................................................................................100
A-to <ormativit5&6re-=iat&S$hla0-stl5e K7s ............................................................................ 100
A-to <ormativit4$5re-=iat$S"hla/-stl4e K6s...........................................................................................................101
A-to <ormativit5&6re-=iat&S$hla0-stl5e K7s ............................................................................ 101
A-to <u"lear K Alts................................................................................................................................................10*
A-to <u$lear K Alts ................................................................................................................... 102
A-to <u"lear K Alts................................................................................................................................................10-
A-to <u$lear K Alts ................................................................................................................... 10.
A-to <u"lear K Alts................................................................................................................................................10.
A-to <u$lear K Alts ................................................................................................................... 10/
A-to <u"lear =etish K.............................................................................................................................................100
A-to <u$lear =etish K ................................................................................................................ 101
A-to <u"lear =etish K "ont6....................................................................................................................................101
A-to <u$lear =etish K $ont7 ...................................................................................................... 102
A-to <u"lear >e8tualism.........................................................................................................................................102
A-to <u$lear >e8tualism ........................................................................................................... 103
A-to <u"lear >e8tualism.........................................................................................................................................103
A-to <u$lear >e8tualism ........................................................................................................... 104
A-to 5an K..............................................................................................................................................................109
A-to 6an K .................................................................................................................................. 109
A-to 5an K..............................................................................................................................................................110
A-to 6an K .................................................................................................................................. 110
A-to 5an K..............................................................................................................................................................111
A-to 6an K .................................................................................................................................. 111
A-to 5an K..............................................................................................................................................................11*
A-to 6an K .................................................................................................................................. 112
A-to 5an K..............................................................................................................................................................11-
A-to 6an K .................................................................................................................................. 11.
A-to 5redi"tions K nu"lear spe"ifi".....................................................................................................................11.
A-to 6redi$tions K nu$lear spe$ifi$ ....................................................................................... 11/
A-to 5redi"tions K..................................................................................................................................................110
1
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 6redi$tions K ...................................................................................................................... 111
A-to 5redi"tions K..................................................................................................................................................111
A-to 6redi$tions K ...................................................................................................................... 112
A-to 5redi"tions K .................................................................................................................................................112
A-to 6redi$tions K ..................................................................................................................... 113
A-to 5s4"ho-Anal4sis K6s.......................................................................................................................................113
A-to 6s5$ho-Anal5sis K7s .......................................................................................................... 114
A-to 5s4"ho-Anal4sis K6s.......................................................................................................................................119
A-to 5s4"ho-Anal4sis K6s.......................................................................................................................................1*0
A-to 5s4"ho-Anal4sis K6s.......................................................................................................................................1**
A-to 5s4"ho-Anal4sis K6s.......................................................................................................................................1*-
A-to 6s5$ho-Anal5sis K7s .......................................................................................................... 12.
A-to 5s4"ho-Anal4sis K6s.......................................................................................................................................1*.
A-to 6s5$ho-Anal5sis K7s .......................................................................................................... 12/
A-to Ra"ism 7e"ision-Rules...................................................................................................................................1*2
A-to Ra$ism De$ision-Rules ...................................................................................................... 123
A-to Reps 1st ..........................................................................................................................................................1*3
A-to Reps 1st .............................................................................................................................. 124
A-to Se"urit4 K <ot root "ause of "ase................................................................................................................1*9
A-to Se$urit5 K <ot root $ause of $ase .................................................................................. 129
A-to State K6s..........................................................................................................................................................1-0
A-to State K7s ............................................................................................................................. 1.0
A-to State K6s..........................................................................................................................................................1-1
A-to State K7s ............................................................................................................................. 1.1
A-to State K6s..........................................................................................................................................................1-*
A-to State K7s ............................................................................................................................. 1.2
2
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to State K6s..........................................................................................................................................................1--
A-to State K7s ............................................................................................................................. 1..
A-to >hreat Constru"tion........................................................................................................................................1-.
A-to >hreat Constru$tion .......................................................................................................... 1./
A-to >hreat Constru"tion .......................................................................................................................................1-0
A-to >hreat Constru$tion ......................................................................................................... 1.1
A-to >hreat Constru"tion .......................................................................................................................................1-1
A-to >hreat Constru$tion ......................................................................................................... 1.2
A-to >hreat Constru"tion........................................................................................................................................1-2
A-to >hreat Constru$tion .......................................................................................................... 1.3
A-to ?niversalit4 K.................................................................................................................................................1-3
A-to ?niversalit5 K .................................................................................................................... 1.4
A-to ?niversalit4 K "ont6.......................................................................................................................................1-9
A-to ?niversalit5 K $ont7 .......................................................................................................... 1.9
A-to ?niversalit4 K "ont6.......................................................................................................................................1.0
A-to ?niversalit5 K $ont7 .......................................................................................................... 1/0
3
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to no value to life
@ A >here7s al*a5s value to life 6refer our ev )e$ause of =ran(l7s su)%e$t position.
5h4llis 7. CoontBC 5h7 9raduate S"hool of 5u'li" and International Affairs ?niversit4 of 5itts'ur/h@ et al@
AO?R<AB O= CO,,?<I> ;!AB>; <?RSI<9@ *001@ 13C.D@ *-0-*.1 A-Stor
In the 1900s@ ps5$hiatrist and theorist Ei&tor =ran(l @191-D des$ri)ed an e8istential theor5 of purpose and meanin0 in
life. =ran(lC a lon0-time prisoner in a $on$entration $ampC related several instan$es of trans$endent states
that he e8perien$ed in the midst of that terri- )le sufferin0 usin/ his o(n e8perien"es and o'servations. ;e 'elieved that
these e8peri- en$es allo*ed him and others to maintain their sense of di0nit5 and self-*orth. =ran&l C1919D "laimed
that trans$enden$e o$$urs )5 0ivin0 to othersC )ein0 open to others and the environment@ and "omin/ to a""ept the realit4 that
some situations are un- "han/ea'le. ;e h5pothesiBed that life al*a5s has meanin0 for the individualD a person $an
al*a5s de$ide ho* to fa$e adversit5. >herefore@ self-trans$enden$e provides mean- in0 and ena)les the dis$over5
of meanin0 for a person C=ran&l@ 191-D. !8pandin/ =ran&lFs (or&@ Reed C1991'D lin&ed self-trans"enden"e (ith mental health. >hrou/h a
developmental pro"ess individuals 0ain an in$reasin0 understandin0 of *ho the5 are and are a)le to move out
)e5ond themselves despite the fa$t that the5 are e8- perien$in0 ph4si"al and mental pain. >his e8pansion 'e4ond the self
o$$urs throu0h in- trospe$tion @ "on"ern a'out others and their (ell-'ein/@ and inte/ration of the past and future to stren0then
oneEs present life CReed@ 1991'D.
@ A >heir !no value to life+ is i0nores the su)%e$tivit5 of ea$h person7s values. Fife should )e
first.
Steven Fee is the ;.B.A. ;art Eisitin/ Resear"h =ello( at the Center for !thi"s and 5hilosoph4 of Ba( and
?niversit4 Colle/e for ,i"haelmas@ as (ell as Eisitin/ Resear"h =ello( at the Chan/in/ Chara"ter of +ar
5ro/ramme. ;e is a 5rofessor in the ;umanities and 5rofessor of 5hilosoph4 at ;o'art and +illiam Smith Colle/es@
Revie(ed (or&CsDG <u"lear 7eterren"e@ ,oralit4 and Realism. '4 Aohn =innis H Aoseph ,. %o4le@ Ar. H
9ermain 9riseI H Aefferson ,",ahan Sour"eG 5hilosoph4 and 5u'li" Affairs@ Eol. 19@ <o. 1 C+inter@ 1990AC pp.
9--101 5u'lished '4G %la"&(ell 5u'lishin/ Sta'le ?RBG httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$**10-1.
>he "laim that nu"lear devastation and Soviet domination "annot 'e "ompared in "onseJuentialist terms rests lar/el4 on the "laim that the &inds
of harm or evil involved in these out"omes are in"ommensura'le. =or@ Kthe values of life@ li'ert4@ fairness@ and so on@ are diverse. ;o(
man4 peopleFs lives are eJuivalent to the li'ert4 of ho( man4-(hether the same or other-personsL <o one "an sa4K Cp. *.1D. +hen one "on-
siders the t(o out"omes@ KMeNa"h seems the more repu/nant (hile one is fo"usin/ upon itK Cp. *.0D. %ut this in"ommensura'ilit4 "laim is not
plausi'le. Bife and politi"al li'ert4 are diverse /oods@ 'ut havin/ li'ert4 is onl4 part of (hat ma&es life (orth livin/. Certainl4
most people (ould prefer loss of li'ert4 to loss of life@ and even if "onseJuential value is not a fun"tion solel4 of
preferen"es@ the preferen"es in this "ase refle"t a real differen"e in value. !ven (here li'ert4 is la"&in/@ a life has
mu$h potential for value. Of "ourse@ it is unli&el4 that ever4one (ould die in a nu- "lear (ar@ 'ut it is li&el4 that man4 of the livin/
(ould env4 the dead. As the authors point out@ ho(ever@ (e do not &no( ho( destru"tive the nu- "lear (ar mi/ht 'e@ nor ho( repressive the
Soviet domination. A ver4 limited nu"lear (ar mi/ht 'e prefera'le to a ver4 repressive Soviet-imposed re/ime. %ut these are unli&el4 e8tremes.
In terms of e8pe"ted util- ities@ domination is prefera'le to (ar. In this sense@ Red is 'etter than dead@ and the "onseJuentialist
"omparison "an 'e made.
9
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
Aff versus K verdetermination
@ A >he57ll sa5 their K !$ontrols the vital internal lin( to the $ase+
,e7ll $ritiGue the idea of the sin0le !vital internal lin(+ as an a$t of overdetermination.
'e$ause man5 thin0s ma5 motivate *ar in$ludin0 the uniGue $onte8t of the moment *e
should strive for me$hanisms li(e the plan.
S"ott 7. Sa0an 7epartment of 5oliti"al S"ien"e@ Stanford ?niversit4 ACCI7!<>AB +AR I< >;!OR
A<7 5RAC>IC! 2000 availa'le viaG (((.ss"net.u"la.edu$polis"i$fa"ult4$tra"hten'er/$"v$sa/an.do"
>o ma&e reasona'le #ud/ements in su"h matters it is essential@ in m4 vie(@ to avoid the $ommon Hfalla$5 of
overdetermination.H Boo&in/ 'a"&(ards at histori"al events@ it is al(a4s temptin/ to underestimate the importan"e of the
immediate "auses of a (ar and ar0ue that the li&elihood of "onfli"t (as so hi/h that the *ar *ould have )ro(en out
sooner or later even *ithout the spe$ifi$ in$ident that set it off. If ta&en too far@ ho(ever@ this tenden"4 eliminates the
role of "ontin/en"4 in histor4 and diminishes our a'ilit4 to per"eive the alternative path(a4s that (ere present to histori"al
a"tors. >he point is perhaps 'est made throu/h a "ounterfa"tual a'out the Cold +ar. Durin0 the 191* Cu)an -issile Crisis@ a
)iBarre false *arnin0 in"ident in the ?.S. radar s5stems fa"in/ Cu'a led offi$ers at the <orth Ameri"an Air 7efense Command
to )elieve that the ?.S. (as under atta"& and that a nu$lear *eapon *as a)out to 0o off in =lorida. <o( ima0ine the
"ounterfa"tual event that this false (arnin/ (as reported and 'elieved '4 ?.S. leaders and resulted in a ?.S. nu"lear HretaliationK a/ainst
the Russians. ;o* *ould future historians have seen the $auses of ,orld ,ar IIII ne $an easil5 ima0ine
ar0uments stressin0 that the *ar )et*een the ?.S. and the ?SSR *as inevita)le. ,ar *as overdeterminedJ
0iven the deep politi"al hostilit5 of the t(o superpo(ers@ the conflicting ideology@ the es"alatin/ arms ra"e@ nu$lear *ar *ould
have o$$urred eventuall5. If not durin0 that spe$ifi$ $risis over Cu)aC then over the ne8t one in 'erlinC or the
,iddle !ast@ or Korea. =rom that perspe$tiveC fo$usin0 on this parti$ular a$$idental event as a $ause of *ar *ould
)e seen as misleadin0. "etC *e all no* (no*C of $ourse that a nu$lear *ar *as neither inevita)le nor
overdetermined durin0 the Cold ,ar.
10
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to !"our #v does not assume our spe$ifi$ pro%e$t&Alt
@ A Sa5in0 !our ne* pro%e$t is different+ it %ust a rouse it7s the Feft7s effort to avoid di$e5
Guestions of reifi$ation.
Slavo# KiBe( is /enerall4 over-rated and tiresome@ 'ut trul4 fantasti" in this narro( instan"e. ;e is also a professor
of philosoph4 and ps4"hoanal4sis at the !uropean 9raduate S"hool in Saas-=ee@ S(itIerland Criti"al InJuir4 -*
C+inter *002D httpG$$(((.#ournals.u"hi"a/o.edu$doi$pdf$10.1031$00020*
So@ insofar as (e are dealin/ here (ith a histori"al "hoi"e C'et(een the =ren"h) (a4 of remainin/ (ithin Catholi"ism@ and thus 'ein/ o'li/ed to
en/a/e in the self-destru"tive revolutionar4 >error@ and the 9erman) (a4 of ReformationD@ this "hoi"e involves e8a"tl4 the same elementar4
diale"ti"al parado8 as the one@ also from >he 5henomenolo/4 of Spirit@ 'et(een the t(o readin/s of the Spirit is a 'one@) (hi"h ;e/el illustrates
'4 the phalli"metaphor: the phallus as the or/an of insemination or phallus as the or/an of urination. ;e/el6s point is not that@ in "ontrast to the
vul/ar empiri"ist mind that sees onl4 urination@ the proper spe"ulative attitude has to "hoose insemination. >he parado8 is that the dire"t "hoi"e of
insemination is the infalli'le (a4 to miss itH it is not possi'le to "hoose dire"tl4 the true meanin/.) >hat is@ one has to 'e/in '4 ma&in/ the
(ron/) "hoi"e Cof urinationDH the true spe"ulative meanin/ emer/es onl4 throu/h the repeated readin/@ as the aftereffe"t Cor '4-produ"tD of the
first@ (ron/@) readin/. And the same /oes for so"ial life in (hi"h the dire"t "hoi"e of the "on"rete universalit4 of a parti"ular ethi"al life-(orld
"an onl4 end in a re/ression to premodern or/ani" so"iet4 that denies the infinite ri/ht of su'#e"tivit4 as the fundamental feature of modernit4.
%e"ause the su'#e"t-"itiIen of a modern state "an no lon/er a""ept his immersion in some parti"ular so"ial role that "onfers on him a determinate
pla"e (ithin the or/ani" so"ial (hole@ the onl4 (a4 to the rational totalit4 of the modern state leads throu/h revolutionar4 >error. One should
ruthlessl4 tear up the "onstraints of premodern@ or/ani"@ "on"rete universalit4@ and full4 assert the infinite ri/ht of su'#e"tivit4 in its a'stra"t
ne/ativit4. In other (ords@ the point of ;e/el6s anal4sis of the revolutionar4 >error is not the rather o'vious insi/ht into ho( the revolutionar4
pro#e"t involved the unilateral dire"t assertion of a'stra"t ?niversal Reason and (as as su"h doomed to perish in self-destru"tive fur4@ sin"e it
(as una'le to or/aniIe the transposition of its revolutionar4 ener/4 into a "on"rete@ sta'le@ and differentiated so"ial order. ;e/el6s point is rather
the eni/ma of (h4@ in spite of the fa"t that revolutionar4 >error (as a histori"al deadlo"&@ (e have to pass throu/h it in order to arrive at the
modern rational state. So@ /iven a/ain the "hoi"e 'et(een the 5rotestant inner revolution) and the =ren"h violent politi"al revolution@ (e see that
;e/el is far from endorsin/ the 9erman self-"ompla"ent superiorit4 C(e made the ri/ht "hoi"e and "an thus avoid revolutionar4 madness)DH
pre"isel4 'e"ause 9ermans made the ri/ht "hoi"e at a (ron/ time Ctoo earl4G in the a/e of ReformationD@ the4 "annot /ain a""ess to the rational
state that (ould 'e at the level of true politi"al modernit4. One should ta&e another step hereG it is not onl4 that the universal !ssen"e arti"ulates
itself in the dis"ord 'et(een its parti"ular forms of appearan"eH this dis"ord is propelled '4 a /ap that pertains to the ver4 "ore of the universal
!ssen"e itself. In his 'oo& on modernit4@ =redri" Aameson refers to the ;e/elian "on"rete universalit4 in his "on"ise "ritiJue of the re"entl4
fashiona'le theories of alternate modernities)G ;o* then $an the ideolo0ues of !modernit5) in its "urrent sense mana0e to
distin0uish their produ$t:the information revolution@ and /lo'aliIed@ free-mar&et modernit4:from the detesta)le older (indC
*ithout 0ettin0 themselves involved in as(in0 the &inds of serious politi$al and e"onomi"@ s4stemi" Guestions that the
"on"ept of a postmodernit4 ma&es unavoida'leL >he ans*er is simpleJ 5ou tal( a)out !alternate+ or !alternative+
modernities. #ver5one (no*s the formula )5 no*J this means that there $an )e a modernit5 for ever5)od5 *hi$h
is different from the standard or he0emoni$ An0lo-Sa8on model. ,hatever 5ou disli(e a'out the latter@ in"ludin/ the
su'altern position it leaves 4ou in@ $an )e effa$ed )5 the reassurin0 and "ultural) notion that 5ou $an fashion 5our o*n
modernit5 differentl5C so that there $an )e a Fatin- Ameri$an (indC or an Indian (ind or an Afri"an &ind@ and so
on. . . . 'ut this is to overloo( the other fundamental meanin0 of modernit5 (hi"h is that of a (orld(ide "apitalism
itself.12 >he si0nifi$an$e of this $ritiGue rea$hes far )e5ond the $ase of modernit5D it $on$erns the fundamental
limitation of the nominalist histori$iBin0.>he re"ourse to multitude Cthere is not one modernit4 (ith a fi8ed essen"e@ there are
multiple modernities@ ea"h of them irredu"i'le to othersD is false not 'e"ause it does not re"o/niIe a uniJue fi8ed essen"e) of modernit4 'ut
'e"ause multipli"ation fun"tions as the disavo(al of the anta/onism that inheres to the notion of modernit4 as su"hH the falsit4 of multipli"ation
resides in the fa"t that it frees the universal notion of modernit4 from its anta/onism@ from the (a4 it is em'edded in the "apitalist s4stem@ '4
rele/atin/ this aspe"t to #ust one of its histori"al su'spe"ies. COne should not for/et that the first half of the t(entieth "entur4 alread4 (as mar&ed
'4 t(o 'i/ pro#e"ts that perfe"tl4 fit this notion of alternate modernit4G =as"ism and Communism. +as not the 'asi" idea of =as"ism that of a
modernit4 (hi"h provides an alternative to standard@ An/lo-Sa8on@ li'eral-"apitalist modernit4@ of savin/ the "ore of "apitalist modernit4 '4
"astin/ a(a4 its "ontin/ent@) Ae(ish-individualist-profiteerin/ distortionL And (as not the rapid industrialiIation of the ?SSR in the late 19*0s
and 19-0s also an attempt at moderniIation different from the +estern-"apitalist oneLD And@ insofar as this inherent anta/onism "ould 'e
desi/nated as a "astrative) dimension and@ furthermore@ insofar as@ a""ordin/ to =reud@ the disavo(al of "astration is represented as the
multipli"ation of the phallus-representatives Ca multitude of phalluses si/nals "astration@ the la"& of the oneD@ it is eas4 to "on"eive su"h a
multipli"ation of modernities as a form of fetishist disavo(al.
11
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to !'a$(lash impossi)le in the *orld of our K Aff+
@ A "our radi$al a$t doesn7t $han0e ever5one7s mind alon0 the *a5 naLve to thin(
)a$(lash *ill )e *ished-a*a5.
Aames 9. 'li0ht Center for S"ien"e and International Affairs@ ;arvard ?niversit4@ Cam'rid/e@ ,assa"husetts
Ameri"an 5s4"holo/ist Eolume .*@ Issue 1@ 1943 o'tained via CSA Illumina 7ata'ase
>he alternative vie( of the ps4"holo/i"al transformarion of the superpo(er relationship is that it must o""ur from the top-do(n. >he ima/ined
s"enario mi/ht unfold rou/hl4 as follo(sG =or (hatever reason@ an Ameri"an president ma&es an unpre"edentedl4 'old move
to halt the arms ra"e@ for e8ample@ '4 announ"in/ the intention to ma&e deep "uts in the Ameri"an arsenal and$or to "an"el deplo4ment of "ertain
s4stems re/arded '4 the Soviets as suita'le for a disarmin/ first stri&e a/ainst them. >he president then ta&es the proposals to the Soviet
"ounterpart@ (ho a/rees to re"ipro"ate. =a"ed (ith a nu"lear fait a""ompli derivin/ from a histori" summit meetin/@ the <A>O allies and the
Ameri"an pu'li" and Con/ress@ all notoriousl4 fi"&le in matters of nu"lear poli"4@ a/ree to the radi"al "han/e of
"ourse. In this s"enario@ therefore@ the manner of thin&in/ is altered '4 a radi"al a"tion ta&en '4 the top leadership@ (hi"h
results eventuall4 in a (idel4 shared ne( (a4 of thin&in/ a'out superpo(er relations. 7euts"h t4pifies advo"ates of the top-do(n ta"ti". In his
vie(@ the mali/nant so"ial pro"ess "ould 'e "ompletel4 transformed if onl4 Ka 'old and "oura/eous Ameri"an leadership (ould ta&e a ris& for
pea"e . . . MandN announ"e its determination to end the "raI4 arms ra"e.K If onl4 a president (ould ta&e "har/e@ sa4s 7euts"h C193-D@ K(e "ould
repla"e the arms ra"e (ith a pea"e ra"eK Cp. *-D. %ut is it reall4 true that even an e8traordinaril4 'old move '4 an Ameri"an
president to seiIe an opportune moment is li&el4 to initiate a "hain rea"tion of politi"al@ militar4@ and ps4"holo/i"al events
that results ultimatel4 in the trans"enden"e of the arms ra"e and@ eventuall4@ a top-do(n "ure for superpo(er ps4"hopatholo/4L >here
are no histori$al reasons for optimism on this Guestion. =or (e are hi/hl4 unli&el4 to e8perien"e in the foreseea'le
future an4thin/ li&e the pe"uliar "ir"umstan"es that "om'ined@ durin/ the late sprin/ and summer of 191-@ to produ"e the most
opportune su"h moment so far in the nu"lear a/e. 7urin/ those fe( 'rief 'ut eventful months@ the Ameri"an leader@ to/ether (ith his
Soviet "ounterpart@ did indeed la'or mi/htil4 to a""omplish (hat ,a"& C1930'D has "alled Ka transformation in the Jualit4 of the Soviet-
Ameri"an relationshipK Cp. 0-D. And althou/h some nota'le a""omplishments mar&ed these months@ it is o'vious@ after nearl4 a Juarter of a
"entur4@ that the4 led to no fundamental "han/es in the superpo(er relationship. It is ver4 far from o'vious@ therefore@ (h4
(e should e8pe"t an4 top-do(n "ure of the superpo(er relationship in the future. Bet us revie( #ust a fe( of the salient fa"ts in this
limitin/ histori"al test "ase for the top-do(n "ure. >he first t(o 4ears of Aohn Kenned4Fs prOiden"4 "onstituted a "rash "ourse in nu"lear learnin/
for 'oth him and <i&ita Khrush"hev@ a "ourse "onsistin/ mainl4 in a series of r isodes that (ere almost (holl4 unpre"edented in intensit4 and
dan/er. In earl4 1911@ a militar4 "lash 'et(een Sovietsupplied and Soviet-advised for"es and their Ameri"anled "ounterparts (as narro(l4
averted in Southeast Asia. In O"to'er 1911@ Ameri"an and Soviet tan&s@ poised to open fire@ fa"ed ea"h other at point-'lan& ran/e on either side
of the ne(l4 "onstru"ted %erlin +all. ?ltimatel4 and fortunatel4@ neither side fired and the "risis a'ated. =Fmall4@ durin/ the Cu'an missile "risis
of O"to'er 191*@ the superpo(ers "ame "loser to a shootin/ (ar@ thus "loser to nu"lear Oar@ than at an4 time 'efore or sin"e. >he availa'le
eviden"e su//ests that the leaders of the superpo(ers (ere profoundl4 affe"ted '4 these events@ espe"iall4 '4 the missile "risis. Khrush"hev@
(hose 'elli"osit4 and 'elli/eren"e (as '4 this time le/endar4@ 'e/an to spea& and a"t in a far more "on"iliator4 manner than 'efore. 5resident
Kenned4@ the "old (arrior@ 'e/an to see& a""ommodation (ith his adversar4. >he moment seemed ripe for fundamental "han/e.
1*
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to A$$idental ,ar&-is$al$ K
@ A Claims that a$$idental *ar is unli(el5 or a rouse to e8tend he0emon5 have it
)a$(*ards.
>he ris( is real and $laims to the $ontrar5 are part of an effort to 0loss-over the ris(s of an
a00ressive ?S posture.
7R. 9!RAR7 >AF Che /oes '4 the name 9earPid Q >uathail as (ell for the purpose of retrievin/ this
"itationD is a 5rofessor of 9overnment and International Affairs at Eir/inia >e"h and is also Asso"iate !ditor@
9eopoliti"s@ a >a4lor and =ran"is #ournal Annals of the Asso"iation of Ameri"an 9eo/raphers@ Eol. 90@ <o. 1
C,ar.@ 2000D@ pp. 111-123 Sta'le ?RBG httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$1010-32
>he re"ipro"al relationship )et*een 0eopo- liti$al pra$ti$es and the mass media raises man4 $riti$al Guestions a)out
po*er and the si/nifi"a- tion of (orld politi"s. ;o( and (h4 do "ertain /eopoliti"al "rises 'e"ome /lo'al media events@ and not othersL ,h5C
for e8ample@ *as Kosovo pro%e$ted as a 0lo)al $risis reJuirin/ a "on"erted militar4 response@ )ut not events in Che$hn5a@
!ast >imor@ or An0ola@ (here the &illin/ has 'een eJuall4 'lood4 and horrifi"L Ans(erin/ su"h a Juestion fore/rounds the persistent im-
portan"e not onl4 of "ontinental /eo/raph4 and /eopoliti"s@ 'ut also of the impli"it "ultural /eo/raphies of identit4 and "ommunit4 inform- in/
ho( and (hat mainstream media s"reens Cin 'oth senses of the (ordD. KStrate0i$ si0nsH o*e their s5m)oli$ value to a media
$entralit5 that is itself dependent upon 0eo0raphi$al and $ultural fa$torsG the4 are not media "reations alone. Al- thou/h
pro#e"ted as K'orderlessK and K/lo'al@K television ima/es and the net(or&s that transmit them are em'edded in parti"ular states@ "ultural
formations@ and identit4 s4stems. >he5 are paro"hiall4 /lo'al at 'est and impli$ated in the e8er$ise of 0eopoliti$al po*er even
in spite of themselves. >he pro'lemati" of informationaliIation and /eopoliti"s is mu"h /reater than the Juestion of
television and /eopoliti"al "rises. Information te$hnolo05 s5stemsC from the militar4Fs C/I* C"ommand@ "ontrol@ "ommuni"ations and "om-
putersH intelli/en"e and interopera'ilit4D Ks4s- tem of s4stemsK to the <AMS>AR /lo'al posi- tionin/ s4stem and the Internet@ are some of the
te$hni$al means )5 *hi$h the ?nited States maintains its dominant position in the *orld. +hile the mana/ement and manipulation of in-
formation is "ru"ial to the pra"ti"e of /eopoliti"s at the millennium@ the impli$ations and $onse- Guen$es of the ?.S.Es
Hinformation dominan$eH are not al*a5s eas5 to dis$ern C<4e and O(ens1991D. InformationaliBed $ommand and
$ontrol s5stems ma5 ena)le unpre$edented inte/ration and $oordination in institutions li(e the mili- tar5C )ut
overloo(ed $omputer )u0s and stealth5 viruses $an disa)le these same $5)ers5stems. An or'ital net(or& of
surveillan"e satellites ma4 help dete"t a potentiall4 threatenin/ missile laun"h@ 'ut the malfun$tionin0 of the same s4s- tem@ as has
happened a num'er of times in the last t(o de"ades C $ould provo(e an a$$idental *ar. It is in instan$es li(e this
that the pro)lemati$ of informationaliBation )lurs into the pro)- lemati$ of a 0lo)al ris( so"iet4.
1-
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to A$$idental ,ar&-is$al$ K
@ A >heir mis$al$ K is *ron0J
;istor5 proves it7s not a $onstru$tC *e7re not paintin0 people as irrationalC and their
overl5-rhetori$al fo$us missed the point.
,ar" >ra$hten)er0 is professor in the department of histor4 at the ?niversit4 of 5enns4lvania. >he KA""idental
+arK Ruestion =e'ruar4 1.@ 2000 httpG$$(((.ss"net.u"la.edu$polis"i$fa"ult4$tra"hten'er/$"v$inadv
S*31S*9.pdf
+ar throu/h K,is"al"ulationK ,ars $an $ome a)out even thou0h neither side sets out to en0ineer an armed $onfli$t
at the )e0innin0 of a "risisH a$tions are ta(en even thou0h neither side anti$ipates that those a$tions *ill lead
eventuall5 to a dire$t militar5 $onfrontation. >hus there is a /ap 'et(een e8pe"tation and out"ome. It is often assumed that this
means that statesmen Kmis"al"ulatedK the effe"ts of their a"tionH Kmis"al"ulationK is then said to 'e a ma#or "ause of (ar. <o one "an see the
future (ith an4 "larit4 and mis$al$ulations of this sort are perfe$tl5 normalD this is the )asis for the assumption that
the ris( of *ar throu0h mis$al$ulation is relativel5 hi0hJ states $an slide into *ar relativel5 easil5. And related to
this is the assumption that if onl4 (e "an 'rin/ ourselves to "al"ulate more a""uratel4@ (e "ould /reatl4 redu"e the ris& of (ar. %ut ho( valid are
these assumptionsL =irst@ (hat do (e mean e8a"tl4 '4 Kmis"al"ulationKL Suppose someone /ives me ten-to-one odds that if I role a die@ I (onFt
'e a'le to "ome up (ith a si8. I ta&e the 'et and I lose. 7oes this mean I Kmis"al"ulatedKL Of "ourse notG the "al"ulation (as perfe"tl4 rational@
'ut I #ust happened to 'e unlu"&4. Similarl4@ in international politi"s@ states mi/ht assume at the 'e/innin/ of a "risis that there is onl4 a relativel4
small ris& of (ar@ sa4 one in five or one in si8. If (ar nonetheless 'rea&s out@ that fa"t does not in itself mean that the4 had mis"al"ulatedH the4
had not@ after all@ assumed that (ar (ould 'e impossi'le. >o prove mis"al"ulation@ one therefore has to demonstrate someho( that the pro'a'ilit4
of (ar 'rea&in/ out@ as it e8isted at the 'e/innin/ of a "risis@ reall4 (as mu"h hi/her than people thou/ht@ (hi"h of "ourse mi/ht 'e ver4 diffi"ult
to do. If one simpl4 assumes that a /ap 'et(een e8pe"tation and out"ome sho(s that people had mis"al"ulated@ one is not reall4 e8plainin/ ver4
mu"hH one is simpl5 0ivin0 a name to the fa$t the thin0s *or(ed out in a *a5 people had not initiall5 thou0ht
*as ver5 li(el5. >he point here is that (e tend to use lan/ua/e in a fairl4 slopp4 (a4H these ha'its ena'le us to avoid fo"usin/ on the real
issues. >he real issue here has to do *ith ho* eas5 it is to slide into a *arC even if )oth sides ver5 mu$h *ant to
avoid that out$ome. >hose *ho ta(e Hinadvertent *arH seriousl5 tend to assume that that ris( is hi0hD their
$riti$s@ li&e %rodie@ assume that the5 *ildl5 overestimate the ris( of a (ar happenin/ in that (a4. +hat is to 'e said a'out this
issueL =irst of all@ it is "lear that people (ho tal& a'out ho( (ars $an $ome a)out even if no one sets out to en0ineer
them do have somethin0 real in mind. As a $risis developsC ea$h side 0ets more and more deepl5 involvedD the
sta(es (eep risin0C the ante (eeps 0oin0 upC and it )e$omes harder and harder to 0ive *a5. If one &ne( this (as
/oin/ to happen@ one mi/ht have "hosen not to en/a/e in the "onfrontation in the first pla"e. %ut there is no (a4 to turn 'a"& the "lo"&H and so
one mi/ht 'e led in this (a4 to fi/ht a (ar that one (ould have ver4 mu"h (ished to avoid. A d4nami" of this sort "ertainl4 e8ists. One thin&s@
for e8ample@ of the "risis set off '4 the Aapanese move into southern Indo"hina in Aul4 19.1@ or even of the An/lo-
9erman "risis in the summer of 19-9@ (hi"h led to a (ar (hi"h 'oth ;itler and the %ritish did not intend and (ould have li&ed to avoid@
espe"iall4 at that point.3 >he Aul4 Crisis in 191. is another "ase in pointH it is hard to 'elieve that either side (ould have "ondu"ted its affairs the
(a4 it did if it &ne( at the start that the poli"4 it adopted (as /oin/ to lead to (ar@ let alone to the &ind of (ar that eventuall4 developed. %ut
does the fa"t that a d4nami" of this &ind e8ists mean in itself that it is appropriate in su"h "ases to refer to the (ar that 'rea&s out as an
Ka""identalK (arL
1.
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to A0am)en K
@ A A0am)en appropriates and universaliBes in$redi)l5 spe$ifi$ su)%e$ts is. >his is violent.
7e'arati San5al is Asso"iate 5rofessor of =ren"h at the ?niversit4 of California@ %er&ele4. She re"eived her 5h7 in Roman"e Ban/ua/es from 5rin"eton
?niversit4. >he author of >he Eiolen"e of ,odernit4G %audelaire@ Iron4 and the 5oliti"s of =orm CAohns ;op&ins ?niversit4 5ress@ *001D@ she has also pu'lished
arti"les on %audelaire@ ;olo"aust Studies@ +orld +ar >(o and post(ar "ommitment. Representations Summer *002@ 7OI 10.10*0$rep.*00*.29.1.1
ne of the most disGuietin0 uses of this lo0i$ in literar4 "riti"ism is found in Shoshana =elman7s )oo(C "o-authored (ith
7ori Bau'@ >estimon4G Crises of +itnessin/ in Biterature@ 5s4"hoanal4sis@ and ;istor4. In a sedu"tive refle"tion on the ruptures and silen"es that
hover over auto'io/raphi"al@ literar4@ and "riti"al representations of the ;olo"aust@ =elman@ li&e A/am'en@ (eaves a series of stru"tural analo/ies
'et(een the "on"entration "amp and "ivilian life@ 'et(een TTthem66 and TTus@66 TTthen66 and TTno(@66 and 'et(een literal and metaphori"al forms
of "ompli"it4@ vi"timiIation@ and survival. She does so )5 vie*in0 histor5 throu0h the lens of trauma@ that is to sa4@ '4 vie(in/
histor4 as repetition Cin this "ase the infinitel4 rene(ed (ound of the ;olo"austD and as "ontamination Cin (hi"h the self and other are "ir"ulatin/
positionsD.>he trauma of the "on"entration "amps is thus presented as a histori$al *ound *hose tra$e is to )e found in the
/aps and silen"es of testimonies )5 survivors @ primar4 (itnesses@ and se"ondar4 (itnesses@ in this "ase@ 5rimo Bevi@ Al'ert Camus@ and
5aul de ,an. "et this silen"e@ si/nifi"antl4@ is sounded and made to rever)erate identi$all5 in distin$tC if not
in$ommensura)leC $onte8ts. Su"h "onflations of histori"all4 'ound o""urren"es (ith an on/oin/ and universaliIa'le "ondition Cor of
TTfa"t66 (ith TT"on"ept66D "an 'e dis"erned in =elman6s dis"ussion of the 'etra4al of testimon4. Camus6s prota/onist@ Aean-%aptiste Clamen"e@
&eeps on (al&in/ (hen he hears a splash@ follo(ed '4 "ries for help. +hile this 'etra4al resonates (ith the Allies6 Cor Sartre6sD 'etra4al@ for
=elman@ the histori"al 'etra4al is also an inevita'le epistemolo/i"al and ethi"al "ondition. Sin"e the ;olo"aust "ollapses the ver4 possi'ilit4 of
(itnessin/@ an4 attempt to understand and transmit the event (ill ne"essaril4 fall short of:and 'etra4:the e8perien"e. !ven those TTinside the
event66 Cto use 7ori Bau'6s e8pressionD (ere ro''ed of an4 independent frame of referen"e outside of the radi"al dehumaniIation of the "amps.*.
In =elman6s a""ount@ then@ TT'etra4al66 fun"tions 'oth as a histori"al fa"t Cthe failure to see or understand eviden"e of the "ampsD and as an
immuta'le and inherent "ondition Cthe impossi'ilit4 of seein/ or understandin/ the "ampsDG In 'earin/ (itness to the (itness6s ina'ilit4 to
(itness:to the narratin/ su'#e"t6s ina'ilit4 to "ross the 'rid/e to(ards the Other6s death or life:>he =all ins"ri'es the ;olo"aust as the
impossi'le histori"al narrative of an event (ithout a (itness@ an event eliminatin/ its o(n (itness. <arrative has thus 'e"ome the ver4 (ritin/ of
the impossi'ilit4 of (ritin/ histor4.*0 At sta&e in this vie( of the impossi'le or 'etra4ed testimon4 is an impli"it@ 'ut important@ "laim for a post-
Shoah literar4 ethi"s@ one founded on the impossi'ilit4 of representin/ histori"al trauma. In =elman6s readin/@ the ;olo"aust for"es us to
rearti"ulate the relationship 'et(een lan/ua/e@ narrative@ and histor4 and to re"o/niIe the literar4 as a realm for re"overin/ a histor4 that has 'een
erased. =elman su//ests that the testimonial po(er of literature and its ethi"al fun"tion lie in its un"ann4 a'ilit4 to a""ess:throu/h falterin/s and
am'i/uities:a realit4 that defies our ha'itual histori"al and ps4"hi" frames of referen"e. +ith A/am'en@ she vie(s lan/ua/e and histor4 as
"au/ht in a ne( "onfi/uration@ in (hi"h the ellipses@ silen"es@ and aporia in narrative Cor spee"hD "apture that (hi"h has o""urred histori"all4 as a
vanishin/ point. +ith Caruth@ she per"eives literar4 lan/ua/e as a point of a""ess to TTun"laimed e8perien"e@66 sin"e 'oth literature and trauma are
ins"riptions Cin the te8t@ in the ps4"heD of indire"t forms of &no(led/e that at on"e soli"it and def4 our (itness.*1 >he =all and its eni/mati"
alle/or4 of a failure or 'etra4al of (itnessin/@ attests to this ne( ethi"al imperative '4 la4in/ 'are ho( TTthe "r4pti" forms of modern narrative
and modern art al(a4s:(hether "ons"iousl4 or not: parta&e of that histori"al impossi'ilit4 of (ritin/ a histori"al narration of the ;olo"aust@ '4
'earin/ testimon4@ throu/h their ver4 "r4pti" form@ to the radi"al histori"al "risis in (itnessin/ that the ;olo"aust has opened up66 C>estimon4@
*01D. In =elman6s a""ount@ it is the o'liJueness@ or indetermina"4:if not eva"uation:of a te8t6s referential "onte8t that is ta&en as si/ns of its
histori"it4. ;istor4@ parado8i"all4@ 'e"omes the &no(led/e 'odied forth '4 the TT"r4pti" forms66 of a representation that "ontinuall4 attests to the
"risis of representation inau/urated '4 the ;olo"aust. >he trou'lin/ "onseJuen"es of this 'id for an ethi"s of interpretive insta'ilit4 are star&l4
revealed in =elman6s dis"ussion of 5aul de ,an6s anti-Semiti" (ritin/s for the %el/ian #ournal Be soir. =elman proposes >he =all6s alle/or4 of
the 'etra4al of (itnessin/ CClamen"e6s ina'ilit4 to turn 'a"& and save the (omanD as de ,an6s unspo&en auto'io/raphi"al stor4@ his 'elated
"onfession of the trauma "aused '4 the ;olo"aust6s le/a"4. =elman ar/ues that de,an6s silen"e over his (artime (ritin/s Cli&e Clamen"e6s o(n
silen"e in the aftermath of the dro(nin/D@ "annot 'e #ud/ed '4 us for three main reasonsG first@ (e "annot put ourselves in his pla"eH se"ond@ his
silen"e is e8emplar4 'e"ause silen"e is the onl4 (a4 of 'earin/ (itness to an event as unspea&a'le as the ;olo"austH and@ finall4@ this silen"e
impli"ates us all in the traumati" le/a"4 of the ;olo"austG TTIn realit4@ (e are all impli"ated:and in more than one (a4:in de ,an6s for/ettin/@
and in his silen"e66 C>estimon4@ 1*-D. Si/nifi"antl4@ 5rimo Bevi6s /ra4 Ione is instrumental to the formulation of these "laims. =elman su//ests
that de ,an6s predi"ament as a #ournalist in o""upied %el/ium (as someho( "ompara'le to that of the Sonder&ommando. If@ as Bevi (arns us@
(e "annot put ourselves in the pla"e of the Sonder&ommandos in the "on"entration "amps@ and therefore "annot pass #ud/ement on their a"tions@
then:=elman su//ests: a similar perspe"tive must 'e "ast on de ,an6s position as a #ournalist in o""upied %el/iumG TT>he "ru"ial ethi"al
dimensions of a histori"al e8perien"e li&e de ,an6s need to 'e pro'ed '4 'ein/ measured up a/ainst the in"ommensura'ilit4 of that e8perien"e66
C>estimon4@ 1*-D. ;ere@ =elman ar/ues for the sin/ularit4 of de ,an6s e8perien"e@ parado8i"all4@ '4 ma&in/ it analo/ous to the eJuall4 sin/ular
e8perien"e of the Sonder&ommando. In other (ords@ the analo/4 'et(een these t(o in"ommensurate fi/ures:a %el/ian /entile (ho da''led in
<aIi "olla'orationist prose and a Ae(ish prisoner (or&in/ in the "rematorium:is dra(n pre"isel4 in the name of a "on"eptG the
in"ommensura'ilit4 of their e8perien"e. et =elman@ in a /esture similar to A/am'en6s treatment of the so""er mat"h@ ma&es that
in"ommensura'ilit4 "ommensurate '4 assimilatin/ "onditions pe"uliar to the "amps6 moral life to life outside the "amps. Indeed@ (hen =elman
invo&es TTour66 impli"ation in an ethi"al terrain that for'ids redu"tive representations of people as TTus66 and TTthem@66 one "ompara'le to the /ra4
Ione@ she is effe"tivel4 transformin/ a produ"t of the "on"entration "amp6s moral and ph4si"al apparatus Cthe /ra4 IoneD into a metaphor for her
readers6 moral lands"ape. >he e8tension of the "on"entration
NContinues on ne8t pa0eO
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NContinued from previous pa0eO
"amp@ from fa"t to "on"ept@ leads to the erasure of the ver4 real differen"es 'et(een vi"tims@ e8e"utioners@ and (itnesses. >he /ra4 Ione a/ain
provides a metaphor for the "ontinued unreada'ilit4 of the ;olo"aust@ investin/ this unreada'ilit4 (ith an ethi"al (ei/ht. =elmanC li(e
A0am)en @ thus literall4 dislo$ates the 0ra5 BoneC transformin0 it into a ne* ethi$al 0round in *hi$h PP*e77 are
uniforml5 em)edded. Invo&in/ Bevi in her (arnin/ a/ainst the temptation to #ud/e de ,an from an e8ternal vanta/e point and thus
su""um' to the m4stifi"ation of TTa self-ri/hteous 'ipartition of Tthe /ood /u4s6 and Tthe 'ad /u4s6 66 C>estimon4@ 1**D@ =elman su//ests that the
onl4 responsi'le en/a/ement (ith histor46s traumati" le/a"4 is a Camusian TTfall66 into lu"id "ulpa'ilit4@ a perpetual re"&onin/ (ith one6s painful
"ompli"it4 (ith and vi"timiIation '4 an event that lies 'e4ond the rea"h of (ordsG As far as (e as readers are "on"erned@ the ethi"al Juestion (ith
respe"t to the information that has "ome forth therefore resides . . . in an attempt at understandin/ ho( pre"isel4 de ,an6s (ritin/s do in fa"t
relate to the moral impli"ations of "ontemporar4 histor4 . . . ho( de ,an arti"ulates our silen"eH ho( toda4 (e are all impli"ated in de ,an6s
ordeal and in his in"apa"it4 to tell us more a'out itH ho(@ havin/ fa"ed (hat he fa"ed@ de ,an "hose an inevita'le s4nta8 and an inevita'le CsilentD
lan/ua/e. >he Juestion that should 'e addressed in li/ht of de ,an6s histor4 is . . . ho( 'oth de ,an6s silen"e and his spee"h arti"ulate@ and thus
help us understand@ the (a4s in (hi"h (e are still (ounded '4 the ;olo"aust@ and the (a4s in (hi"h (e har'or the unfinished 'usiness of this
re"ent histor4 (ithin us. C1*-*.D. >his 'lurrin/ of su'#e"t positions Cin (hi"h de ,an@ the Sonder&ommando@ 5rimo Bevi and ourselves "ir"ulate
on the metaphori"al pla4in/ U fields of the /ra4 IoneD o""urs '4 privile/in/ silen"e as the onl4 adeJuate mode of apprehendin/ a histori"al realit4
that "onfounds representation. If@ as =elman "laims@ TTde ,an "ould 'orro( 5rimo Bevi6s (ords@66 it is onl4 'e"ause 'oth de ,an and Bevi TTfall
silent66 'efore the trauma of the ;olo"aust. Silen"e@ then@ is essentialiIed into a trope that fun"tions identi"all4 a"ross "onte8ts and /enres. 7e
,an6s silen"e over his (artime (ritin/s is someho( analo/ous to the silen"es found in the (ritin/s of survivors su"h as 5rimo Bevi and !lie
+iesel. ;is later (ritin/s@ li&e the muffled histori"al referen"es of Camus6s novels@ are falterin/ testimonies to the impossi'ilit4 of 'earin/
(itness to an unspea&a'le histor4. Aust as the so""er /ame pla4ed in Aus"h(itI sta/ed a "onver/en"e 'et(een vi"tims@ perpetrators@ and
(itnesses@ =elman6s readin/ su//ests a parallel "onver/en"e 'et(een "olla'orator@ survivor@ (itness@ and pro84-(itness. >he a)stra$t
spe$ter of universal impli$ation CTT(e are all impli"ated@66 TTour silen"e66D shades into shared vi$timhood. >he ine8pressi'le
trauma of the ;olo"aust 'inds us all and eJuall4 into a /eneral le/a"4 of (ounded "ompli"it4. >he o)viousl5 untena)le assimilation
of de ,an6s silen"e and trauma to that of 5rimo Bevi CsurvivorD@ Al'ert Camus C(riter and se"ondar4 (itnessD@ and Clamen"e Cfi"tional
"hara"terD has alread5 )een $ritiGued at len/th '4 7omini"& BaCapra and I shall not 'ela'or the point here.*2 ,4 main o'#e"tive has
'een to point out ho( some of the assumptions underl5in0 a theoriIation of histor5 as trauma:that is to sa4@ histor4 as a
dislo"ation 'oth of the event and of an e8perien"in/ su'#e"t: ma5 repli$ate the violen$e of the traumati$ event itself . I have
addressed this theoreti"al violen"e as the TTlo/i" of the so""er mat"h66 'e"ause its metaphori$al re$5$lin0 of $ulpa)ilit5 and
vi$timiBation repli$ates the $ir$ulation of inno$en$e and 0uilt that (e see in the so""er mat"h 'et(een the SS and SK at the
/ates of the Aus"h(itI "rematorium.

ur impa$t is that this is distin$tl5 violent turnin0 all of their $liams
7e'arati San5al is Asso"iate 5rofessor of =ren"h at the ?niversit4 of California@ %er&ele4. She re"eived her 5h7 in Roman"e Ban/ua/es from 5rin"eton
?niversit4. >he author of >he Eiolen"e of ,odernit4G %audelaire@ Iron4 and the 5oliti"s of =orm CAohns ;op&ins ?niversit4 5ress@ *001D@ she has also pu'lished
arti"les on %audelaire@ ;olo"aust Studies@ +orld +ar >(o and post(ar "ommitment. Su'Stan"e@ Eol. -1@ <o. *$-@ Issue 93$99G Spe"ial IssueG >heatri"alit4 C*002D@
pp. -01--01 Sta'le ?RBG httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$-130.91
ne of the most po*erful and timel5 $onsiderations to emer0e from BaCapraFs $ritiGue of $urrent theoriBations
of traumaC thenC is the $onflation of histori$al and stru$tural traumaC a move that divests the traumati$ event-
and the su)%e$t positions *ithin it-of spe$ifi$it5C thus also )lo$(in0 an5 via)le form of H*or(in0 throu0hH and
movin0 on. et su"h "onflations of histories and su'#e"t-positions are ar/ua'l4 endemi" to theoriIin/ histor4 throu/h the &aleidos"opi" lens
of trauma. >rauma is an e8perien"e (hi"h@ 'e"ause of its unthin&a'le@ shatterin/ nature@ is not availa'le to immediate and "ons"ious
understandin/. Instead@ the event Cor histor4D is 'elatedl4 and repetitivel4 re"orded '4 the ps4"he. ;en"e it is dis-lo$ated from a spe$ifi$
histori$al eventC sin$e the e8perien$e onl5 emer0es in its displa"ed@ s4mptomati" afterlife *ithin the fra$tured
individual or $olle$tive ps5$he. It is pre$isel5 the unmoorin/@ or dislo$ationC of the traumati$ e8perien$e that
ma(es it sus$epti)le to the a)usive appropriations "ritiJued '4 BaCapra.
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Aff K Core
A-to A0am)en K
@ A A0am)en7s )iopo*er is over-simplified and prevents us from $onfrontin0 spe$ifi$
politi$al $ir$umstan$es.
Mirno P2
C5aolo@ 5h7 and Italian philosopher@ 9eneral intelle"t@ e8odus@ multitude@) Ar"hipela/o <o. 0.@ Aune *00*@
httpG$$(((./eneration-online.or/$p$fpvirno*.htmD
A0am)en is a thin(er of /reat value 'ut also@ in m4 opinion@ a thin&er (ith no politi$al vo$ation. >hen@ *hen A0am)en
spea(s of the )iopoliti$al he has the tenden$5 to transform it into an ontolo0i$al $ate0or5 *ith value alread5
sin"e the ar"hai" Roman ri/ht. And@ in this@ in m4 opinion@ he is ver5 *ron0-headed. >he pro'lem is@ I 'elieve@ that the )iopoliti$al is
onl5 an effe$t derived from the $on$ept of la)or-po*er. ,hen there is a $ommodit5 that is $alled la)or-po*er
it is alread5 impli$itl5 0overnment over life. A/am'en sa4s@ on the other hand@ that la'or-po(er is onl4 one of the aspe"ts of the
'iopoliti"alH I sa4 the "ontrar4G over all )e$ause la)or po*er is a parado8i$al $ommodit5C )e$ause it is not a real
$ommodit5 li(e a )oo( or a )ottle of *aterC )ut rather is simpl5 the potential to produ$e. As soon as this
potential is transformed into a $ommodit5C thenC it is ne$essar5 to 0overn the livin0 )od5 that maintains this
potentialC that $ontains this potential. >oni C<e/riD and ,i"hael C;ardtD@ on the other hand@ use 'iopoliti"s in a histori"all4
determined sense@ 'asin/ it on =ou"ault@ 'ut =ou"ault spo&e in fe( pa/es of the 'iopoliti"al - in relation to the 'irth of li'eralism - that
=ou$ault is not a suffi$ient )ase for foundin0 a dis$ourse over the )iopoliti$al and m5 apprehensionC m5 fearC
is that the )iopoliti$al $an )e transformed into a *ord that hidesC $overs pro)lems instead of )ein0 an
instrument for $onfrontin0 them. A fetish *ordC an Hopen doorsH *ordC a *ord *ith an e8$lamation pointC a
*ord that $arries the ris( of )lo$(in0 $riti$al thou0ht instead of helpin0 it. >henC m5 fear is of fetish *ords in
politi$s )e$ause it seems li(e the $ries of a $hild that is afraid of the dar(...C the $hild that sa5s HmamaC
mamaQHC H)iopoliti$sC )iopoliti$sQH. I donEt ne0ate that there $an )e a serious $ontent in the termC ho*ever I
see that the use of the term )iopoliti$s sometimes is a $onsolator5 useC li(e the $r5 of a $hildC *hen *hat serves
us areC in all $asesC instruments of *or( and not propa0anda *ords.
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A-to A0am)en K
@ A A0am)en7s K is too totaliBin0:a$$eptin0 appeals to some soverei0n po*er does not
$ause the ne0ative impa$ts of soverei0nt5 in ever5 instan$e. >he plan is a %ustified use of
soverei0n po*er to prevent a $atastrophe.
;ussainC 2000
C7epartment of ;istor4 at %er&ele4 <asser@ -. Ba( V So"F4 Rev. .90@ le8isD.
;ere on"e a/ain (e are for"ed to Juestion A/am'enFs teleolo/i"al mode of thou/ht. Is this soverei/n po(er
represented in the "on"entration "amps reall4 a "onstitutive feature of soverei/nt4 tout "ourtL !ven limitin/ ouselves
to the remar&s a'ove@ (e "an ima/ine a li'eral "ritiJue of this position that as&s from (here "ome the limitations
that A/am'en "on"edes previous +eimar /overnments had o'served. Surel4@ one does not have to a""ept in its
entiret4 a normative li'eral "on"eption of soverei/n po(er in order to appre"iate that the demand for a fa"tual
a""ountin/ for the de"ision on the e8"eption@ and institutional "he"&s upon the totaliIation of the spa"e of e8"eption@
"an nonetheless - at least in "ertain instan"es - 'e effe"tive. Indeed@ one "ould /o further and su//est that a li'eral
theor4 of soverei/n po(er understands full (ell the parado8i"al relation 'et(een la( and fa"t@ norm and e8"eptionH
and@ pre"isel4 in li/ht of su"h an understandin/ "onstru"ts an institutional s4stem that "annot resolve the parado8 'ut
nonetheless attempts to prevent it from rea"hin/ an intensified and "atastrophi" "on"lusion. 9iven that A/am'en is a
nuan"ed and fair-minded thin&er@ one must (onder a'out (h4 he lar/el4 i/nores su"h a s4stem. +e thin& that one
possi'le ans(er is that@ #ust as for A/am'en the sour"e of the pro'lem is not the institutional operation of soverei/n
po(er@ 'ut its o'#e"t - 'are life - so too the solution is not a proliferation of institutional safe/uards 'ut a rethin&in/
of that mode of 'ein/. In this re/ard@ (e find his "on"ludin/ musin/s on ;eidi//er to 'e su//estive.
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A-to A0am)en )are life
@ A >he $on$ept of )are life over-determines the po*er of the state:theories that
emphasiBe resistan$e are more po*erful.
Cesarino R <e0ri P/
CCesare@ asso"iate professor of "ultural studies@ Antonio@ professor emeritus W the CollX/e International de
5hilosophie@ It6s a 5o(erful BifeG A Conversation on Contemporar4 5hilosoph4@) Cultural CritiJue@ Eol. 02@
Sprin/ *00.@ p/. 12*-12-D
I 'elieve 9ior/io is (ritin/ a seJuel to Homo Sacer@ and I feel that this ne( (or& (ill 'e resolutive for his thou/ht:in the sense that he (ill 'e
for"ed in it to resolve and find a (a4 out of the am'i/uit4 that has Jualified his understandin/ of na&ed life so far. ;e alread4 attempted
somethin/ of the sort in his re"ent 'oo& on Saint 5aul@ 'ut I thin& this attempt lar/el4 failedG as usual@ this 'oo& is e8tremel4 learned and ele/antH
it remains@ ho(ever@ some(hat trapped (ithin 5auline e8e/esis@ rather than "onstitutin/ a full-fled/ed attempt to re"onstru"t na&ed life as a
potentialit4 for e8odus@ to rethin& na&ed life fundamentall4 in terms of e8odus. I 'elieve that the $on$ept of na(ed life is not an
impossi)leC unfeasi)le one. I )elieve it is possi)le to push the ima0e of po*er to the point at *hi$h a
defenseless human )ein0 Mun povero CristoN is $rushedC to $on$eive of that e8treme point at *hi$h po*er tries to
eliminate that ultimate resistan$e that is the sheer attempt to (eep oneself alive. =rom a lo/i"al standpoint@ it is
possi)le to thin( all thisJ the na(ed )odies of the people in the $ampsC for e8ampleC $an lead one pre$isel5 in
this dire$tion. 'ut this is also the point at *hi$h this $on$ept turns into ideolo05J to $on$eive of the relation
)et*een po*er and life in su$h a *a5 a$tuall5 ends up )olsterin0 and reinfor$in0 ideolo05. A0am)enC in
effe$tC is sa5in0 that su$h is the nature of po*erJ in the final instan$eC po*er redu$es ea$h and ever5 human
)ein0 to su$h a state of po*erlessness. 'ut this is a)solutel5 not trueQ n the $ontrar5J the histori$al pro$ess
ta(es pla$e and is produ$ed than(s to a $ontinuous $onstitution and $onstru$tionC *hi$h undou)tedl5
$onfronts the limit over and over a0ain:)ut this is an e8traordinaril5 ri$h limitC in *hi$h desires e8pandC
and in *hi$h life )e$omes in$reasin0l5 fuller. Of "ourse it is possi'le to "on"eive of the limit as a'solute po(-erlessness@ espe"iall4
(hen it has 'een a"tuall4 ena"ted and enfor"ed in su"h a (a4 so man4 times. And 4et@ isnEt su$h a $on$eption of the limit pre$isel5
*hat the limit loo(s li(e from the standpoint of $onstituted po*er as *ell as from the standpoint of those *ho
have alread5 )een totall5 annihilated )5 su$h a po*er:*hi$h isC of $ourseC one and the same standpointI
IsnEt this the stor5 a)out po*er that po*er itself *ould li(e us to )elieve in and reiterateI IsnEt it far more
politi$all5 useful to $on$eive of this limit from the standpoint of those *ho are not 5et or not $ompletel5
$rushed )5 po*erC from the standpoint of those still stru00lin0 to over$ome su$h a limitC from the standpoint
of the pro$ess of $onstitutionC from the standpoint of po*er MpotenzaNL
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A-to A0am)en muselmann-spe$ifi$
@ A ,e $ritiGue their deplo5ment of the muselmannJ It7s in$omplete and )e$ause it re%e$ts
s5stems that don7t $enter on the muselmannC it 0rants the <aBis a posthumous vi$tor5.
<i"holas Chare is le"turer in the histor4 of art at the ?niversit4 of Readin/ and visitin/ le"turer in art histor4 at Cit4 ?niversit4@ Bondon. ;e
is a former editor of paralla8. Cultural CritiJue 1. C*002D p. .0-13
In Remnants of Aus$h*itBC ho(ever@ 9ior/io A0am)en $hooses to fo$us on onl5 one aspe$t of the $amp
e8perien$e. '5 $enterin0 his dis$ussion of *itnessin0 solel5 on the fi0ure of the -uselmann Cthe name /iven to an
inmate (ho (as in the advan"ed sta/es of malnutrition M!nd 5a/e .1N and lived in an e8treme stuporD@ he appears to favor a form of
(itnessin/ produ"ed (ithin the event@ privile0in0 the (ind of limited and lo$al perspe$tive that Fau) des$ri)es as
insuffi$ient. A0am)en uses the -uselmann as the lo$us for a sustained meditation on ethi$s and the nature of
testimon4. Althou/h the ar/uments advan"ed in Remnants of Aus"h(itI (ill 'e familiar to man4@ I (ant to 'riefl4 situate them in relation to
A/am'enFs earlier (or&@ ;omo Sa"er@ and his more re"ent (or&s. In ;omo Sa"er@ A/am'en anal4ses the relationship that has "ome to e8ist in
modernit4 'et(een IoY and 'ios C1D. ZoY is defined as plain lifeH the Ksimple fa"t of livin/ "ommon to all livin/ 'ein/s Canimals@ men or /odsD@K
(hilst 'ios is Kthe form or (a4 of life proper to an individual or a /roupK C1D. ZoY des"ri'es natural life in /eneral@ (hilst 'ios refers to a
parti"ular (a4 of livin/ of (hi"h politi"al life (ould provide an e8ample. A/am'en tra"&s the developin/ relation 'et(een 'are life and politi"al
life from the "lassi"al (orld to the emer/en"e of <ational So"ialism. In an"ient 9ree"e@ the introdu"tion of politi"al so"iet4 prompted the
disappearan"e of simple@ natural livin/. ZoY (as removed from si/ht. Reprodu"tive life Cone form of e8pression of natural lifeD (as rele/ated to
the home@ a spa"e separate from 'ut still sited (ithin the polis. >hat (hi"h (as e8"luded CIoYD (as also in"luded. It 'e"ame an in"lusive
e8"lusion C2D. A/am'en finds a lin& in AristotleFs 5oliti"s 'et(een this situation and that of the a"Juisition of lo/os '4 the su'#e"t@ an a"Juisition
in (hi"h phonY Cthe voi"eD disappears 4et is also preserved C3D. Ban/ua/e permits #ud/ment and as su"h distin/uishes the life of the human from
the life of an animal.1 %oth human and animal share the state of natural life CIoYD@ 'ut the humanFs "apa"it4 for lan/ua/e leads to a form of life
C'iosD that differs from the animalFs. >he animal feels 'ut does not #ud/e C23D. It e8perien"es either pain or pleasure. >he human feels and@
throu/h lan/ua/e@ also has the "apa"it4 to ma&e #ud/ments@ to distin/uish 'et(een the /ood and the 'ad. >he human is the #ud/in/ animal. >he
importan"e of this entr4 into lan/ua/e for the advent of the human is e"hoed in Remnants of Aus"h(itI (hen A/am'en des"ri'es ho( Kthe livin/
individual appropriates lan/ua/e in a full e8propriation alone@ 'e"omin/ a spea&in/ 'ein/ onl4 on "ondition of fallin/ into silen"eK C1*9D. >he
a"Juisition of lan/ua/e@ (ith its "on"omitant "apa"it4 to #ud/e@ institutes a /ap 'et(een man the lin/uisti" 'ein/ and man as simple@ livin/ 'ein/.
>he human is the 'ein/ (ho a'andons M!nd 5a/e .*N the state of not havin/ lan/ua/e that is earl4 "hildhood. As A/am'en e8plains@ the Khuman
'ein/ is the spea&in/ 'ein/@ the livin/ 'ein/ (ho has lan/ua/e@ 'e"ause the human 'ein/ is "apa'le of not havin/ lan/ua/e@ 'e"ause it is "apa'le
of its o(n in-fan"4K CRemnants@ 1.1D. >he literal meanin/ of in-fans is@ of "ourse@ one (ho is not a'le to spea&. >he entr4 into lan/ua/e is onl4
possi'le 'e"ause lan/ua/e is a'sent to 'e/in (ith. <atural life is nonlin/uisti" life. >o spea& is to 'e"ome human. >he noises voi"ed '4 animal
life:"ries@ roars@ snarls@ son/s:are all e8pressions of pain or pleasure. >he4 are not #ud/ments@ onl4 feelin/s. In these noises@ 'od4 and 'ein/
are as one. >he human@ ho(ever@ has the potential to #ud/e. >he human has the potential to enter into lan/ua/e and to pass #ud/ment. >he
fulfillment of this potential@ ho(ever@ reJuires openin/ a /ap 'et(een the livin/ voi"e Cthe or/an that e8presses pleasure and painD and the
voi"in/ that is lan/ua/e Cthe appenda/e of #ud/mentD. A/am'en e8plains that Kthere is no moment in (hi"h lan/ua/e is ins"ri'ed in the livin/
voi"e@ no pla"e in (hi"h the livin/ 'ein/ is a'le to render itself lin/uisti"@ transformin/ itself into spee"hK CRemnants@ 1*9D.* >he livin/ voi"e is
an in"lusive e8"lusion in spee"h. >he material support of lan/ua/e falls silent for spee"h to 'e"ome. >he matter is a'andoned. ;omo Sa"er
fo"uses on the in"lusive e8"lusion of 'are life as a "ondition and identifies it as essential to soverei/n po(er.- In the "on"ludin/ part of the 'oo&@
A/am'en see&s to 'uild upon ,i"hel =ou"aultFs "on"eption of 'iopoliti"s '4 relatin/ it to <ational So"ialism. %iopoliti"s is politi"s "on"erned
(ith manFs ever4da4 natural life@ (ith issues su"h as health@ leisure@ and (or&in/ pra"ti"es. >he rise of 'iopoliti"s "aused the soverei/n
imperative Kto ma&e die and let liveK Cassertin/ the ri/ht to &illD to 'e repla"ed '4 the aspiration Kto ma&e live and to let dieK Cprivile/in/ the "are
of lifeD CRemnants@ 100D. As =ou"ault had e8plained@ Kthe old po(er of death that s4m'oliIed soverei/n po(er (as no( "arefull4 supplanted '4
the administration of 'odies and the "al"ulated mana/ement of lifeK C1-9.0D. >his administration of 'odies mar&s the in"orporation of IoY into
the politi"al. <atural life is no( the stuff of politi"s. A/am'en suspe"ts that Kthe e8emplar4 pla"e of modern 'iopoliti"sK is Kthe politi"s of the
/reat totalitarian states of the t(entieth "entur4K C;omo Sa"er@ 119D. >hese are states to (hi"h he su//ests =ou"ault failed to /ive due
"onsideration.. In the final "hapter of ;omo Sa"er@ he anal4ses the role of M!nd 5a/e .-N the "on"entration "amp (ithin the politi"s of <ational
So"ialism. >he "amps fun"tion as a state of e8"eption.0 >he state of e8"eption Kallo(s for the foundation and definition of the normal le/al
orderK CRemnants@ .3D. It provides an outside to the la( from (ithin the la(@ therefore ena'lin/ the la( to 'e. It is a "onstitutive outside held
inside@ an in"lusive e8"lusion. In its modern manifestation@ the state of e8"eption is 'est defined as a #uridi"al pauseH it is the la( pla"ed in
suspension. In ;omo Sa"er C113D@ Remnants of Aus"h(itI C.9D@ and State of !8"eption C*D@ A/am'en provides ;itlerFs 19-- 7e"ree for the
5rote"tion of the 5eople and the State as an e8ample of su"h a pause. >he de"ree suspended man4 of the la(s to prote"t "ivil li'erties enshrined
in the +eimar "onstitution. It (as never repealed (hile ;itler (as in po(er@ (hi"h there'4 ma&es it possi'le to understand the entire >hird Rei"h
as a state of e8"eption. In this sense A/am'en "ontends that Kmodern totalitarianism "an 'e defined as the esta'lishment@ '4 means of the state of
e8"eption@ of a le/al "ivil (ar that allo(s for the ph4si"al elimination not onl4 of politi"al adversaries 'ut of entire "ate/ories of "itiIens (ho for
some reason "annot 'e inte/rated into the politi"al s4stemK CState@ *D. >he "on"entration "amp is a materialiIation of this stateH it is the Kspa"e that
opens up (hen the state of e8"eption starts to 'e"ome the ruleK C,eans@ -9D. In the "on"entration "amp@ the state of e8"eption 'e"omes the norm.
>hose (ho (ere "onfined there Kmoved a'out in a Ione of indistin"tion 'et(een the outside and the inside@ the e8"eption and the rule@ the li"it
and the illi"it@ in (hi"h ever4 #uridi"al prote"tion had disappearedK C,eans@ .0.1D. >he "amp as an e8emplar4 spa"e of le/al suspension (as Kan
a'solute non-pla"e (ith respe"t to the la(K CState@ 01D.1 >he inmates (ere interned outside the la(. >he4 (ere
N Continues n <e8t 6a0e O
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N Continued =rom 6revious 6a0e O
deprived of politi"al status and thus of le/al prote"tion. >here (as no lon/er an4 la( to intervene in the intera"tions 'et(een /uard and inmate. In
the state of e8"eption@ the le/al 'od4 that supplements the livin/ 'od4 in the ever4da4 and that mediates all en"ounters (ith it "eased to e8ist.
Instead@ the prisoner (as Kredu"ed "ompletel4 to na&ed lifeK C,eans@ .1D. >heir 'od4 (as pla"ed outside the la(. >he la( provides an important
frame(or& for #ud/in/ a"tions. Ba(s delimit (hat is 'ad. >he la('rea&er is the "riminal. In the "amps there (ere no la(s to 'rea&. >he
prevention of the perpetration of atro"ities Cthe4 "annot 'e "alled "riminal a"ts (ithin this "onte8tD no lon/er depended upon the for"e of la( 'ut
upon Kthe M!nd 5a/e ..N "ivilit4 and ethi"al senseK of those (ho (ere temporaril4 a"tin/ as soverei/n C;omo@ 12.D. In the "amp K'are life and
the #uridi"al rule enter into a threshold of indistin"tionK C;omo@ 12.D. %odies (ere stripped of the prote"tion of la(@ a prote"tion that is@ at least
partiall4@ lin/uisti". >he dispossession of le/al status should also 'e understood as a dispossession of lan/ua/e. >he possession of lan/ua/e@ as
dis"ussed earlier@ is a part of (hat ma&es humans human rather than animal. >his dispossession is therefore a partial denudin/ of humanit4. >he
state of e8"eption that is the "on"entration "amp produ"es 'odies no lon/er prote"ted '4 the la(@ 'odies redu"ed to 'are life. %are life is Ka
threshold in (hi"h la( "onstantl4 passes over into fa"t and fa"t into la(@ and in (hi"h the t(o planes 'e"ome indistin/uisha'leK C;omo@ 121D.
?suall4 a state of e8"eption arises as a response to a fa"tual situation Ca pu'li" revolt@ for e8ampleD@ 'ut in the "amps the situation is produ"ed as a
result of the e8"eption. >he state of e8"eption no lon/er o""urs after the fa"t. Ba( and fa"t "ompli"ate. >his "ompli"ation is materialiIed in the
"amp inmate. %are life is not@ therefore@ natural life. It is not IoY. It is a liminal state o""urrin/ 'et(een 'ios and IoY@ 'et(een life st4led '4 la(
and natural life@ 'et(een lan/ua/e and nonlan/ua/e. >he most e8treme e8ample of 'are life in the "amps is em'odied '4 the ,uselmann. >he
,uselmann as an unthin&in/ and automati" 'od4@ an a'#e"t lesson in 'are life@ 'e"omes Kthe final 'iopoliti"al su'stan"e to 'e isolated in the
'iolo/i"al "ontinuum@K after (hi"h there is onl4 the 'e4ond of politi"s@ death CRemnants@ 30D. >he ,uselmann is Kthe a'solutel4 un(itnessa'le@
invisi'le ar& of 'io-po(erK C101D. >he ,uselmann neither spea&s nor thin&sH it is no lon/er human 4et is not natural life. >he ,uselmann is not
Kan e8trapoliti"al@ natural fa"tK C;omo@ 121D 'ut e8ists rather as a threshold 'et(een the inhuman and the human@ 'et(een IoY and 'ios. >he
inhuman CIoYD is the in"lusive e8"lusion that "onstitutes our humanit4. It is a part of us 4et apart from us. ;ere@ in the ,uselmann@ the inhuman
and the human Cthe usuall4 insepara'l4 separateD "ome "lose to "on#oinin/. =or as lon/ as there is separation 'et(een 'ios and IoY@ ho(ever@ the
human persists. It e8ists in the /ap 'et(i8t the t(o. In >he Open@ A/am'en su//ests that in Ko#XveFs readin/ of ;e/el Kman is not a 'iolo/i"all4
defined spe"ies@ nor is he a su'stan"e /iven on"e and for allH he is@ rather@ a field of diale"ti"al tensions al(a4s alread4 "ut '4 internal "aesurae
that ever4 time M!nd 5a/e .0N separate:at least virtuall4:FanthropophorousF animalit4 and the humanit4 (hi"h ta&es 'odil4 form in itK C1*D.
,an is the pla"e and the result of division. >he human is produ"ed throu/h a pro"ess of su'lation in (hi"h the inhuman is ne/ated and preserved.
In the "on"entration "amps@ ho(ever@ Kan e8treme and monstrous attempt to de"ide 'et(een the human and the inhuman . . . ended up dra//in/
the ver4 possi'ilit4 of the distin"tion to its ruinK COpen@ **D. A/am'en des"ri'es the ,uselmann as the Knon-human (ho o'stinatel4 appears as
humanK and Kthe human that "annot 'e told apart from the inhumanK CRemnants@ 313*D. >he "amps produ"ed a fi/ure in the ,uselmann (ho
threatened to "lose the /ap 'et(een the human and the inhuman. >o su""essfull4 "lose this /ap (ould 'e to do a(a4 (ith the d4ad that /rounds
the diale"ti"al pro"ess that founds the human. >he ,uselmann represents Ka point at (hi"h human 'ein/s@ (hile apparentl4 remainin/ human
'ein/s@ "ease to 'e humanK CRemnants@ 00D. >he ,uselmann appears to 'e an inhuman human 'ein/@ a "losed /ap. A/am'en@ ho(ever@ (arns us
that to den4 the humanit4 of the ,uselm[nner (ould 'e Kto a""ept the verdi"t of the SS and to repeat their /estureK CRemnants@ 1-D. ;e "ontends
that the ,uselmann is 'e4ond the rea"h of etholo/4 in its "urrent form@ a fa"t that reJuires us to rethin& the ethi"al. =or A0am)enC an
ethi$s that formulates the human in terms of an o'li/ator4 "ommuni"ation or in terms of di/nit4 is an ethi"s that is una)le to re$o0niBe
and a$$ount for the -uselmann and as su"h is inadeGuate. In an astute $ritiGue of this aspe$t of A0am)enEs
thin(in0C Domini$( FaCapra as(s *hether Hthe idea that Aus$h*itB radi$all5 dele0itimates all pree8istin0
ethi$s and all present appeals to themC in$ludin0 all notions of de$en$5 and di0nit5C parado8i$all5 runs the
ris( of 0rantin0 a posthumous . . . vi$tor5 to the <aBisH C*90D. A/am'en "alls for a ne( ethi"s@ an ori/inal means of
a""ounta'ilit4 that is eJual to the tas& of attestin/ to the ,uselmann. >o 'ear (itness to the ,uselmann@ to 'rea& (ith the violen"e of ethi"al
silen"e@ reJuires that the inhuman in the human 'e spo&en. >estimon4 ne"essitates an impossi'le "onver/en"e@ su"h that Kthe su'#e"t of testimon4
is the one (ho 'ears (itness to a desu'#e"tifi"ationK CRemnants@ 1*0*1D. >his means that there is no su'#e"t of testimon4@ rather Kever4
testimon4 is a field of for"es in"essantl4 traversed '4 "urrents of su'#e"tifi"ation and desu'#e"tifi"ationK C1*1D.
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Aff K Core
A-to Apo$al5pti$&S$enario 6lannin0 K
@ A Apo$al5pti$ s$enario-plannin0 is not pointlessJ It solves their offenseC )e$ause it7s self-
refle8iveD andC It )oosts valua)le parti$ipation for the audien$e.
%ru"e >onn 7epartment of 5oliti"al S"ien"e@ ?niversit4 of >ennessee@ and Aenna >onn@ 7epartment of the
;istor4 of S"ien"e@ ;arvard ?niversit4 =utures .1 C*009D 210210 o'tained via S"ien"e 7ire"t
>his dis"ussion has lar/el4 'een fo"used on the histori"al pre"edents for a se"ular tradition of (ritin/ a'out human
e8tin"tion. Althou/h literar4 studies ma4 seem outside of the s"ope of futures studies@ authors li&e ,ar4 +ollstone"raft Shelle4@ ;.9. +ells@
Aldous ;u8le4@ and ,ar/aret At(ood present "ompellin/ visions of the future and /enerate dis"ussions a'out the
ima/ination of human e8tin"tion and the art of (ritin/ its s"enarios. =urthermore a literar4 anal4sis of the apo"al4pti"
mode of (ritin/ offers ne( insi/hts into the reasons (h4 the narrative of human e8tin"tion is so po(erful and provides
'a"&/round te8ts that mi/ht help shape and inspire future e8tin"tion s"enarios. 7.;. Ba(ren"e on"e as&edG TT+hat does the Apo"al4pse
matter@ unless in so far as it /ives us ima/inative release into another vital (orldL After all@ (hat meanin/ has the Apo"al4pseL =or the
ordinar4 reader@ not mu"h66 M*3N. >he /oal of this edition is to address 7.;. Ba(ren"e6s Juestions and to prove to the
ordinar4 reader that thin(in0 a)out human e8tin$tion an inte0ral step to*ard $han0in0 the present state of the
*orld.
@ A ur >onn and >onn ev spe$ifi$all5 $onte8tualiBesJ
,ar4 +ollstone"raft Shelle4 C12921301D is most (ell &no(n for her first novel@ =ran&enstein@ (hi"h (as pu'lished in 1313 and is "onsidered @
amon/ other thin/s@ the first pie"e of s"ien"e fi"tion in !n/lish literature M1N. In 13*1@ she pu'lished her third novel entitled >he Bast ,an M*N an
epi" narrative a'out the destru"tion of the human ra"e. >his 'oo&@ (hi"h is the su'#e"t of this essa4@ (as amon/ the first literar4
(or&s to e8plore the apo"al4pse. ,+S6s human e8tin"tion s"enario (as one of the most per"ipient and path 'rea&in/ and therefore should
'e reJuired readin/ for futurists. 7urin/ the "ourse of the novel@ humanit4 is e8tin/uished '4 the 5la/ue1 and the main
"hara"ter Bionel Eerne4 suffers the loss of all that human&ind had a""omplishedG art@ musi"@ literature@ and politi"s. >his profound sense of
"ultural loss rarel4 ma&es it into our "urrent poli"4 dis"ussions a'out $limate $han0e @ pandemi$s and other threats to
humanit5 . It should@ thou/h@ in order to remind us of the sta&es involved in prote"tin/ the future of the human ra"e.
>his paper provides a s4nopsis of the novel@ o'servations a'out ho( this literar4 (or& is relevant to futurists toda4@ and a
literar4 anal4sis of this and other similar apo"al4pti" (ritin/s.
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SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to Apo$al5pti$&S$enario 6lannin0 K $ont7
@ A Apo$al5pti$ s$enario plannin0 is 0oodJ #ven if the predi$tions are offC the pro$ess
remedies po*erlessness and does help mo)iliBe a0ainst real dan0er.
As (e have seen@ human e8tin"tion s"enarios toda4 fit into a lon/ se"ular and reli/ious histor4 of (ritin/ a'out the
apo"al4pse. >he Juestion then 'e"omesG (hat ma&es people use the narrative model of the apo"al4pse as seen in the Old and <e( >estaments
to tell their o(n storiesL A num'er have s"holars have dis"ussed this Juestion. 7avid Ketterer@ (ho studies the apo"al4pti" mode in Ameri"an
literature@ 'elieves that TTapo"al4pti" literature is "on"erned (ith the "reation of other (orlds (hi"h e8ist@ on the literal level@ in a "redi'le
relationship C(hether on the 'asis of rational e8trapolation and analo/4 or of reli/ious 'eliefD (ith the Treal6 (orld@ there'4 "ausin/ a
metaphori"al destru"tion of that Treal6 (orld in the reader6s head66. =urthermore@ +. +arren +a/ar@ a historian and futures s"holar (ho
pu'lished man4 'oo&s in"ludin/ A Short ;istor4 of the =uture@ (rote TTthat es"hatolo/i"al fi"tions help us "ope (ith the fear of
death and "ompensate us for our po(erlessness66. +a/ar6s (or& on the apo"al4pse relates "losel4 to the su'#e"t of ,+S6s novel. ;e
ar/ued TT>he last man@ or one of a handful of last men@ is a fi/ure of immeasura'le po(er and importan"e66 M13N. 7avid Seed@ the editor of an
antholo/4 of arti"les on apo"al4pse theor4@ "ites =ran& Kermode6s >he Sense of an !ndin/ in his dis"ussion of the usefulness of apo"al4pse
narratives. A""ordin/ to Seed@ Kermode 'elieves that the TTapo"al4pse depends on a "on"ord of ima/inativel4 re"orded past and ima/inativel4
predi"ted future@ a"hieved on 'ehalf of us@ (ho remain Tin the middest666. Kermode6s TT"entral insi/ht66 into apo"al4pse theor4 is that the
TTapo"al4pse MisN a narrative@ one of the fi"tions (hi"h (e emplo4 to ma&e sense of our present66. =urthermore@ TTthere is a
ne"essar4 relation 'et(een the fi"tions '4 (hi"h (e order our (orld and the in"reasin/ "omple8it4 of (hat (e ta&e
to 'e the Treal6 histor4 of the (orld66 Relatin/ to this point@ Bois 5ar&inson Zamora (rites that TTthe apo"al4ptist assi/ns to event after
event a pla"e in a pattern of histori"al relationships that. . .presses steadil4 to(ards "ulmination66 M19N. >hus@ the apo"al4pse is a literar4
devi"e that humans turn to 'oth to "omprehend more full4 their pla"e in the (orld and to impress upon others the
"onditions of the TTreal66 (orld (hi"h must 'e "han/ed to ensure the future of humanit4.
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Aff K Core
A-to 'adiou
@ A 'adiou7s $on$ept of ethi$s fails )e$ause it is impossi)le to ma(e Gualitative distin$tions
)et*een different sorts of evil:leadin0 to a)surd results.
'ro*n P/
C<i"holas@ ?niversit4 of Illinois at Chi"a/o@ Or@ Alain %adiou and Slavo# Ui\e&@ +aitin/ for Somethin/ to ;appen@
CRG >he <e( Centennial Revie( ..- C*00.D *39--19D.
>his apparatus is a po(erful lens@ and there "an 'e no dou't that %adiou is des"ri'in/ somethin/ importantH perhaps it is even an aspe"t of evil.
%ut is it reall4 !vil C,alD itselfL %adiouFs evil@ li&e his truth@ is indifferent to "ontent@ a merel4 formal la'el. In its formalism@
its insisten"e on fidelit4 to an4 !vent (hatever:on Kethi"al "onsisten"4K itself as a value:%adiouFs /ood is almost an aestheti" rather than an
ethi"al "ate/or4. CAt one point@ in an e"ho of KantFs purposeless purpose@ ethi"al "onsisten"4 is even des"ri'ed as Kdisinterested interest.KD +hile
there is somethin/ undenia'l4 attra"tive in ethi"al "onsisten"4 Cand somethin/ u/l4 in its la"&D@ the most important
thin/ for a modern ethi"s ma4 'e to push these sentimental "onsiderations aside. >he value of ethi"al "onsisten"4 is
authoriIed '4 Ba"anFs (ell-&no(n di"tum not to /ive up on oneFs desire Mne pas "]der sur son d]sirN. %ut (e should not for/et that this ma8im
derives from the readin/ of Anti/one in S]minaire EII. es@ Sopho"lesF Anti/one@ in her a(ful ethi"al "onsisten"4@ is a "aptivatin/ fi/ure.
%re"htFs 9alileo@ on the other hand@ in his opportunism and (averin/ in"onsisten"4@ is a 'it distasteful. %ut Anti/one is a rea"tionar4@ and 9alileo
invents ph4si"s. =urther@ %adiou has no (a4 of sortin/ out different evils 'e4ond his tripartite division. !thi"s tells us
(hat <aIism and s"ientifi" o's"urantism have in "ommon. %ut an ethi"s (ould have to 'e a'le to tell them apart.
>he distin"tion 'et(een@ sa4@ the a'andonment of a so"ial movement '4 its leader and the a'andonment of a poem
'4 its author "annot 'e made (ithout some &ind of Jualitative supplement. Sin"e@ as (e shall see@ %adiouFs philosoph4 is
predi"ated pre"isel4 on the su'tra"tion from "onsideration of all Jualitative predi"ates@ this supplement "an onl4 'e vul/ar@ non-philosophi"al.
5erhaps the supplement it reJuires is the lan/ua/e of human ri/hts@ (hi"h@ (hatever its faults@ "an tell the differen"e
'et(een a "on"entration "amp and a "reationist te8t'oo&.
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SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 'adiou
@ A 'adiou is not politi$all5 useful )e$ause his alternative is too va0ue:he sa5s that the
event side steps the state )ut an5 alternative politi$s must )e a)le to reform the state to
su$$eed.
'ro*n P/
%adiouFs ontolo/4 "annot usefull4 displa"e the diale"ti". %e"ause the !vent must des"end li&e a /ra"e@ %adiouFs ontolo/4 "an onl4 des"ri'e
situations and never ;istor4. Sin"e the event emer/es from outside of the state of the situation@ it is ri/orousl4
untheoriIa'leG as (e sa( a'ove@ it is theoriIed as untheoriIa'le. 7espite ever4 protestation to the "ontrar4@ %adiouFs s4stem
"annot address the Juestion K+hat is to 'e doneLK 'e"ause the onl4 thin/ to do is to (ait for the !vent. +hat
happens (hen the pre"ipitation of the !vent is pre"isel4 (hat needs to 'e doneL es@ (e "an 'e faithful to a
previous event@ as %adiou sa4s Benin (as to the 5aris Commune. %ut surel4 this solution miti/ates the po(er of the !vent as the irruption of
the void into this situation. >he diale"ti"@ on the other hand@ "on"eives the void as immanent "ontradi"tion. +hile 'oth "ontradi"tion and void are
immanent to the situation@ "ontradi"tion has the tremendous advanta/e of havin/ movement 'uilt in@ as it (ereG the !vent does not appear out of
an immanent no(here@ 'ut is alread4 full4 present in itself in the situation@ (hi"h it e8plodes in the movement to for-itself. ,ean(hile@ the
Juestion of the diale"ti" leads us 'a"& to the t(ofold meanin/ of KstateKG 'oth the la( and order that /overn &no(led/e@ and la( and order in the
ever4da4 sense. >his identifi"ation authoriIes %adiouFs antistatism@ for"efull4 refle"ted in his o(n politi"al "ommitment@ the Or/anisation
5olitiJue C(hose mem'ers do not voteD@ (hi"h has made limited M!nd 5a/e -01N 'ut effe"tive interventions into the status of immi/rant
(or&ers. In %adiouFs s4stem@ nothin/ "an happen (ithin the state of a situationH innovation "an onl4 emer/e from an evental site@ "onstitutivel4
e8"luded from the state. %ut "an a prin"ipled indifferen"e to the state /round a politi"sL >he state surel4 has the fun"tion of suppressin/ the
anar"hi" possi'ilities inherent in the CnationalD situation. %ut it "an also suppress the possi'ilities e8ploited '4 an anar"hi" "apitalism. It is (ell
&no(n that the "urrent ri/htist Ksmall-/overnmentK movement is an assault on the "lass "ompromise represented '4 the Ke4nesian state. >o 'e
sure@ one should 'e suspi"ious of that "ompromise and (hat it e8"luded. %ut it also prote"ted (or&ers a/ainst some of "apitalismFs more 'aleful
effe"ts. As (ith !thi"s@ %adiou is "ertainl4 des"ri'in/ somethin/G the utopian moment of a total 'rea& (ith the state ma4
'e a part of an4 /enuine politi"al transformation. %ut@ unless (e are tal&in/ a'out the sad old interpla4 of trans/ression and limit:
(hi"h posited the state as 'asi"all4 permanent@ (ith trans/ression as its permanent suspension:this anar"hi" moment sa4s nothin/
a'out the ne( state of affairs that (ill ultimatel4 'e imposed on the /eneri" set it "onstru"ts. Surel4 the
"onfi/uration of that state (ill 'e paramount:in (hi"h "ase state po(er has to 'e fou/ht for@ not merel4 evaded.
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Aff K Core
A-to 'adiou
@ A 'adiou7s s5stem fails:he has no *a5 to over$ome the enormous po*er he attri)utes to
$apitalism.
'ro*n P/
%ut (hat is stran/e is the vehemen"e (ith (hi"h %adiou maintains his distan"e from the e"onomi":from (hat "lassi"al
,ar8ism "alled the K'ase@K the elements of a situation that pertain to its o(n reprodu"tion. It is perfe"tl4 orthodo8 to sa4 that there "an 'e no
purel4 e"onomi" intervention in the e"onom4G even (ith the 'est intentions@ the +orld %an& "ould not solve the pro'lem of >hird +orld povert4.
;o(ever@ in %adiouFs s4stem the e"onom4 is not merel4 redu"ed to one aspe"t amon/ man4@ 'ut a"tivel4 dismissed from "onsideration. ,aterial
reprodu"tion is redu"ed to the sneerin/ Ba"anian "ontempt for Kle servi"e des 'iens@K the servi"in/ of /oods (hi"h pertains to the human animal
'eneath /ood and evil. +h4 should %adiou full4 endorse ,ar8Fs anal4sis of the (orld e"onom4 CKthere is no need for a revision of ,ar8ism
itself@K M!thi"s@ 92ND (hile &eepin/ ,ar8Fs entire pro'lemati" at armFs len/thL In fa"t@ "apitalism is the point of impasse in %adiouFs
o(n s4stem@ the pro'lem (hi"h "annot 'e a"tivel4 thou/ht (ithout /rave dan/er to the s4stem as a (hole. CapitalFs
/reat po(er@ the tremendous ease (ith (hi"h it "oloniIes C/eo/raphi"@ "ultural@ ps4"hi"D territor4@ is pre"isel4 that it seiIes
situations at their evental site. In their paraphrase of a 'rilliant 'ut mu"h-mali/ned passa/e in ,ar8Fs 9rundrisse@ 7eleuIe and 9uattari
insist that K"apitalism has haunted all forms of so"iet4@ 'ut it haunts them as their terrif4in/ ni/htmare@ it is the dread the4 feel of a flo( that
(ould elude their "odes.K* Is this flo( that eludes ever4 so"iet4Fs "odes not identi"al (ith /eneri" multipli"it4@ the void (hi"h@ eludin/ ever4
representation@ nonetheless haunts ever4 situationL 7oes not "apitalism ma&e its entr4 at a so"iet4Fs point of impasse:so"ial relations alread4
haunted '4 variousl4 dissimulated e8ploitation:and revolutioniIe them into the "apital-la'or relationL A safel4 non-Orientalist version of this
(ould 'e the eruption from modernist artFs evental site:the art mar&et@ (hi"h 'elon/ed to the situation of modernism (hile 'ein/ e8"luded from
its represented state:of (hat (e mi/ht "all the K+arhol-event@K (hi"h inau/urates the transition from the formal to the real su'sumption of
Cartisti"D la'or under Capital. It ma&es perfe"t sense to sa4 that this transition is the truth of the M!nd 5a/e -03N +arhol-event. As (e sa( earlier@
the real su'sumption of la'or under Capital@ the "onversion of ever4 relation into a monetar4 relation@ is the ori/in of formal eJualit4G that is@ the
foundation of universalism. And far from pertainin/ to mere animal life 'eneath the level of the truth-pro"edure@ "apitalism itself fits
perfe"tl4 the form of the revolutionar4 !vent. It (ould then appear that "apitalism is@ li&e reli/ion@ eliminated from
the art-politi"s-s"ien"e-love series onl4 '4 fiat. And (h4 is thisL %e"ause the e"onomi"@ the Kservi"in/ of /oods@K "annot enter
%adiouFs s4stem (ithout immediatel4 assumin/ the status of a "ause. !8"luded from dire"t "onsideration@ "apitalism as a "ondition of set theor4
is perfe"tl4 inno"uousH its pre"onditional status 'elon/s to a different order than (hat it "onditions. It opens up a mode of presentation@ 'ut (hat
is presented e8isted all alon/G loo& at 5aul@ for e8ample. %ut in"luded as the produ"t of a truth-pro"edure@ "apitalism immediatel4 appears as the
'asis for all the othersG it is@ in fa"t@ the revolutionar4 irruption of Capital Cin (hatever so"iet4D that "onditions an4 modern pro"ess of s"ien"e@ art@
love@ or politi"s. If %adiouFs s4stem (ere to "onsider "apitalism dire"tl4@ some elements@ those pertainin/ to the K'ase@K
(ould appear to have more (ei/ht than others:the Ksuperstru"ture.K >he effe"ts of su"h an in"lusion of "apitalism
in %adiouFs s4stem:an in"lusion (hi"h nothin/ prevents:(ould 'e "atastrophi". Radi"al universalit4 Cas opposed
to the histori"all4 "onditioned universalit4 imposed '4 the emer/en"e of "apitalismD (ould 'e"ome unthin&a'le. >he
Keternit4K of truth (ould 4ield to histori"ism.
*1
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 'adiou
@ A >he state and the revolutionar5 politi$al su)%e$t $an $ooperate in 'adiou7s $on$eption
of the alternative.
;all*ard P.
CBadiou: a subject to truth@ 5eter ;all(ard@ ?niversit4 of ,innesota 5ress ,inneapolis $ Bondon *00-@ 5rofessor of
,odern !uropean 5hilosoph4@ Centre for Resear"h in ,odern !uropean 5hilosoph4@ ,iddlese8 ?niverist4D.
+e &no( that %adiouFs earl4 and uneJuivo"all4 hostile attitude to the state has "onsidera'l4 evolved. Aust ho( far it has evolved remains a
little un"lear. ;is "on"eption of politi"s remains resolutel4 anti"onsensual@ antire-presentative@ ) and thus antidemo"rati" Cin the
ordinar4 sense of the (ordD. 7emo"ra"4 has 'e"ome the "entral ideolo/i"al "ate/or4 of the neo-li'eral status Juo@ and an4 /enuine philosoph4
toda4 is a'ove all somethin/ that ena'les people to have done (ith the Fdemo"rati"F su'mission to the (orld as it is.) 11 %ut he seems more
(illin/@ no(@ to en/a/e (ith this su'mission on its o(n terms. Ba 7istan"e politiJue a/ain offers the most pre"ise points de
repXre. On the one hand@ the O5 remains suspi"ious of an4 politi"al "ampai/n:for instan"e@ an ele"toral "ontest or petition movement:that
operates as a prisoner of the parliamentar4 spa"e.) 12 It remains an a'solute ne"essit4 Mof politi"sN not to have the state as
norm. >he separation of politi"s and state is foundational of politi"s.) On the other hand@ ho(ever@ it is no( eJuall4
"lear that their separation need not lead to the 'anishment of the state from the field of politi"al thou/ht.) 13 >he O5
no( "on"eives itself in a tense@ nondiale"ti"al vis-^-vis) (ith the state@ a stan"e that re#e"ts an intimate "ooperation Cin the interests of "apitalD as
mu"h as it refuses an4 anta/onisti" "on"eption of their operation:a "on"eption that sma"&s of "lassism.) >here is no more "hoi"e to 'e
made 'et(een the state and revolutionH the vis-^-vis demands the presen"e of the t(o terms and not the annihilation of one of the t(o.)
19
*2
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 'adiou
@ A 'adiou7s alternative of radi$al e0alitarianism is un*or(a)le and is )ased on a failed
model of $ommunism.
;all*ard P.
CBadiou: a subject to truth@ 5eter ;all(ard@ ?niversit4 of ,innesota 5ress ,inneapolis $ Bondon *00-@ 5rofessor of
,odern !uropean 5hilosoph4@ Centre for Resear"h in ,odern !uropean 5hilosoph4@ ,iddlese8 ?niverist4D.
%adiouFs politi"s have al(a4s 'een a'out "olle"tive eman"ipation@ or the pro'lem of the rei/n of li'ert4 in infinite situations)
C7O@ 0.H "f. >C@ 10D. ;is politi"al /oals have remained "onsistent over the 4ears@ sin"e ever4 histori"al event is "ommunist@ to the de/ree that
F"ommunistF desi/nates the transtemporal su'#e"tivit4 of eman"ipation@ the e/alitarian passion@ the Idea of #usti"e@ the (ill to 'rea& (ith the
"ompromises of the servi"e des 'iens@ the deposition of e/oism@ an intoleran"e of oppression@ the (ish to impose a (itherin/ a(a4 of the state.
>he a'solute preeminen"e of multiple presentation over representation.) 3. +hat has "han/ed is "ommunismFs mode of e8isten"e. In %adiouFs
earlier (or&@ the pra"ti"al Cif ultimatel4 unattaina'leD /oal (as al(a4s to effe"t the a"tual@ histori"al a"hievement of stateless "ommunit4. >oda4@
in order to preserve politi"sF intrinsi" relation to truth) C7O@ .3D@ %adiou has had to let /o of almost an4 sort of politi"al
en/a/ement (ith the e"onomi" and the so"ial. ;e "ontinues to de"lare a (holl4 e/alitarian politi"s@ 'ut as reserved
for a stri"tl4 su'#e"tive plane. >he unJualified #usti"e of a /eneri" "ommunism@ first proposed in ,ar8Fs 13..
,anus"ripts and "on"eived in %adiouFs o(n terms as the advent of pure presentation@ ) as the undivided authorit4
of the infinite@ or the advent of the "olle"tive as su"h) CA,@ 91D@ remains the onl4 valid su'#e"tive norm for %adiouFs
politi"al thou/ht. >his su'#e"tive norm has 'e"ome ever more distant@ ho(ever@ from the da4-to-da4 'usiness of
o'#e"tive) politi"sG the pro/rammati" pursuit of the /eneri" ideal is itself no( dismissed as a Romanti") dream leadin/ to fraternit4
terror) CA,@ 101D.
*3
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 'ataille
@ A 'ataille *ildl5 inflates the value of e$stas5 and temptin0 death in doin0 soC he i0nores
the value of living
7AEI7 S;<S< has a 75hil. in !n/lish and Related Biterature Cor& ?niversit4D@ an ,A C7istin"tionD in Continental 5hilosoph4
C+ar(i"& ?niversit4D and a %A C;onsD in Biterature and 5hilosoph4 C,iddlese8 5ol4te"hni"D. >ime V So"iet4 "op4ri/ht _ *00. availa'le via
SA9! data'ase
Bife is a serious 'usiness of hi/hl4 "har/ed temporal sta&es@ involvin/ a 'ein/6s stru//le to se"ure for itself the e8perien"e of pleasure
time$free time rather than pain time$slave time. Sin"e lived time is a livin/ sta&e@ death is not the profound phenomenon that
%ataille thin&s it is. =or one (ho is ra"&ed '4 dra(n-out pain@ the pain of death situated at the end of time is an
irrelevan"e. And for one (ho is "au/ht up in the throes of e8tended pleasure@ the du'ious pleasure of death is
li&e(ise irrelevant. 7eath@ far from 'ein/ profound@ ma4 simpl4 provide a pra/mati" es"ape from a life of pain and
toil@ or a simple halt to a life of pleasure and freedom. +e "an see death as important to time in that it is the end of the /reat
/ame of time@ the /reat flo(. %ut death is relative in importan"e to time for the same reasonH it is simpl4 the end of the
/reat /ame of time@ a /ame (ithout (hi"h it (ould 'e pure a'stra"tion. ;o(ever@ (e are not su//estin/ that death has
a'solutel4 no importan"e for livin/ 'ein/s. On the "ontrar4. %4 "ounterin/ %ataille6s vie( of death@ (hi"h tries to
domesti"ate death throu/h attemptin/ to en/a/e it in Tintimate6 dialo/ue@ and (hi"h tries to ma&e politi"al /ain out of death@ (e "an
see death as a real@ non-ne/otia'le phenomenon. 7eath "an no lon/er 'e thou/ht of as an am'i/uous 'ut essentiall4 a""essi'le deit4@
'ut must instead 'e seen as that (hi"h (ipes out real su'stantial time (ith no hope of appeal. 7eath "an no( 'e vie(ed as a "ertain element in
the /ame of time@ as somethin/ to 'e dreaded or desired as the end of time@ 'ut (hi"h has no fi8ed moral or politi"al meanin/ in itself. %4
affirmin/ the realit4 of time (e are in fa"t affirmin/ the realit4 of death@ and so (e are proposin/ a more tra/i" philosoph4 than the one %ataille
proposes (hi"h is ironi"@ /iven that %ataille is "onsidered '4 most postmodernist$ post-stru"turalist philosophers to 'e perhaps the "ruellest
thin&er.
@ A 'ataille7s startin0 point is so-o)sessed *ith findin0 meanin0 throu0h death that he
)e$omes death-o)sessed. 'ataille7s not !no value to life+C he7s !no value to livin0+
SA9! data'ase
=or %ataille@ the full en/a/ement (ith the truth of transien"e /enerates a form of (ild a'andon C(hi"h unfetters for"es that (ould
other(ise 'e invested in "onservative pro#e"tsD@ 'ut if (e see pro-transien"e as an end /ame@ as a pointless a"t of loo&in/ throu/h the (ron/ end
of a teles"ope@ this vie( of time is sho(n to 'e a'out as e8u'erant as nostal/ia >E. 5ro-transien"e is in fa"t less auda"ious than a priest6s
remorse@ a slave6s re/ret. Con"lusion >ime must no lon/er 'e treated merel4 as a form of fi"tion@ to 'e used in a fast and loose manner '4
stor4tellers in order to mould moral and politi"al 'eliefs. Instead@ time must 'e treated as a ra( phenomenon@ 'ein/ itself the sta&e over (hi"h
moral and politi"al for"es fi/ht. >ime must no lon/er 'e seen as a pristine phenomenon that "ould re"eive its essen"e from
a sin/le instan"e Cin %ataille6s vie(@ this instan"e is deathD. Rather@ time must 'e seen as a vul/ar plenitude that en"ompasses
ever4thin/ that happens. >ime must no lon/er 'e seen as an e8istential option that "an 'e authenti"all4 trans"ended in an instant to its end@ 'ut
rather as somethin/ that is e8perien"ed '4 livin/ 'ein/s as unavoida'le and irredu"i'le in its flo(. >o see all life from life7s end is to
see all life *ith the e5es of the dead. >o thin& all time from time6s end is to thin& (ith the mind of the dead. It is
time to Juietl4 drop this pro-transien"e philosoph4 of time@ (hi"h is hardl4 a philosoph4 at all. Instead (e must
'e/in to o'serve (hat time loo&s li&e from the onl4 real vanta/e point that there isG the vanta0e point of the livin0.
>here is no (a4 to e8perien"e the (orld e8"ept throu/h time. >ime ma4 'e transient@ 'ut it is all there is. %4 droppin/
the perspe"tive that sees all time from time6s end@ one has time. And the pleasures and pains of time are revealed to 'e e8"essive sta&es.
*9
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 'ataille
@ A 'ataille overestimates the value of death to the livin0 )ein0 it7s )etter to ma8-out lived
time and e8perien$es
SA9! data'ase
>his (or& sets out to atta"& %ataille6s assumption that life is essentiall4 transient. ?sin/ %er/son6s anti-teleolo/i"al thou/ht
e8periments@ I hope to reveal the ludi"rous parado8es involved in seein/ the essen"e of time in time6s end. +ith %er/son@ I
demand that (e "onsider time to 'e the (hole of its flo(. I insist that %ataille overestimates the importan"e that death has for
livin/ 'ein/s@ and I affirm instead the intensit4 of lived time and on/oin/ e8perien"es.
@ A 'ataille7s premise of inevita)le e8tin$tion is simpl5 *ron0J
SA9! data'ase
I shall assume that time "annot 'e separated from spa"e@ and that time is essentiall4 a vie( of (hat happens to spa"e. If (e see time
as en"ompassin/ all of spa"e@ it is diffi"ult to see time as rushin/ headlon/ to(ards an end@ sin"e (e must ima/ine time as
havin/ to move throu/h the tan/led matter of spa"e to /et to an4 endG a tortuous pro"edure. >ime does not "ut throu/h
spa"e instantl4 li&e a ma/i" &nife to(ards an end@ so (h4 should (e vie( all time from its endL ,oreover@ time is
Tever4thin/ that happens6@ involvin/ the irredu"i'le durations of pleasure or pain@ slaver4 or soverei/nt4. A/ain@ (ith su"h a ri"h vie( of time@ it
is hard to see ho( time "an 'e authenti"all4 des"ri'ed as slippin/ easil4 to(ards its e8tin"tion. Sin"e time is made
up of ever4thin/ that o""urs@ the philosophi"al a"t of anal4sin/ time from the point of vie( of the annihilation of all
o""urren"e is narro( to the most e8treme de/ree. ;o( "an this 'a"&(ard /lan"e@ this posthumous loo& at time from the illusor4
vanta/e point of nothin/ness@ not 'e an ema"iated vie(@ a Tlittle6 vie(L ;o( "an su"h a narro(@ su"h a restri"ted vie( of time not 'e a slave
perspe"tive in the <ietIs"hean senseL
-0
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 'ataille
@ A 'ataille lin(s to anti-politi$s. >his $ard rules
SA9! data'ase
%ataille 'elieves that an affirmation of transien"e is politi"all4 li'eratin/@ that transien"e is a vital for"e that renders
a'surd the "oer"ive@ lon/-term pro#e"ts of the 'our/eoisie. et pro-transien"e ta&es a(a4 an4 real "ons"iousness of
politi"al sta&es (hen it annihilates a sense of life6s ri"h duration. Indeed@ a sense of transien$e $annot authenti$all5
li)erate people from $oer$ive pro%e$ts@ sin"e su"h pro#e"ts are themselves /enerated '4 a sense of transien"e. 5eople (ant to
/ain lin/erin/ pleasure and freedom@ and to avoid lon/ periods of pain and slaver4. %ataille6s pro-transien"e vie(@
on the other hand@ evades an4 sense of these irredu"i'le durationsH it therefore evades a sense of the (orld of time as a (orld of
sta&es@ as involvin/ elements to 'e either avoided at all "osts or seiIed` >hrou/h this evasion of real time@ %ataille6s thou/ht is politi"all4
neutered. A/ainst %ataille@ I insist that onl4 an affirmation of real time "an 'e politi"all4 pro/ressive. =or %ataille@ the full
en/a/ement (ith the truth of transien"e /enerates a form of (ild a'andon C(hi"h unfetters for"es that (ould other(ise 'e invested in
"onservative pro#e"tsD@ 'ut if (e see pro-transien"e as an end /ame@ as a pointless a"t of loo&in/ throu/h the (ron/ end of a
teles"ope@ this vie( of time is sho(n to 'e a'out as e8u'erant as nostal/ia >E. 5ro-transien"e is in fa"t less auda"ious than a
priest6s remorse@ a slave6s re/ret.
-1
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 'ataille
@ A 'ataille definitel5 lin(s to anti-politi$s his s$holarship )reeds politi$al impoten$e.
SA9! data'ase
Bife pro"eeds at its o(n pa"e@ and therefore does not slip to(ards death in a transient manner. >ime6s duration ma&es up the ver4
su'stan"e of life@ and duration6s pains or pleasures "annot 'e avoided or speeded up to(ards their ends e8"ept
artifi"iall4 Cin this sense pro-transien"e@ (hi"h anti"ipates the end of all e8perien"e in death@ is e8istentiall4 an es"apist vie( of timeD. 5eople
(ant to avoid spendin/ lon/ periods in slaver4 or in pain@ and (ish instead to en#o4 e8tended periods of free time or
pleasure. 5ro-transien"e thou/ht@ ho(ever@ evades this sense of time as a material sta&e. 5ro-transien"e thou/ht therefore
maintains a politi$all5 impotent vie* of time. I shall assume that time "annot 'e separated from spa"e@ and that time is essentiall4 a
vie( of (hat happens to spa"e. If (e see time as en"ompassin/ all of spa"e@ it is diffi"ult to see time as rushin/ headlon/ to(ards an end@ sin"e
(e must ima/ine time as havin/ to move throu/h the tan/led matter of spa"e to /et to an4 endG a tortuous pro"edure. >ime does not "ut throu/h
spa"e instantl4 li&e a ma/i" &nife to(ards an end@ so (h4 should (e vie( all time from its endL ,oreover@ time is Tever4thin/ that happens6@
involvin/ the irredu"i'le durations of pleasure or pain@ slaver4 or soverei/nt4. A/ain@ (ith su"h a ri"h vie( of time@ it is hard to see ho( time "an
'e authenti"all4 des"ri'ed as slippin/ easil4 to(ards its e8tin"tion. Sin"e time is made up of ever4thin/ that o""urs@ the philosophi"al a"t of
anal4sin/ time from the point of vie( of the annihilation of all o""urren"e is narro( to the most e8treme de/ree. ;o( "an this 'a"&(ard /lan"e@
this posthumous loo& at time from the illusor4 vanta/e point of nothin/ness@ not 'e an ema"iated vie(@ a Tlittle6 vie(L ;o( "an su"h a narro(@
su"h a restri"ted vie( of time not 'e a slave perspe"tive in the <ietIs"hean senseL 5ro->ransien"e@ A""umulation and 5ro#e"ts >ransien"e is
ironi"all4 the motor of a""umulation. 5ro#e"ts "an onl4 ta&e pla"e throu/h s4stems that defer time6s lived spontaneit4 and flo(. 9randiose
pro#e"ts "an onl4 ta&e pla"e on the ruins of time. Christian and romanti" pessimism depresses and hum'les the (or&er@ leadin/ him or her to
'e"ome deta"hed from the e8perien"e of ri"h duration and to invest the resultin/ alienated ener/ies in an4 pro#e"t of salvation (hatsoever. An
over-stimulated sense of individual temporal finitude indu"es the (or&er to invest his or her ener/ies in a'surd lon/-term pro#e"ts@ the "ompletion
of (hi"h ma4 trans"end his or her o(n lifetime. A pronoun"ed emphasis on the "ons"iousness that ever4one6s life is finite (ithout e8"eption@ and
in essentiall4 the same (a4@ fosters the 'elief that no one is espe"iall4 favoured '4 that e"onom4 (hi"h is itself 'uilt out of a "ulture of
transien"e@ and so an4 so"ial and politi"al tensions /enerated '4 #ealous4 are neutraliIed. At the same time@ ever4one is assi/ned their proper
pla"e (ithin an4 /iven hierar"h4 under the si/n of universal transien"e. >he (or&ers6 disinvestment of ener/ies from ri"h duration and re-
investment of these ener/ies in industrial pro#e"ts is furthered '4 the time-"onsumin/ ri/ours of the industrial (or& pro"ess itself. In a so"iet4
in"reasin/l4 dominated '4 advan"ed te"hnolo/4 and s"ien"e@ time appears to fl4 'e"ause it seems to 'e pro/rammed to the 'itter end. >he violent
aestheti"s of postmodern "ulture provide the final tou"h in 'o(in/ the head of the (or&er@ ma&in/ him or her derive sola"e from the vain
promises of the future. Althou/h pro-transien"e is the motor of a""umulation and pro#e"t@ "ontempo- rar4 postmodernists and post-stru"turalists
feel that it is a sense of transien"e (hi"h (ill happil4 free us from a""umulation and pro#e"t. >he4 assume that a sense of our essential mortalit4
(ill free us to (ithdra( our vital ener/ies from s4stems that (ould invest these ener/ies in pro#e"ts that falsel4 "laim to /ive us immortal lifeH (e
are then free to sJuander these ener/ies in a soverei/n manner. =or postmodernists and post-stru"turalists@ the fleetin/ nature of time and the
inevita'ilit4 of death sho( linear time to 'e unreal. +e (ould do (ell therefore to drop those unreal pro#e"ts that are 'uilt on linear time. %ut
"aptains of industr4 also affirm the fleetin/ nature of time and the inevita'ilit4 of death. >he4 en"oura/e us to "apitaliIe on the unreal nature of
time in order to 'rin/ unreal pro#e"ts into 'ein/. 5ostmodernists and post-stru"turalists simpl4 offer the teleolo/4 of final death in pla"e of the
teleolo/4 of pro#e"t. It is not possi'le to free that ri"h duration (hi"h is "oer"ivel4 funnelled into pro#e"ts via a sense of transien"e that is #ust as
violent to(ards ri"h duration. ,4 "ritiJue fo"uses on the "ontemporar4 philosophi"al affirmation of transien"e rather than on an4 (ider "ultural
affirmation of transien"e. Continental philosoph4 has 'een dominated '4 pro-transien"e thin&in/ throu/hout the *0th "entur4 and up to the
present da4@ led '4 pro-transien"e thin&ers su"h as ;eide//er and %ataille@ (ho have influen"ed the (or& of postmodernist$poststru"turalist
thin&ers in"ludin/ %arthes@ 7eleuIe@ =ou"ault@ 7errida@ B4otard and %audrillard. I "on"entrate on the (or& of %ataille@ sin"e his
(or& represents the most e8treme e8ample of pro-transien"e thou/ht.
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SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 'ataille
@ A 'ataille7s *orldvie* ne$essaril5 dismisses the s5stems that $he$( the dominan$e of the
=ar-Ri0ht
,olin P2 CRi"hard@ 7istin/uished 5rofessor of ;istor4 at the Cit4 ?niversit4 of <e( or& 9raduate Center@ Beft
=as"ismG 9eor/es %ataille and the 9erman Ideolo/4)Constellations vol. * issue -@ pp. -92-.*3D
;ere@ the anal4sis must 'e/in (ith an e8amination of %ataille6s essa4@ >he 5s4"holo/i"al Stru"ture of =as"ism@) often ri/htl4 hailed as a
theoreti"al 'rea&throu/h in our understandin/ of the mass ps4"holo/i"al appeal of modern authoritarian rule. et@ the essa4 also "ontains a 'arel4
veiled admiration for the vitalit4 and ener/4 of the e8istin/ fas"ist states@ espe"iall4 (hen "ontrasted (ith the de"aden"e and inertia of the
"ontemporar4 !uropean demo"ra"ies. %ataille purve4s a "ritiJue of parliamentarianism that is as Iealous as an4thin/ one finds in the (or& of
Carl S"hmitt. 5arliamentar4 de"ision-ma&in/@ he "laims@ parta&es (holl4 of the order of the homo/enous. It aims solel4 at "o-optation@ the
elimination of differen"e. As su"h@ it is purel4 instrumental and serves primaril4 to suppress the 'rea&throu/h of hetero/eneous elements that
threaten to e8plode the normative 'ases of the /iven e"onomi" and politi"al order. As %ataille o'serves@ in a stri&in/ anti"ipation of Aean-=ran"ois
B4otard6s asso"iation of "onsensus) and terror)G >he redu"tion of differen"es in parliamentar4 pra"ti"e indi"ates all the possi'le "omple8it4 of
the internal a"tivit4 of adaptation reJuired '4 homogeneity.
10
%ataille "an per"eive no fundamental differen"es 'et(een the
"ondu"t of politi"al and e"onomi" life in modern demo"rati" so"ieties@ insofar as 'oth are e8amples par excellence
of homo/eneit4 this despite the fa"t that dis"ussion aims at mutual understandin/@ (hereas e"onomi" a"tivit4 is /oal-oriented and
utilitarian. 9iven this "urt dismissal of the institutional 'ases of demo"ra"4@ it "omes as little surprise that %ataille
/lorifies the role pla4ed '4 fas"ism in modern politi"al life as a t4pe of 'rea&throu/h of the hetero/eneous. =or
%ataille@ the fas"ist leaders are in"ontesta'l4 part of hetero/eneous e8isten"e. Opposed to demo"rati" politi"ians@
(ho represent in different "ountries the platitude inherent to homogeneous so"iet4@ ,ussolini and ;itler
immediatel4 stand out as somethin/ other .)
1*
+hat he admires a'out these men and the movement the4 represent is
that the4 em'od4 a for"e that situates them a'ove other men@) (hi"h a""ounts for their soverei/nt4.) et@ he also
esteems /reatl4 their thorou/h/oin/ anta/onism to la(G the fa"t that la(s are 'ro&en is onl4 the most o'vious si/n
of the trans"endent@ heterogeneous nature of fas"ist a"tion .)
1-
;ere@ the parallels (ith S"hmitt6s "ritiJue of 'our/eois le/al
positivism are of "ourse profound. %oth S"hmitt and %ataille vie( the institution of la( as the "onsummate em'odiment of the spirit of 'our/eois
rationalism. It s4m'oliIes ever4thin/ the4 detest a'out the rei/nin/ so"ial orderG its prosai" lon/in/ for se"urit4@ its unrevolutionar4 nature@ its
a'horren"e of trans"enden"e@) its anathematiIation of the vitalit4 and intensit4 one finds in the e8"eption) CS"hmittD or trans/ression)
C%atailleD. ,oreover@ for %ataille the s4stem of la( merits espe"iall4 harsh treatment insofar as it si/nifies a t4pe "onse"ration of the profane
order of thin/s@ as su"h@ it stands as an impediment to "onta"t (ith the hetero/eneous or the sa"red. %ataille "on"ludes his endorsement
of fas"ist politi"s (ith the follo(in/ en"omiumG Heterogeneous fas"ist a"tion 'elon/s to the entire set of hi/her
forms. It ma&es an appeal to sentiments traditionall4 defined as exalted and noble and tends to "onstitute authorit4
as an un"onditional prin"iple situated a'ove an4 utilitarian #ud/ment.) As opposed to the 'our/eois order of life@ (hi"h@ (ith its
utilitarianism and its le/alism@ merel4 san"tifies the prose of the (orld@) fas"ism offers a ne( politi"al aestheti"@ the return@ as it (ere@ of an
aesthetic politicsG a t4pe of politi"s that reintrodu"es the lon/ lost elements of "harismati" leadership Cin %ataille6s terms@ soverei/nt4)D@
violen"e@ and martial /lor4. It is@ moreover@ a politi"s that fa"ilitates a /reat emotional "athe8is 'et(een leaders and masses@ a point (hi"h
%ataille emphasiIes repeatedl4. =or one of fas"ism6s /reat attri'utes is that it "learl4 demonstrates (hat "an 'e e8pe"ted from a timel4 re"ourse
to rea(a&ened affe"tive for"es) for"es "apa'le of /uaranteein/ a measure of collective solidarity@ (hi"h have 'een 'anished from a so"iet4 in
(hi"h the division of la'or and rationaliIation rei/n supreme. In sum@ fas"ism serves to reintrodu"e a t4pe of ecstatic politics into the forlorn and
disen"hanted lands"ape of politi"al modernit4@ a politi"s that aims at the "reation of a Juasi-<ietIs"hean ecstatic community.
--
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 'ataille
@ A TTT>he >hrill-See(erJ
>heir *hole tr5-or-die ish tri$( is )a$(*ards. ,e aren7t all hopeless no*C and 'ataille7s
vision of e$stas5 solel5 thrill-see(s us to death.
SA9! data'ase
%ataille affirms the livin/ moment@ 'ut as a moment that "reates transien"e Cthe moment is ruinousD and (hi"h is itself transient Cit
"annot prevail in a dualist universeD. >he e"stati" moment@ (hi"h should 'e a "ele'ration of a &ind of irrepressi'le flo( of duration@ is
over in a flash@ and either tends to(ards death or leads dire"tl4 to death. Often@ %ataille states that the (ild e8penditure of
life6s for"es "an 'e des"ri'ed as life affirmed up to the point of death and not 'e4ond@ in order perhaps to avoid the a""usation of mor'idit4. It is
even possi'le that %ataille sense that his vie( of time (as too teleolo/i"al as it stood. ;e (ritesG TI 'elieve eroti"ism to 'e the approval of life@ up
until death6 C%ataille@ 1902'$1990'G 11D. +hat %ataille is perhaps sa4in/ here is that 'ein/s "au/ht up in the midst of the most e8treme pleasure
do not "are (hether the4 survive or not@ there'4 illustratin/ his eJuation of pleasure and ruin. ;o(ever@ the e8treme indifferen"e of
'ein/s in the midst of e"stas4 to the (hole Juestion of survival su//ests that death is of little importan"e to them
"ompared to the e8perien"e of pleasura'le duration en#o4ed in the time up to death. On "lose inspe"tion (e "an see
that for %ataille Tthe approval of life up until death6 represents a ver4 spe"ifi" &ind of 'ehaviour that is almost totall4 death
orientated@ a foolhard4 spirit of ruination that (ill end in death more or less dire"tl4. It "an 'e seen that the e8u'erant
devil-ma4-"are spirit of affirmin/ life up to the point of death "an 'e a""essed '4 individuals onl4 if the4 open themselves
up to death first. >he vision of life affirmed up to the point of death is still a vision of life dominated )5 death.
Althou/h %ataille6s (or& sho(s him savourin/@ as it (ere@ the taste of death in a sensual@ poeti" fashion@ he "on"edes
that an individual "annot ph4si"all4 e8perien"e the event of his or her o(n death in a "on"rete@ &no(in/ fashion@ sin"e in
death the &no(er and &no(n are (iped out at a sin/le stro&e. Onl4 a livin/ 'ein/ "an affirm death@ throu/h the e"stati"
a'andonment of toilsome life-"onservation and "are (hi"h a sense of mortalit4 allo(s. Su"h a vie( "ould 'e seen to lin& up (ith %ataille6s
partial admission that life affirmed up to the point of death is more important than a mere leap from life into death.

'ataille7s reasonin0 %ustifies mass atro$it5 and death.
'oldt-IronsC 2K
CBeslie Anne@ Asso"iate 5rofessor of =ren"h at Brock University !"ilitary discipline and revolutionary exaltation: the dismantling o# !l$illusion
lyri%ue& in "alraux$s '$(spoir and Bataille$s 'e Bleu du Ciel& )omantic )evie* vol. +, issue - p. -.,/
In 19--@ %ataille "ontri'uted a revie( of Andr] ,alrau86s novel 'a Condition humaine to the ultra left-(in/ #ournal 'a Criti%ue sociale.
1
In this
arti"le@ %ataille Juestions the pla"e that revolution o""upies in the lar/er and more /eneral "onte8t of human a/itation.)
;e as&s@ for e8ample@ (hether the "onvulsive movements of revolt@ so"ial upheaval@ and revolution should 'e situated
outside of@ or a'ove@ (hat is normall4 e8perien"ed as life in its Juotidian e8pressions of tenderness@ enthusiasm or even
hate. In the name of (hat authorit4@ for e8ample@ mi/ht one 'e #ustified in pla"in/ the fas"ination (ith pleasure@ torture
and possi'le death outside the limits of a""epta'le so"ial pra"ti"e e8treme states often lin&ed to revolutionar4 upheaval outside
the limits of a""epta'le so"ial pra"ti"eL Another (a4 of situatin/ the "onvulsion of revolutionar4 movements an approa"h "learl4
endorsed '4 %ataille is to pla"e it sJuarel4 (ithin the frame(or& of any a"tivit4 mar&ed '4 a/itation. =rom this
perspe"tive@ the a"ts of torture and murder (ould arise from an e8"ita'ilit4 or arousal similar in nature to that
intensif4in/ the fur4 of the revolutionar4 impulse. >his impulse@ (rites %ataille@ is a means '4 (hi"h the proletariat
(ho had for a lon/ time 'een deprived of the possi'ilit4 of attri'utin/ an4 value to sufferin/ and to life is a'le to /ain a""ess to value
itself@ a value lin&ed to states of e8"itation unsu'ordinated to an4 simple politi"al means or end. >his value@ and the state of
a/itation to (hi"h it is lin&ed@ /ives the proletariat 'oth life and hope@ for (hi"h even death in all its atro"it4 mi/ht 'e the pa4ment
reJuired.
-.
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 'audrillard
@ A 'audrillard7s alternative fails to $onfront real *orld politi$s.
'est R KellnerC 94 7epartment of 5hilosoph4 at ?niversit4 of >e8as-!l 5aso@ 1993 MSteven V 7ou/las@
httpG$$(((*."dd".vt.edu$illuminations$&ell*3.htm@ 5ostmodern 5oliti"s and the %attle for the =uture)N
In the aftermath of the 1910s@ novel and "onfli"tin/ "on"eptions of postmodern politi"s emer/ed. 5ostmodern politi"s thus ta&e a variet4 of forms and (ould in"lude the anti-politi"s of
%audrillard and his follo(ers@ (ho e8hi'it a "4ni"al@ despairin/ re#e"tion of the 'elief in eman"ipator4 so"ial
transformation@ as (ell as a variet4 of efforts to "reate a ne( or re"onstru"ted politi"s. On the e8treme and apoliti"al
position of a %audrillard@ (e are stranded at the end of histor4@ paral4Ied and froIen@ as the masses "ollapse into
inertia and indifferen"e@ and simula"ra and te"hnolo/4 triumph over a/en"4. >hus@ from %audrillardFs perspe"tive@
all (e "an do is Ka""ommodate ourselves to the time left to us.K
@ A 'audrillard is %ust a fashiona)le sour$e of $5ni$ism:not a politi$al strate05.
Ro%e( 9.
CChris@ 7eput4 7ire"tor@ >heor4@ Culture V So"iet4 Centre @ 5rofessor of So"iolo/4 and Culture at <ottin/ham
>rent ?niversit4@ =or/et %uadrillardL !dited '4 Chris Ro#e&@ p/s 109D
;is la"eratin/ nihilism@ his readiness to pri"& an4 "ause@ his devotion to e8perien"e for e8perien"e s sa&e@ are all
re"urrin/ tropes of at least one t4pe of modernism. >o 'e sure@ modernism is a multi-fa"eted "on"ept. Rather than spea& of the pro#e"t of modernism it is
perhaps more a""urate to spea& o projects of modernism. >hese pro#e"ts (or& around a "entral di"hotom4G refle"tin/ the order of thin/s and
e8posin/ the funda mental disorder of thin/s. In the politi"al realm the &e4note pro#e"ts desi/ned to refle"t the order
of thin/s have 'een CaD providin/ a theor4 of li'eral demo"ra"4 (hi"h le/itimates the operation of he mar&etH C'D the
so"ialist "ritiJues of "apitalism and the plan for the re"onstru"tion of so"iet4H and C"D the feminist transformation of
the male order of thin/s. >hese are all constructive pro#e"ts. >he4 either aim to /ive shape to peopleFs lives or the4 see& to repla"e the easin/ set of
politi"o-e"onomi" "onditions (ith a state of affairs that is #ud/ed to 'e superior on rational or moral /rounds. %audrillard it mi/ht 'e said@ tra"es the dispersal of these
pro#e"ts ;e relishes 'ein/ the imp of the perverse@ the ruthless e8ponent of the disorder of thin/s ;is (or&
e8poses the posturin/ and "ir"ularities of "onstru"tive ar/uments. %ut in doin/ this %audrillard is not a"tin/ as the
har'in/er of a ne( postmodern state of affairs. Rather he is treadin/ the (ell (orn paths of one t4pe of modernist
s"eptism and e8"ess a path (hi"h has no other destin4 than repletion. ;is messa/e of Tno future6 does not
trans"end the politi"al dilemma of modernism@ it e8emplifies it.
-0
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 'audrillard
@ A ,e doC in fa$tC (no* the differen$e )et*een simulation and realit5:the media pla5s a
health5 role in the pu)li$ sphere.
-ar$hC 91
Aames ,arsh@ 5rofessor of 5hilosoph4@ =ordham ?niversit4@ 90@ CritiJue@ A"tion@ and Bi'eration@ pp. *9*-*9-
Su$h an a$$ount@ ho(ever@ is as one-sided or perhaps even more one-sided than that of naive modernism. +e note a residual
idealism that does not ta&e into a""ount so"ioe"onomi" realities alread4 pointed out su"h as the "orporate nature of media@ their role in a"hievin/
and le/itimatin/ profit@ and their fun"tion of manufa"turin/ "onsent. In su"h a postmodernist a""ount is a redu$tion of ever5thin0 to
ima0e or s5m)ol that misses the relationship of these to realities su$h as $orporations see(in0 profitC
impoverished *or(ers in these "orporations@ or peasants in >hird-+orld "ountries tr4in/ to "ondu"t ele"tions. 6ostmodernism
does not adeGuatel5 distin0uish here )et*een a redu$tion of realit5 to ima0e and a mediation of realit5 )5
ima0e. A media idealism e8ists rooted in the influen"e of stru"turalism and poststru"turalism and doin0 insuffi$ient %usti$e to
$on$rete human e8perien$e@ #ud/ment@ and free intera"tion in the (orld.. It is also parado8i$al or $ontradi$tor5 to sa5 it
reall5 is true that nothin0 is reall5 trueC that ever5thin0 is illusor5 or ima0inar5. 5ostmodemism ma&es #ud/ments that
impli"itl4 den4 the redu"tion of realit4 to ima/e. =or e8ample@ 5oster and %audrillard do (ant to sa4 that (e reall4 are in a ne( a/e that is
informational and postindustrial. A/ain@ to sa4 that ever4thin/ is imploded into media ima/es is a&in lo/i"all4 to the Cartesian "laim that
ever4thin/ is or mi/ht 'e a dream. +hat happens is that dream or ima/e is a'solutiIed or /eneraliIed to the point that its ori/inal meanin/ l4in/
in its "ontrast to natural@ human@ and so"ial realit4 is lost. ,e $an dis$uss Disne5land as reprehensi)le )e$ause *e (no* the
differen$e )et*een Disne5land and the lar0erC envelopin0 realit5 of Southern California and the ?nited States.0 +e "an
note also that postmodernism misses the realit4 of the a""umulation-le/itimation tension in late "apitalism in /eneral and in "ommuni"ative
media in parti"ular. >his tension ta&es different forms in different times. In the ?nited States in the 1910s and 1920s@ for e8ample@ so"ial@
e"onomi"@ and politi"al realit5 o$$asionall5 manifested itself in the media in su$h a *a5 that the ele$torate
responded $riti$all5 to "orporate and politi$al poli$ies. Covera/e of the Eietnam (ar@ for e8ample@ did help turn people a/ainst the
(ar. In the 1930s@ '4 "ontrast@ the emphasis shifted more to(ard a""umulation in the de"ade dominated '4 the /reat "ommuni"ator.) !ven here@
ho(ever@ the ma#orit4 remained opposed to Rea/an6s poli"ies (hile votin/ for Rea/an. ;uman and so"ial realit4@ (hile 'ein/ influen"ed '4 and
represented '4 the media@ trans"ended them and remained resistant to them.1 >o the e8tent that postmodernists are "riti"al of the role media pla4@
(e "an as& the Juestion a'out the normative adeJua"4 of su"h a "ritiJue. ,h5@ in the a'sen"e of normative "on"eptions of rationalit4 and
freedom@ should media dominan$e )e ta(en as )ad rather than 0oodL Also@ the most relevant "ontrastin/@ normativel4
stru"tured alternative to the media is that of the pu'li" sphere@) in (hi"h the imperatives of free@ demo"rati"@ nonmanipula'le "ommuni"ative
a"tion are institutionaliIed. Su"h a pu'li" sphere has 'een present in (estern demo"ra"ies sin"e the nineteenth "entur4 'ut has suffered erosion in
the t(entieth "entur4 as "apitalism has more and more ta&en over the media and "ommer"ialiIed them. !ven no( the pu)li$ sphere
remains normativel5 )indin0 and reall5 operative throu0h institutionaliBin0 the ideals of free@ full@ pu'li"
e8pression and dis"ussionH ideal@ le/al reJuirements ta&in/ su"h forms as pu'li" servi"e pro/rams@ pu'li" 'road"astin/@ and provision for
alternative mediaH and so"ial movements a"tin/ and dis"oursin/ in and outside of universities in print@ in demonstrations and forms of resistan"e@
and on media su"h as movies@ television@ and radio.2
-1
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 'audrillard
@ A 'audrillard is *ron0 a)out h5per-realit5. ,e are ver5 a*are of differen$es )et*een
real life and media ima0es. Sust ima0ine ho* horrified 5ou *ould )e if 5ou *ere *at$hin0
a horror movie and found out that the a$tors *ere reall5 )ein0 (illed.
UiVe(C 2000
C?niversit4 of B#u'l#anaD@ *000 CSlavo#@ ,ar"h$April >he C4'erspa"e Real@)
httpG$$(((.e/s.edu$fa"ult4$Ui\e&$Ui\e&-the-"4'erspa"e-real.htmlD.
Are the pessimisti" "ultural "riti"ists Cfrom Aean %audrillard to 5aul EirilioD #ustified in their "laim that "4'erspa"e
ultimatel4 /enerates a &ind of proto-ps4"hoti" immersion into an ima/inar4 universe of hallu"inations@
un"onstrained '4 an4 s4m'oli" Ba( or '4 an4 impossi'ilit4 of some RealL If not@ ho( are (e to dete"t in "4'erspa"e the
"ontours of the other t(o dimensions of the Ba"anian triad ISR@ the S4m'oli" and the RealL As to the s4m'oli" dimension@ the solution seems
eas4 : it suffi"es to fo"us on the notion of authorship that fits the emer/in/ domain of "4'erspa"e narratives@ that of the Kpro"edural authorshipKG
the author Csa4@ of the intera"tive immersive environment in (hi"h (e a"tivel4 parti"ipate '4 role-pla4in/D no lon/er (rites detailed stor4-line@
s$he merel4 provides the 'asi" set of rules Cthe "oordinates of the fi"tional universe in (hi"h (e immerse ourselves@ the limited set of a"tions (e
are allo(ed to a""omplish (ithin this virtual spa"e@ et".D@ (hi"h serves as the 'asis for the intera"torFs a"tive en/a/ement Cintervention@
improvisationD. >his notion of Kpro"edural authorshipK demonstrates the need for a &ind of eJuivalent to the Ba"anian K'i/ OtherKG in order for the
intera"tor to 'e"ome en/a/ed in "4'erspa"e@ s$he has to operate (ithin a minimal set of e8ternall4 imposed a""epted s4m'oli" rules$"oordinates.
+ithout these rules@ the su'#e"t$intera"tor (ould effe"tivel4 'e"ome immersed in a ps4"hoti" e8perien"e of an universe in (hi"h K(e do
(hatever (e (antK and are@ parado8i"all4@ for that ver4 reason deprived of our freedom@ "au/ht in a demonia" "ompulsion. It is thus "ru"ial to
esta'lish the rules that en/a/e us@ that led us in our immersion into the "4'erspa"e@ (hile allo(in/ us to maintain the distan"e to(ards the ena"ted
universe. >he point is not simpl4 to maintain Kthe ri/ht measureK 'et(een the t(o e8tremes Ctotal ps4"hoti" immersion versus non-en/a/ed
e8ternal distan"e to(ards the artifi"ial universe of the "4'er-fi"tionDG distan"e is rather a positive "ondition of immersion. If (e are to
surrender to the enti"ements of the virtual environment@ (e have to Kmar& the 'order@K to rel4 on a set of mar&s
(hi"h "learl4 desi/nate that (e are dealin/ (ith a fi"tion@ in the same (a4 in (hi"h@ in order to let ourselves /o and
en#o4 a violent (ar movie@ (e someho( have to &no( that (hat (e are seein/ is a sta/ed fi"tion@ not real-life &illin/
Cima/ine our horri'le surprise if@ (hile (at"hin/ a (ar s"ene@ (e (ould suddenl4 see that (e are (at"hin/ a snuff@
that the a"tor en/a/ed in fa"e-to-fa"e "om'at is effe"tivel4 "uttin/ the throat of his Kenem4KaD. A/ainst the
theorists (ho fear that "4'erspa"e involves the re/ression to a &ind of ps4"hoti" in"estuous immersion@ one should
thus dis"ern in toda4Fs often "lums4 and am'i/uous improvisations a'out K"4'erspa"e rulesK pre"isel4 the effort to
esta'lish "learl4 the "ontours of a ne( spa"e of s4m'oli" fi"tions in (hi"h (e full4 parti"ipate in the mode
disavo(al@ i.e. 'ein/ a(are that Kthis is not real life.K
-2
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
'utler her stan$e on politi$s is dan0erous
'utler7s politi$s are dan0erous the5 $reate a spa$e for the far-ri0ht to freel5 oppress
,artha <uss)aum is professor of la( and philosoph4 at the ?niversit4 of Chi"a/o <e( Repu'li"
=!%R?AR ** 1999 availa'le on le8is
Suppose *e 0rant 'utler her most interestin/ $laims up to this pointG that the so"ial stru"ture of /ender is u'iJuitous@ 'ut (e "an resist
it '4 su'versive and parodi" a"ts. >(o si0nifi$ant Guestions remain. ,hat should )e resistedC and on *hat )asisI +hat
(ould the a"ts of resistan"e 'e li&e@ and *hat *ould *e e8pe$t them to a$$omplishI %utler uses several (ords for (hat she ta&es to
'e 'ad and therefore (orth4 of resistan"eG the Krepressive@K the Ksu'ordinatin/@K the Koppressive.K %ut she provides no empiri"al dis"ussion of
resistan"e of the sort that (e find@ sa4@ in %arr4 AdamFs fas"inatin/ so"iolo/i"al stud4 >he Survival of 7omination C1923D@ (hi"h studies the
su'ordination of 'la"&s@ Ae(s@ (omen@ and /a4s and les'ians@ and their (a4s of (restlin/ (ith the forms of so"ial po(er that have oppressed
them. <or does %utler provide an4 a""ount of the "on"epts of resistan"e and oppression that (ould help us@ (ere (e reall4 in dou't a'out (hat
(e ou/ht to 'e resistin/. %utler departs in this re/ard from earlier so"ial-"onstru"tionist feminists@ all of (hom used ideas su"h as non-hierar"h4@
eJualit4@ di/nit4@ autonom4@ and treatin/ as an end rather than a means@ to indi"ate a dire"tion for a"tual politi"s. Still less is she (illin/ to
ela'orate an4 positive normative notion. Indeed@ it is "lear that %utler@ li&e =ou"ault@ is adamantl4 opposed to normative notions su"h as human
di/nit4@ or treatin/ humanit4 as an end@ on the /rounds that the4 are inherentl4 di"tatorial. In her vie*C *e ou0ht to *ait to see *hat
the politi$al stru00le itself thro*s upC rather than pres$ri)e in advan$e to its parti"ipants. ?niversal normative notions@ she
sa4s@ K"oloniIe under the si/n of the same.K >his idea of *aitin0 to see *hat *e 0et--in a *ordC this moral passivit5--
seems plausi)le in 'utler )e$ause she ta$itl5 assumes an audien$e of li(e- minded readers *ho a0ree Csort ofD
a)out *hat the )ad thin0s are-- dis"rimination a/ainst /a4s and les'ians@ the uneJual and hierar"hi"al treatment of (omen--and (ho
even a/ree Csort ofD a'out (h4 the4 are 'ad Cthe4 su'ordinate some people to others@ the4 den4 people freedoms that the4 ou/ht to haveD. 'ut
ta(e that assumption a*a5C and the a)sen$e of a normative dimension )e$omes a severe pro)lem. >r4 tea"hin/
=ou"ault at a "ontemporar4 la( s"hool@ as I have@ and 5ou *ill Gui$(l5 find that su)version ta(es man5 formsC not all of
them $on0enial to 'utler and her allies. As a per"eptive li)ertarian student said to meC ,h5 $anEt I use these ideas
to resist the ta8 stru$tureC or the antidis$rimination la*sC or perhaps even to %oin the militiasI thersC less
fond of li)ert5C mi0ht en0a0e in the su)versive performan$es of ma&in/ fun of feminist remar&s in "lass@ or rippin0 do*n
the posters of the les)ian and 0a5 la* studentsE asso$iation. >hese thin0s happen. >he5 are parodi" and
su)versive. ,h5C thenC arenEt the5 darin0 and 0oodI
bb>his strai/ht-turns their entire ar/ument
>here is a voidC thenC at the heart of 'utlerEs notion of politi$s. >his void $an loo( li)eratin0C )e$ause the
reader fills it impli$itl5 *ith a normative theor5 of human eGualit5 or di0nit5. 'ut let there )e no mista(eJ for
'utlerC as for =ou$aultC su)version is su)versionC and it $an in prin$iple 0o in an5 dire$tion. IndeedC %utlerFs
naivel4 empt4 politi"s is espe"iall4 dan/erous for the ver4 "auses she holds dear. =or ever5 friend of 'utlerC ea0er
to en0a0e in su)versive performan$es that pro$laim the repressiveness of heterose8ual 0ender normsC there
are doBens *ho *ould li(e to en0a0e in su)versive performan$es that flout the norms of ta8 $omplian$eC of
non-dis$riminationC of de$ent treatment of oneEs fello* students. >o su$h people *e should sa5C 5ou $annot
simpl5 resist as 5ou pleaseC for there are norms of fairnessC de$en$5C and di0nit5 that entail that this is )ad
)ehavior. 'ut then *e have to arti$ulate those norms--and this 'utler refuses to do.
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Aff K Core
A-to 'utler K7s
'utler7s politi$s simpl5 opens the door for evil to rei0n-free
=or 'utlerC the a$t of su)version is so rivetin0C so se84C that it is a )ad dream to thin( that the *orld *ill
a$tuall5 0et )etter. ,hat a )ore eGualit5 isQ <o 'onda/e@ no deli/ht. In this (a4C her pessimisti$ eroti" anthropolo05
offers support to an amoral anar$hist politi$s. EI. +hen (e "onsider the Juietism inherent in %utlerFs (ritin/@ (e have some
&e4s to understandin/ %utlerFs influential fas"ination (ith dra/ and "ross- dressin/ as paradi/ms of feminist resistan"e. %utlerFs follo(ers
understand her a""ount of dra/ to impl4 that su"h performan"es are (a4s for (omen to 'e darin/ and su'versive. I am una(are of an4 attempt '4
%utler to repudiate su"h readin/s. %ut (hat is /oin/ on hereL >he (oman dressed mannishl4 is hardl4 a ne( fi/ure. Indeed@ even (hen she (as
relativel4 ne(@ in the nineteenth "entur4@ she (as in another (a4 Juite old@ for she simpl4 repli"ated in the les'ian (orld the e8istin/ stereot4pes
and hierar"hies of male-female so"iet4. +hat@ (e ma4 (ell as&@ is parodi" su'version in this area@ and (hat a &ind of prosperous middle-"lass
a""eptan"eL IsnFt hierar"h4 in dra/ still hierar"h4L And is it reall4 true Cas >he 5s4"hi" Bife of 5o(er (ould seem to "on"ludeD that domination
and su'ordination are the roles that (omen must pla4 in ever4 sphere@ and if not su'ordination@ then mannish dominationL In short@ "ross-
dressin/ for (omen is a tired old s"ript--as %utler herself informs us. et she (ould have us see the s"ript as su'verted@ made ne(@ '4 the "ross-
dresserFs &no(in/ s4m'oli" sartorial /esturesH 'ut a/ain (e must (onder a'out the ne(ness@ and even the su'versiveness. Consider Andrea
7(or&inFs parod4 Cin her novel ,er"4D of a %utlerish parodi" feminist@ (ho announ"es from her posture of se"ure a"ademi" "omfortG >he notion
that 'ad thin/s happen is 'oth propa/andisti" and inadeJuate... >o understand a (omanFs life reJuires that (e affirm the hidden or o's"ure
dimensions of pleasure@ often in pain@ and "hoi"e@ often under duress. One must develop an e4e for se"ret si/ns--the "lothes that are more than
"lothes or de"oration in the "ontemporar4 dialo/ue@ for instan"e@ or the re'ellion hidden 'ehind apparent "onformit4. >here is no vi"tim. >here is
perhaps an insuffi"ien"4 of si/ns@ an o'durate appearan"e of "onformit4 that simpl4 mas&s the deeper level on (hi"h "hoi"e o""urs. In prose
Juite unli&e %utlerFs@ this passa/e "aptures the am'ivalen"e of the implied author of some of %utlerFs (ritin/s@ (ho deli/hts in her violative
pra"ti"e (hile turnin/ her theoreti"al e4e resolutel4 a(a4 from the material sufferin/ of (omen (ho are hun/r4@ illiterate@ violated@ 'eaten. >here
is no vi"tim. >here is onl4 an insuffi"ien"4 of si/ns. %utler su//ests to her readers that this sl4 send-up of the status Juo is the onl4 s"ript for
resistan"e that life offers. +ell@ no. %esides offerin/ man4 other (a4s to 'e human in oneFs personal life@ 'e4ond traditional norms of domination
and su'servien"e@ life also offers man4 s"ripts for resistan"e that do not fo"us nar"issisti"all4 on personal self-presentation. Su"h s"ripts involve
feminists Cand others@ of "ourseD in 'uildin/ la(s and institutions@ (ithout mu"h "on"ern for ho( a (oman displa4s her o(n 'od4 and its
/endered natureG in short@ the4 involve (or&in/ for others (ho are sufferin/. >he /reat tra/ed4 in the ne( feminist theor4 in Ameri"a is the loss
of a sense of pu'li" "ommitment. In this sense@ %utlerFs self-involved feminism is e8tremel4 Ameri"an@ and it is not surprisin/ that it has "au/ht
on here@ (here su""essful middle-"lass people prefer to fo"us on "ultivatin/ the self rather than thin&in/ in a (a4 that helps the material "ondition
of others. !ven in Ameri"a@ ho(ever@ it is possi'le for theorists to 'e dedi"ated to the pu'li" /ood and to a"hieve somethin/ throu/h that effort.
,an4 feminists in Ameri"a are still theoriIin/ in a (a4 that supports material "han/e and responds to the situation of the most oppressed.
In"reasin/l4@ ho(ever@ the a"ademi" and "ultural trend is to(ard the pessimisti" flirtatiousness represented '4 the theoriIin/ of %utler and her
follo(ers. %utlerian feminism is in man4 (a4s easier than the old feminism. It tells s"ores of talented 4oun/ (omen that the4 need not (or& on
"han/in/ the la(@ or feedin/ the hun/r4@ or assailin/ po(er throu/h theor4 harnessed to material politi"s. >he4 "an do politi"s in safet4 of their
"ampuses@ remainin/ on the s4m'oli" level@ ma&in/ su'versive /estures at po(er throu/h spee"h and /esture. >his@ the theor4 sa4s@ is prett4
mu"h all that is availa'le to us an4(a4@ '4 (a4 of politi"al a"tion@ and isnFt it e8"itin/ and se84L In its small *a5@ of "ourse@ this is a
hopeful politi$s. It instru$ts people that the5 $anC ri/ht no(@ *ithout $ompromisin0 their se$urit5C do somethin0
)old. 'ut the )oldness is entirel5 0estural@ and insofar as %utlerFs ideal su//ests that these s4m'oli" /estures reall4 are politi"al
"han/e@ it offers onl4 a false hope. ;un0r5 *omen are not fed )5 thisC )attered *omen are not sheltered )5 itC raped
(omen do not find #usti"e in it@ /a4s and les'ians do not a"hieve le/al prote"tions throu/h it. =inall4 there is despair at the heart of
the $heerful 'utlerian enterprise. >he )i0 hopeC the hope for a *orld of real %usti$eC *here la*s and
institutions prote$t the eGualit5 and the di0nit5 of all $itiBensC has )een )anishedC even perhaps mo$(ed as
se8uall4 tedious. Audith 'utlerEs hip Guietism is a "omprehensi'le response to the diffi$ult5 of realiBin0 %usti$e in
Ameri$a. 'ut it is a )ad response. It $olla)orates *ith evil. =eminism demands more and (omen deserve 'etter.
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A-to 'utler K7s
@ A 'utler7s retreat from the pra0mati$ is damnin0 her startin0 point renders her pro%e$t
$ounter-produ$tive.
=or a lon0 timeC a$ademi$ feminism in Ameri$a has )een $losel5 allied to the pra$ti$al stru00le to a$hieve
%usti$e and eJualit4 for (omen. =eminist theor4 has 'een understood '4 theorists as not #ust fan"4 (ords on paperH theor5 is $onne$ted
to proposals for so$ial $han0e. >hus feminist s"holars have en/a/ed in man4 "on"rete pro#e"tsG the reform of rape la(H (innin/
attention and le/al redress for the pro'lems of domesti" violen"e and se8ual harassmentH improvin/ (omenFs e"onomi" opportunities@ (or&in/
"onditions@ and edu"ationH (innin/ pre/nan"4 'enefits for female (or&ersH "ampai/nin/ a/ainst the traffi"&in/ of (omen and /irls in
prostitutionH (or&in/ for the so"ial and politi"al eJualit4 of les'ians and /a4 men. IndeedC some theorists have left the a$adem5
alto/ether@ feelin0 more $omforta)le in the *orld of pra$ti$al politi$sC *here the5 $an address these ur0ent
pro)lems dire$tl5. >hose (ho remain in the a"adem4 have freJuentl4 made it a point of honor to 'e a"ademi"s of a "ommitted pra"ti"al
sort@ e4es al(a4s on the material "onditions of real (omen@ (ritin/ al(a4s in a (a4 that a"&no(led/es those real 'odies and those real stru//les.
One "annot read a pa/e of Catharine ,a"Kinnon@ for e8ample@ (ithout 'ein/ en/a/ed (ith a real issue of le/al and institutional "han/e. If one
disa/rees (ith her proposals-- and man4 feminists disa/ree (ith them--the "hallen/e posed '4 her (ritin/ is to find some other (a4 of solvin/
the pro'lem that has 'een vividl4 delineated. =eminists have differed in some "ases a'out (hat is 'ad@ and a'out (hat is needed to ma&e thin/s
'etterH 'ut all have a/reed that the "ir"umstan"es of (omen are often un#ust and that la( and politi"al a"tion "an ma&e them more nearl4 #ust.
,a"Kinnon@ (ho portra4s hierar"h4 and su'ordination as endemi" to our entire "ulture@ is also "ommitted to@ and "autiousl4 optimisti" a'out@
"han/e throu/h la(--the domesti" la( of rape and se8ual harassment and international human ri/hts la(. !ven <an"4 Chodoro(@ (ho@ in >he
Reprodu"tion of ,otherin/@ offered a depressin/ a""ount of the repli"ation of oppressive /ender "ate/ories in "hild-rearin/@ ar/ued that this
situation "ould "han/e. ,en and (omen "ould de"ide@ understandin/ the unhapp4 "onseJuen"es of these ha'its@ that the4 (ill hen"eforth do
thin/s differentl4H and "han/es in la(s and institutions "an assist in su"h de"isions. =eminist theor4 still loo&s li&e this in man4 parts of the
(orld. In India@ for e8ample@ a"ademi" feminists have thro(n themselves into pra"ti"al stru//les@ and feminist theoriIin/ is "losel4 tethered to
pra"ti"al "ommitments su"h as female litera"4@ the reform of uneJual land la(s@ "han/es in rape la( C(hi"h@ in India toda4@ has most of the fla(s
that the first /eneration of Ameri"an feminists tar/etedD@ the effort to /et so"ial re"o/nition for pro'lems of se8ual harassment and domesti"
violen"e. >hese feminists &no( that the4 live in the middle of a fier"el4 un#ust realit4H the4 "annot live (ith themselves (ithout addressin/ it
more or less dail4@ in their theoreti"al (ritin/ and in their a"tivities outside the seminar room. In the ?nited States@ ho*everC thin0s
have )een $han0in0. ne o)serves a ne(@ disGuietin0 trend. It is not onl4 that feminist theor4 pa4s relativel4 little attention to the
stru//les of (omen outside the ?nited States. C>his (as al(a4s a dispiritin/ feature even of mu"h of the 'est (or& of the earlier period.D
Somethin/ more insidious than provin"ialism has "ome to prominen"e in the Ameri"an a"adem4. It is the virtuall5 $omplete turnin0
from the material side of lifeC to*ard a t5pe of ver)al and s5m)oli$ politi$s that ma(es onl5 the flimsiest of
$onne$tions (ith the real situation of real (omen. =eminist thin&ers of the ne* s5m)oli$ t5pe *ould appear to )elieve that
the *a5 to do feminist politi$s is to use *ords in a su)versive *a5C in a$ademi$ pu)li$ations of loft5 o)s$urit5
and disdainful a)stra$tness. >hese s4m'oli" /estures@ it is 'elieved@ are themselves a form of politi"al resistan"eH and so one need not
en/a/e (ith mess4 thin/s su"h as le/islatures and movements in order to a"t darin/l4. >he ne( feminism@ moreover@ instru"ts its mem'ers that
there is little room for lar/e-s"ale so"ial "han/e@ and ma4'e no room at all. +e are all@ more or less@ prisoners of the stru"tures of po(er that have
defined our identit4 as (omenH (e "an never "han/e those stru"tures in a lar/e-s"ale (a4@ and (e "an never es"ape from them. All that *e
$an hope to do is to find spa$es *ithin the stru$tures of po*er in *hi$h to parod5 themC to po(e fun at themC
to trans0ress them in spee$h. And so s5m)oli$ ver)al politi$sC in addition to )ein0 offered as a t5pe of real
politi$sC is held to )e the onl5 politi$s that is reall5 possi)le. >hese developments o(e mu"h to the re"ent prominen"e of
=ren"h postmodernist thou/ht. ,an4 4oun/ feminists@ (hatever their "on"rete affiliations (ith this or that =ren"h thin&er@ have 'een influen"ed
'4 the e8tremel4 =ren"h idea that the intelle"tual does politi"s '4 spea&in/ seditiousl4@ and that this is a si/nifi"ant t4pe of politi"al a"tion. ,an4
have also derived from the (ritin/s of ,i"hel =ou"ault Cri/htl4 or (ron/l4D the fatalisti" idea that (e are prisoners of an all-envelopin/ stru"ture
of po(er@ and that real-life reform movements usuall4 end up servin/ po(er in ne( and insidious (a4s. Su"h feminists therefore find "omfort in
the idea that the su'versive use of (ords is still availa'le to feminist intelle"tuals. 7eprived of the hope of lar/er or more lastin/ "han/es@ (e "an
still perform our resistan"e '4 the re(or&in/ of ver'al "ate/ories@ and thus@ at the mar/ins@ of the selves (ho are "onstituted '4 them. ne
Ameri$an feminist has shaped these developments more than an5 other. Audith %utler seems to man4 4oun/ s"holars to
define (hat feminism is no(. >rained as a philosopher@ she is freJuentl4 seen Cmore '4 people in literature than '4 philosophersD as a ma#or
thin&er a'out /ender@ po(er@ and the 'od4. As (e (onder (hat has 'e"ome of old-st4le feminist politi"s and the material realities to (hi"h it (as
"ommitted@ it seems ne"essar4 to re"&on (ith 'utlerEs *or( and influen"e@ and to s"rutiniIe the ar/uments that have led so man5 to
adopt a stan$e that loo(s ver5 mu$h li(e Guietism and retreat.
.0
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Aff K Core
A-to Chernus K
@ A Chernus7 alt and frame*or(-vision *ill fail it la$(s pra0mati$ effi$a$5
7r. S>?AR> C;AR-# is a professor of reli/ion at Rut/ers-Camden )evie*ed *ork0s/:
1uclear "adness: )eligion and the 2sychology o# the 1uclear 3ge by 4ra Chernus
Sour"eG Revie( of Reli/ious Resear"h@ Eol. --@ <o. * C7e".@ 1991D@ pp. 131-132
5u'lished '4G Reli/ious Resear"h Asso"iation@ In".
Sta'le ?RBG httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$-01191.
>his 'oo& demonstrates man4 of the stren/ths and (ea&nesses of ps4"ho-histori"al interpretations. ,u"h of the
ar/ument is "arried '4 su//estive analo/ies and heuristi" metaphors@ e8tended des"riptions of suprapersonal entities
li&e nations@ "ultures@ and "iviliIations 5as if" the5 operated a$$ordin0 to individual ps5$hod5nami$s . Chernus himself
sprin&les dis- "laimers throu/hout his 'oo& den4in/ that his interpretations are empiri"all4 verifia'le or indeed are
an4thin/ more than useful fi"tions to stimulate thou/ht. %4 the end of the 'oo&@ ho(ever@ ChernusF "ommitment to a parti"ular
ps4"holo/i"al and metaph4si"al perspe"tive is more than metaphori"al. In his rush to re"onne"t to an ar"het4pal
(orld of s4m'ols and ima/es@ he tends to )e some*hat dismissive of more $on$rete politi$alC e"onomi"@ histori"al and
s"ientifi" perspe$tives relatin0 to nu$lear arms. >here "an 'e no dou't that Chernus has produ"ed a "reative and unorthodo8
interpretation of nu"lear (eapons. ,u"h of its su""ess (ill depend on the readerFs prior "ommitment Cor ne( "onversionD to the perspe"tive of
ar"het4pal ps4"holo/4. A""ordin/l4@ some (ill "on- "lude from this 'oo& that Chernus is tuned in to the un"ons"ious s4m'oli" meanin/ of the
/lo'al ps4"he@ (hereas others ma4 remain more du'ious that ne( ritual e8pressions of ar"het4pal ima/es are a suffi"ient
response to the prospe"t of@ sa4@ nu"lear proliferation into third (orld "ountries li&e IraJ.
@ A ;e hopes for a representational po*er )ut =ramin07s po*er is SF#F" its pra0mati$
fun$tion. >o sa5 !the Aff s$enarios don7t matter )e$ause our K ma(es ever5one ni$e+ is a
far$e.
De*s)ur5 P.
CAohn-7avid 7e(s'ur4 -- S"hool of 9eo/raphi"al Studies@ ?niversit4 of %ristol -- !nvironment and 5lannin/ A *00-@ volume
-0@ pa/es 1902-19-* -- httpG$$(((.sa/es.unimel'.edu.au$ne(s$mh/r$de(s'ur4.pdfD
>hat someone in"ludes us -- the so"ial s"ientists@ the resear"hers@ and the (riters. In some (a4 (e are all false (itnesses to (hat is there.C*D So@
even thou/h the philosophi- "al drive moves a/ainst the apparentl4 sterile setup of totaliIin/ representations@ the
presentation of ideas is trapped (ithin the stru"ture it is tr4in/ to "ritiJue. In m4 opinion@ this sterilit4 is onl4 apparent.
Si/nifi"antl4@ this appearan"e is valid from 'oth sidesG from the side of representational theor4 'e"ause of the 'elief in the representational
stru"ture as 'ein/ a'le to /ive an a""ount of ever4thin/H and from the side of nonrepresentational theor4 'e"ause of the dan/er of /ettin/
"arried a(a4 (ith an a'solute "ritiJue of representations. >he apparent sterilit4 "omes from this last pointG that in
/ettin/ "arried a(a4 (ith "ritiJue 4ou fail to appre"iate that the 'uildin/ 'lo"&s of representation are not sterile in
themselves -- onl5 *hen the5 are used as part of a s5stem. >he representational s5stem @ its stru"ture and re/ulation of
meanin/@ is not $omplete -- it needs "onstant maintenan"e@ lo4alt4@ and faith from those (ho pra"ti"e it. In this re/ard@ its po*er is in its
pra0mati$ fun$tionsG eas4 "ommuni"ation of ideas Cthat restri"ts their potential e8tensionD@ and sustaina'le@ defensi'le@ and "onsensual
a/reement on understandin/ Ca "ertain &ind of understandin/@ and hen"e a "ertain t4pe of &no(led/eD. >he nonrepresentational ar/ument "omes
into its o(n in as&in/ us to revisit the performative spa"e of representation in a manner that is more attuned to its fra/ile "onstitution. >he point
'ein/ that representation left "riti"all4 unattended onl5 allo*s for $on$eptual differen$e and not for a $on$ept of
differen$e as su"h. >he former maintains e8istin/ ideolo/i"al mar&ers (hilst the latter "hallen/es us to invent ne( ones. =or me@ the pro#e"t of
nonrepresentational theor4 then@ is to e8"avate the empt4 spa"e 'et(een the lines of representational meanin/ in order to see (hat is also
possi'le. >he representational s4stem is not (ron/G ratherC it is the )elief that it offers $omplete understandin0 --
and that only it offers an5 sensi)le understandin0 at all -- that is $riti$all5 fla*ed.
.1
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Aff K Core
A-to Chernus K $ont7
@ A >he5 don7t $ontrol root $ause Chernus7 $laims are fundamentall5 *ea( on this point
RIC;AR7 %. -IFF#R@ Indiana ?niversit4 at %loomin/ton. Revie(ed (or&CsDG
A Shudderin/ 7a(nG Reli/ious Studies and the <u"lear A/e '4 Ira Chernus H !d(ard >a'or Binenthal
Sour"eG >he Aournal of Reli/ion@ Eol. 21@ <o. - CAul.@ 1991D@ pp. .01-.02
5u'lished '4G >he ?niversit4 of Chi"a/o 5ress
Sta'le ?RBG httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$1*0.09.
One learns the most from this 'oo&@ I 'elieve@ if it is read as an item of reli/ious studies in the a"adem4. KReli/ionK is used in a'undant and
diverse (a4s@ usuall4 to provide parallels (ith the histor4 of nu"lear te"hnolo/4. A fe( parallels are (orth notin/. >here are parallels
'et(een nu"lear (ar and the "ontent of reli- /ious ima/er4 Ce./.@ apo"al4pti"ismDH nu"lear (eapons and the stru"ture of reli- /ious
s4m'olism Ce./.@ parado8DH pronu"lear or/aniIations and reli/ious movements Ce./.@ revivalismDH the e8perien"e of nu"lear dan/er and reli/ious
ritual Ce./.@ 'oundar4 e8perien"eDH nu"lear (eapons and reli/ious lo4alt4 Ce./.@ o'#e"ts of faithD. ?nfortunatel5C the )oo( does not
live up to its o*n )illin0. <one of the essa5s dire$tl5 ans*ers the GuestionC H,h5 do *e have nu$lear *eapons
and a $ontinu- in0 arms ra$eIH >he "losest the reader /ets to an ans(er is the "laim that nu"lear (eapons ta&e on
deep reli/ious Jualities. 'ut su$h an interpretation falls short of a $ausal e8planation C unless the authors (ant to hold
that (e "ontinue to produ"e nu"lear (eapons out of deep reli/ious needs. %ut no one in the )oo( 0oes so far as to ma(e su$h a
$laim. ,oreover@ "ontrar4 to the promise of deta"hment@ four essa4s-a third of the 'oo&-dra( e8pli"itl4 from reli/ious "ommitments or
de"idedl4 su'#e"tive #ourne4s.
.*
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to Chernus K $ont7
@ A Chernus7 K $an7t rea$h out to the un$overted it7s interestin0C )ut pointlessC ivor5
to*er $rapola.
,IC;A!B 'ARK?< ,a8(ell S"hool@ S4ra"use ?niversit4 S4ra"use@ <e( or& )evie*ed *ork0s/:
3 Shuddering 6a*n: )eligious Studies in the 1uclear 3ge by 4ra Chernus 7 (d*ard 8abor
'inenthal Source: 9ournal #or the Scienti#ic Study o# )eligion Eol. *9@ <o. - CSep.@ 1990D@ pp. .10c.1*
5u'lished '4G %la"&(ell 5u'lishin/ on 'ehalf of So"iet4 for the S"ientifi" Stud4 of Reli/ion
Sta'le ?RBG httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$1-31.23
>he dan/er in an4 multidis"iplinar4 enterprise is surel4 that (ithout the "onstrainin/ "onventions of dis"iplines@
thou/ht and e8pression "an roam in a (illful and disordered fashion. >hat is o""asionall4 the "ase here@ althou/h in (hat is
surel4 the most provo"ative "ontri'ution - 7aniel <oelFs free asso"iation on the ima/er4 in Russell ;o'anFs novel@ Riddle4 +al&er - mana/es to
'rea& virtuall4 ever4 rule of s"holarl4 /enres (hile maintainin/ an essential inner "oheren"e. If there is in fa"t an4 (ea&ness in this e8tra-
ordinaril4 ri"h set of papers@ it lies in the 'elief '4 some of the "ontri'utors that the4 need merel4 restate seemin/l4 self-
evident truths. >he4 ta&e it as /iven that nu"lear (eapons are evil in themselves Ca proposition man4 'ut not all (ould assent
toD@ and that therefore the nature of the evil need onl4 'e mentioned rather than demonstrated. ?nfortunatel4@ to assume so mu"h is
'oth to prea"h to the faithful and to miss si/nifi"ant opportunities for e8tendin/ our understandin/. C>hus@ in K5erformin/
the <u"lear Ceremon4G >he Arms Ra"e as a Ritual@K Ro'ert 7. %enford and Bester R. KurtI spea& &no(led/ea'l4 a'out 'oth ritual and the arms
ra"e (ithout providin/ the &ind of ethno/raph4 of nu"lear ritual that the su'#e"t demands.
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A-to Death Drive Ar0s
@ A ur over-identifi$ation ar0umentJ ,e should a$(no*led0e and fi0ht a0ainst the death
drive )ut *e should not assume it e8plains-a*a5 every $ondition. >heir over-
identifi$ation onl5 feeds the drive *e7re the )est middle 0round.
9ifford *00. CAames@ 5h7 Candidate at the ? of Al'erta@ +hat Is Ui\e& So Afraid OfLG !8emplifi"ation
A/ainst >he !8istential ;ordes)@ A SpotG Aournal of So"ial and 5oliti"al >hou/ht@ *G1@ Aanuar4@
httpG$$(((.4or&u."a$#spot$0$#/ifford.htmD
>o refuse the (illful "ontrol over the inevita'le that intrudes on the s4m'oli" order is either an a""eptan"e of
ps4"hosis Cin Ui\e&6s formulationD or *orse . In reinfor"in/ the s4m'oli" order and en#o4in/ the s4mptoms of its denial of its
Real@ a retreat is effe"ted further into the s4stems that >error ,ana/ement >heor4 has sho(n result in a dero/ation of
differen"e@ in"reased investment in so"ial s4stems of self-esteem@ and ver4 possi'l4 re"&less 'ehaviours involvin/ destru"tion
and violen"e. In the "ase of the inevita'le@ this differen"e (ill 'e enfor"ed@ no matter (hat Salo-li&e ni/htmares are "reated to defend the
individual from the a(areness of the "rou"hin/ 'east. >he Tdeath drive@6 the instin"tual desirin/ of the inevita'le monster that I have sho(n to 'e
a non-instin"tual s4m'oli" means to self-preservation@ 'e"omes 'oth the denial itself and the means to avoidin/ the endless retreat into ideolo/4.
,oreover@ even in the (illful "hoosin/ of death@ and the mis-definition of this as Tinstin"tual@6 there resides another
level of ideolo/4 that denies the (illful "hoosin/ of the inevita'le as a means to "ontrol and a "reation of the s4m'oli" order that 'uffers
a/ainst ps4"hosis-indu"in/ terror and "ontrol over the detrimental aspe"ts of this 'uffer. As (ith the e"olo/i"al "risis@ M(e6reN not reall4 prepared
to inte/rate it into MourN s4m'oli" universe@ and that is (h4 M(eN "ontinue to a"t as if e"olo/4 is of no lastin/ "onseJuen"e for MourN ever4da4
liMvesN) CUi\e&@ Boo&in/ -0D@ hen"e our denial of mortalit4 leads us to pursue and "hase our o(n death@ rather than (illfull4 "hoosin/ its future
inevita'ilit4 (hile "ontinuin/ to live. Is it not prefera)le to ta(e up one7s o*n death as a future inevita)ilit5 that
$annot )e preventedC rather than mista(enl5 pursue death and ma(e it imminent '4 s4m'oli"all4 destro4in/ itL In the
same manner@ the rele/ation of the (ill to non-e8isten"e in the s4m'oli" order in (hi"h Ui\e&6s (ritin/s fun"tion@ leaves an4 resolution of the
real pro'lem of Salos and Sadean dun/eons (ithout an outlet via "hoi"e@ sin"e these horrifi" atro"ities are (ithin an ideolo/4 that is driven '4
them. +ithout a realiIation of the (ill and the self@ as (ell as the "onfli"t 'et(een Tmortal6 autonom4 and Timmortal6
dependen"e$identifi"ation (ith the nation@ "an (e undo the Salos of a 'om'ed out Af/hanistan@ the Sadean dun/eons of
9uantanamo %a4 in Cu'a@ or pea"e throu/h perpetual (arL >he ideolo/i"al s4stem that see&s to es"ape from the
horrors of our "entur4 forms these terrors as its o(n traumati" &ernel that is 'oth reviled and needed as a la"&. In
"ontrast@ (hen >,> su'#e"ts 'e"ome a(are of their o(n mortalit4 salien"e-indu"ed a//ressivit4 and dero/ation@ the4 ne/ate the un"ons"ious
transa"tion 'et(een the an8iet4 'uffer and the fear of its la"& Ci.e.@ "onfrontation (ith one6s mortalit4D. Simpl4 put@ '4 'e"omin/ a(are of
their an8iet4 as the sour"e of their a//ressivit4@ >error ,ana/ement su)%e$ts $ease to a00ress and invest in 'uffers in the same
(a4. %e"omin/ "ons"ious of the effe"ts of the self-preservation instin"t ma&e su"h me"hanisms and pro"esses su'#e"t
to "ons"ious (ill. <onetheless@ it is perhaps too mu"h to hope that Ui\e&6s formulation (ill in"lude Ten#o4 4our (ill6 or an a'andonment of
the s4m'oli" order in the self-"reation CtraumD of the RealH althou/h@ it ma4 still 'e possi'le to hope for a (illful release of the fist "au/ht in the
trap of ideolo/i"al denial.
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Aff K Core
@ A >heir K of the death drive is over-$onfident and haBardous. #8tin$tion is not a $ertain
out$ome in the *orld of the death drive. ,e ma(e the )est predi$tions *e $an and their
e8tremism ra$es to*ards dan0erous and $onvenient path.
'ou$her *002 C9eoff@ Cultural Studies 5rofessor ? ,el'ourne@ >he 5oliti"s of ?niversal >ruth@
Aanuar4 *9@ httpG$$home.mira.net$Odeller$ethi"alpoliti"s$/eoff-'ou"her$*00*$IiIe&.htmD
>he ans(er@ then@ to Ui\e&6s Juestion Cis not Ba"an6s entire theoreti"al edifi"e torn 'et(een these t(o optionsG 'et(een the
ethi"s of desire$Ba(@ of maintainin/ the /ap@ and the lethal$sui"idal immersion in the >hin/L)D@ is !<o+. >his is a false
statement of the alternatives@ an ethi"al mirror ima/e of the politi"al dilemma) of postmodern post-politi"s Ceither postmar8ian
a""eptan"e of the impossi'ilit4$undesira'ilit4 of revolution@ or totalitarian madness and the horrors of a fresh /ula/D. Zupan"i"6s statement of the
ethi"s of the Real demonstrates that not /ivin/ (a4 on one6s desire) Cthe ethi"al ma8im of ps4"hoanal4sisD is "ompati'le (ith the modern moral
imperative@ do 4our dut4`) ,odern ethi"s involves neither the dire"t immersion in the death drive C(hi"h leads to Ui\e&6s
ethi"al de"isionism and politi"al voluntarismD@ nor the avoidan"e of the drive in a return to the ethi"s of the master. Instead of
Ui\e&6s sui"idal) politi"o-ethi"al A"t that aims dire"tl4 for the Real@ the ethi"al a"t involves s4m'oli" sui"ide - a politi"al
intervention /uided '4 an ethi"al imperative that 'roo&s no e8"eptions and is prepared to /o all the (a4 in its
impossi'le demand@ the revolution in permanen"e). =or@ in the final anal4sis@ is not s4m'oli" sui"ide infinitel4 more
an8iet4 provo&in/ than real sui"ide@ than one6s ph4si"al destru"tion Cand the destru"tion of othersDL >here is a stran/e
"omfort in &no(in/ that 4ou are the instrument of the histori"al pro"ess. +ho (ants to end up as an e8"remental remainder on a planet (ithout a
visa@) havin/ sa"rifi"ed everything and 4et still havin/ no a'solute /uarantee that 4ou have done the ri/ht thin/L %4 "ontrast (ith the ethi"s of the
drive@ Ui\e&6s ps4"hoti") politi"o-ethi"al A"t that aims dire"tl4 for the Real "an onl4 terminate in a terrorist ethi"s@ in an ethi"s that
su'stitutes violen"e in the Real for the diale"ti"s of the spirit Cthat is@ for interventions in the s4m'oli" fields of "ulture and politi"sD@ and in a
politi"s that desperatel4 attempts to /alvanise) the histori"al pro"ess throu/h the propa/anda of the deed@) throu/h
e8emplar4 a"ts of violen"e or e8traordinar4 a"ts of trans/ression. >his is (hat Zupan"i" "alls the ethi"s of fantas4) Cthe
ethi"s of desire is the ethi"s of fantas4 Cor (hat (e have also "alled the ethi"s of the masterD) CZupan"i"@ *000G *0.DD@ and it is@ I su//est@ the
ethi"s of the anta/onist@ the ethi"s of nationalism@ fundamentalism and fas"ism. >he Beft does not need su"h an ethi"s. A
politi"s of ?niversal >ruthL es@ a'solutel4` ?p to@ and in"ludin/@ repeatin/ Benin). %ut repetition entails a minimum of differen"eG our
repetition of Benin (ill not 'e a slavish imitation of the past Cup to and in"ludin/ a reha'ilitation of Stalin`D@ 'ut a "reative adaptation. +e no
more need to imitate Benin than (e need to rush out and #oin one of the splinters of the =ourth International Cand imitate >rots&4D. <or should (e
ima/ine that an ethi"s Ca "on"ept of ethi"al life@ an ethi"s of the RealD "an /round a politi"s in the traditional sense of suppl4in/ an A'solute
9uarantee of the ethi"al validit4 of ever4 politi"al a"t. >here are no short-"ir"uits) 'et(een ethi"s and politi"s@ nor an4
dedu"tions@) in the /rand metaph4si"al st4le of ;e/el@ of the politi"al "onseJuen"es of the diale"ti"al unfoldin/ of ethi"al life. Instead@ there is a
relation of sin/ular arti"ulation@ of invention@ 'et(een ethi"s and politi"s. +e a"t (ithout final /uarantees - (hi"h is to sa4@ (e
a""ept an infinite responsi'ilit4 for the unforeseea'le "onseJuen"es of our a"ts - 'ut not (ithout "riteria Csu"h as
universalit4 and the treatment of persons as ends@ not meansD. +e a""ept that there are man4 politi"s minimall4 "ompati'le (ith
modern ethi"s@ and refuse to su'stitute moral #ud/ement for the rational "o/nition of alternative "laims Cmoralism)D. >he left(in/ "laim is not
that so"ialism is the only ethi"al politi"s. It is that it is the 'est.
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<o su$h thin0 as the death drive. KiBe(7s dia0nosis is *ron0 and lo$(s in oppressive po*er
stru$tures
Ro)inson *001 CAndre(@ 5h7 in 5oliti"al >heor4@ ? of <ottin/ham@ >heor4 and !vent@ 3G1@ 5ro#e"t,useD
9uattariFs "ritiJue of ps4"hoanal4sis ma&es "lear the m4ths (hi"h underlie it. F5s4"hoanal4sis transforms and deforms the un"ons"ious '4 for"in/
it to pass throu/h the /rid of its s4stem of ins"ription and representation. =or ps4"hoanal4sis@ the un"ons"ious is al(a4s alread4 there@ /eneti"all4
pro/rammed@ stru"tured@ and finaliIed on o'#e"tives of "onformit4 to so"ial normsF10.. Similarl4@ Rei"h has alread4 e8posed a prede"essor
of the idea of K"onstitutive la"&K - the =reudian Kdeath instin"tK - as a denial that KI donFt &no(K. It is@ he sa4s@ a metaph4si"al
attempt to e8plain as 4et ine8pli"a'le phenomena@ an attempt (hi"h /ets in the (a4 of fa"t-findin/ a'out these
phenomena100. ;e provides a detailed "lini"al re'uttal of the idea of the Kdeath instin"tK (hi"h is eJuall4 apt as an atta"& on Ba"anians C(ho
seem una(are of Rei"hFs interventionD. In Rei"hFs vie(@ the maso"histi" tenden"ies =reud asso"iates (ith the Kdeath instin"tK
are se"ondar4 drives arisin/ from an8iet4@ and are attri'uta'le to Fthe disastrous effe"t of so"ial "onditions on the
'iops4"hi" apparatus. >his entailed the ne"essit4 of "riti"iIin/ the so"ial "onditions (hi"h "reated the neuroses - a
ne"essit4 (hi"h the h4pothesis of a 'iolo/i"al (ill to suffer had "ir"umventedF101. >he idea of the Kdeath instin"tK
leads to a "ultural philosoph4 in (hi"h sufferin/ is assumed to 'e inevita'le@ (hereas Rei"hFs alternative - to attri'ute
neurosis to frustrations (ith ori/ins in the so"ial s4stem - leads to a "riti"al so"iolo/i"al stan"e102. >he relevan"e of
Rei"hFs "ritiJue to the politi"al theor4 of "onstitutive la"& is stri&in/. >he Kdeath instin"tK is "onne"ted to an idea of primordial maso"hism (hi"h@
in the form of KaphanisisK or Ksu'#e"tive destitutionK@ re"urs throu/hout Ba"anian politi"al theor4. Ui\e& in parti"ular advo"ates
maso"hism@ in the /uise of Kshootin/ atK or K'eatin/K oneself@ as a radi"al /esture (hi"h reveals the essen"e of the
self and 'rea&s the "onstraints of an oppressive realit4103@ althou/h the maso"histi" /esture is present in all Ba"anian theorists. >he death
instin"t is t4pified '4 Ui\e& as a patholo/i"al Cin the Kantian senseD@ "ontin/ent attitude (hi"h finds satisfa"tion in the pro"ess of self-
'lo"&a/e109. It is identi"al (ith the Ba"anian "on"ept of #ouissan"e or en#o4ment. =or him@ Fen#o4ment C#ouissan"eD is not to 'e eJuated (ith
pleasureG en#o4ment is pre"isel4 Kpleasure in unpleasureKH it desi/nates the parado8i"al satisfa"tion pro"ured '4 a painful en"ounter (ith a >hin/
that pertur's the eJuili'rium of the pleasure prin"iple. In other (ords@ en#o4ment is lo"ated K'e4ond the pleasure prin"ipleKF110. It is also the "ore
of the self@ sin"e en#o4ment is Fthe onl4 Ksu'stan"eK a"&no(led/ed '4 ps4"hoanal4sisF@ and Fthe su'#e"t full4 Ke8istsK onl4 throu/h en#o4mentF111.
5rimordial maso"hism is therefore "entral to the Ba"anian "on"ept of the Real@ (hi"h depends on there 'ein/ a universal moment at (hi"h a"tive
desire - sometimes /iven the sli/htl4 misleadin/ name of the Kpleasure prin"ipleK - is suspended@ not for a /reater or dela4ed pleasure@ 'ut out of a
dire"t desire for unpleasure Ci.e. a primar4 rea"tive desireD. =urthermore@ this rea"tive desire is supposed to 'e ontolo/i"all4 prior to a"tive desire.
7omini"& BaCapra offers a similar 'ut distin"t "ritiJue to m4 o(n@ "laimin/ that Ba"anian and similar theories indu"e a post-traumati"
"ompulsion repetition or an Fendless@ Juasi-trans"endental /rievin/ that ma4 'e indistin/uisha'le from intermina'le melan"hol4F11*. Rei"h has
alread4 provided a re'uttal of Kprimordial maso"hismK@ (hi"h@ parado8i"all4 /iven Ui\e&Fs "laims to radi"alism@ (as denoun"ed '4
orthodo8 =reudians as "ommunist propa/anda. In Rei"hFs vie(@ maso"hism operates as a relief at a lesser pain (hi"h operates as armourin/
a/ainst an8iet4 a'out an underl4in/ trauma11-. Re/ardless of (hat one thin&s of Rei"hFs spe"ifi" a""ount of the ori/ins of maso"hism@ (hat is
"ru"ial is his "ritiJue of the idea of a death drive. FSu"h h4potheses as are "riti"ised here are often onl4 a si/n of therapeuti"
failure. =or if one e8plains maso"hism '4 a death instin"t@ one "onfirms to the patient his Msi"N alle/ed (ill to sufferF11..
>hus@ Ba"anian metaph4si"s "on"eal Ba"aniansF en"oura/ement of a variet4 of neurosis "ompli"it (ith oppressive
so"ial realities. 5oliti"all4@ the thesis of primordial maso"hism provides a m4stif4in/ "over for the so"ial for"es
(hi"h "ause and 'enefit from the "ontin/ent emer/en"e of maso"histi" atta"hments Ci.e. sadisti" po(er apparatusesD.
One "ould "ompare this remar& to %utlerFs "laim that Ui\e& Fdefends the trauma of the real... over and a/ainst a different &ind of threatF110.
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>he death drive is far-less en$ompassin0 than the Aff )elieves. KiBe(7s theor5J aA is an
unproven assertion )A i0nores the a)ilit5 of human reason and $hoi$e to steer so$iet5
Allen R >urve5 *001 CRi"hard@ Asso"iate 5rofessor of Cinema Studies at <?H ,al"olm@ mana/in/ editor of
the #ournal O"to'er@ +itt/enstein@ >heor4 and the Arts@ p. *9--0D
Stru"turalism is no( out of fashion@ and the later %arthes (as partl4 responsi'le for this. One of the theories that has repla"ed stru"turalism in the
stud4 of the arts is Ba"anian ps4"hoanal4sis. On"e asso"iated (ith a 'roadl4 stru"turalist anal4sis of "ulture@ a ne( Ba"anianism has risen in a
more potent form in the (ritin/s of the prolifi" Slovenian theoreti"ian Slavo# ZiIe&@ one that is "loser to Ba"an6s o(n surrealist roots. Ba"an
re(rites =reud6s ps4"holo/i"al theor4 of un"ons"ious a/en"4 as a philosophi"al theor4 that des"ri'es the essential or "onstitutive parado8 of self-
representation. Ba"anian theor4 has the aura of a s"ientifi" theor4 that ma&es empiri"al "laims '4 'orro(in/ the lan/ua/e of
ps4"holo/i"al and Bin/uisti" theories@ 'ut is a"tuall4 immune from empiri"al "onfirmation and refutation. ZiIe& 'ases his
interpretation of Ba"an on the ;e/elian di"tum that the use of Ban/ua/e that sin/les out human 'ein/s emer/es a/ainst the 'a"&/round of an
essential a'4ss of nonmeanin/@ of the empt4 nothin/ness that is or/ani" life. ;uman 'ein/s@ (hen the4 'e/in to use lan/ua/e and strive to attain
self-"ons"iousness@ ne/ate or "on"eal this essential a'4ss of nothin/ness '4 enterin/ into the pre-e8istin/ stru"ture of lan/ua/e that is "on"rete@
inor/ani"@ inert and e8ternal. ;uman "ons"iousness and its produ"ts@ in"ludin/ "ulture@ thus em'od4 a su'#e"tion to an e8ternal and therefore
alien authorit4. >his su'#e"tion is at on"e essential to "on"ealin/ the a'4ss of nothin/ness that is or/ani" life and@ at the same time@ is onl4 made
possi'le and sustained '4 the e8isten"e of that "on"ealed a'4ss and the Tpressure6 e8erted '4 it. >his a'4ss of nothin/ness C"alled Tthe Real6D
forms a traumati" "ore at the heart of human "ons"iousness and "ulture that al(a4s threatens to disrupt the inert stru"ture of human "iviliIation
that its "on"ealment serves to ma&e possi'le. =or ZiIe&@ the e/o and its so"ial and "ultural analo/ues /ro( ever more ri/id and paranoid in order
to prevent the irruption of Tthe Real6. (hose role in sustainin/ the so"ial stru"ture throu/h a ne/ative for"e or pressure is there'4 onl4 au/mented
and made more insistent. =or ZiIe&@ T+hat (e "all "ulture) is...in its ver4 ontolo/i"al status@ the rei/n of the dead over life@ i.e.
the form in (hi"h the death drive) assumes its positive e8isten"e6 CZiIe& 199*G 0.D. ZiIe& Cafter Ba"anD@ li&e +itt/enstein@
proposes that (hat is distin"tive a'out human 'ein/s is their "apa"it4 to use lan/ua/e. >here the similarities a'ruptl4 end. =or +itt/enstein@ (hat
defines lan/ua/e use@ or a"tivities su"h as ma&in/ and respondin/ to art@ is on"e a/ain that the4 are a spe"ies of intentional a"tion. ZiIe&6s
metaph4si"al =reudianism involves steppin/ outside intentional human a"tions and the frame(or& of Trules6@ reasons
and "on"epts that are (oven into them in order to "laim that all intentional 'ehaviour has one and the same fun"tionG
to e8press the death drive or the "onversion of life into death. ;o(ever@ the onl4 (a4 in (hi"h the nature of human
'ehaviour "an 'e thus defined is '4 e8plainin/ it in terms of a sin/le underl4in/ "ondition or state@ utterl4 invisi'le
and essentiall4 un&no(a'le to the human a/ent@ that determines the real nature of intentional a"tion. Of "ourse@ some art ma4
indeed alle/oriIe this pi"ture of the human "ondition@ in parti"ular@ art influen"ed '4 Ba"an and the influen"es upon Ba"an su"h as
;e/el and =reud. %ut the si/nifi"an"e of su"h (or&s are trivialiIed and misunderstood on"e the4 are mo'iliIed as Tproof6 of an
all-en"ompassin/ theor4 of human 'ehaviour. Indeed@ this theor4 has pre"isel4 the "ompulsor4@ authoritarian
Jualities ZiIe& attri'utes to politi"al institutions and "ultureG it is universal and ines"apa'le. It is also irrefuta'leG therein
lies its appeal.
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>he5 totaliBe the death drive itself it7s not al*a5s $hanneled into failure or violen$e
Carel *001 C;avi@ 7epartment of 5hilosoph4 at the ? of !sse8@ %orn to 'e %adG Is =reud6s 7eath 7rive the
Sour"e of ;uman !vilnessL) httpG$$(((.(i"&edness.net$Carel.pdfD
>his theor4 of the death drive has 'een "on"eived as the hei/ht of =reud6s pessimism@ as admittin/ that (e are indeed 'orn evil. %ut is this the
onl4 ethi"al position that "an 'e dedu"ed from the death driveL >his same death drive@ I "laim@ "an a"tuall4 offer a solution to the
pro'lem of innate a//ression. >he (a4 out lies in the fa"t that a//ression is a for"e (hose o'#e"ts "an 'e "han/ed and
dire"tion reversed. >his fle8i'ilit4 in dire"tion and aim means that a//ression is not ne"essaril4 harmful@ nor inherentl4 evil. A//ression
"an also 'e "on"eptualised as neutral ener/4@ as a resour"e that "an 'e implemented to ethi"all4 diverse aims. >he death drive is
an inherent tenden"4@ (hi"h "annot 'e eliminated@ 'ut "an 'e diverted or su'limated. So althou/h there is no Juestion of /ettin/ rid
entirel4 of human a//ressive impulses)@ (e "an "ontrol a//ression via su'limation and a stren/thenin/ of the supere/o@ resultin/
in a tame 'ut unhapp4 so"ial order.0 In Civilisation and its 6iscontents =reud ties the dualisti" model of the life and death drives to the Juestion
of (ar and "ivilisation in order to e8plain "ivilisation as a pro"ess of su'limation and intelle"tual "ontrol over instin"tual life. Civilisation is an
evolutionar4 pro"ess that develops throu/h the a"tion of !ros@ strivin/ to unite people@ families and nations into one human unit4. A/ainst this
s4ntheti" drive stands the opposite destru"tive for"e@ attemptin/ to disinte/rate 'iolo/i"al@ ps4"holo/i"al@ and so"ial unities. ;uman development
evolved out of this stru//le 'et(een !ros and destru"tion@ 'et(een affirmation and ne/ationG And no(@ I thin&@ the meanin/ of the evolution of
"iviliIation is no lon/er o's"ure to us. It must present the stru//le 'et(een !ros and 7eath@ 'et(een the instin"t of life and the instin"t of
destru"tion as it (or&s itself out in the human spe"ies. >his stru//le is (hat all life essentiall4 "onsists ofa 1 %ut the "ivilisator4 pro"ess does
not /o hand in hand (ith the promotion of happiness. =reud has alread4 "on"luded that violen"e and a//ression "annot 'e e8tirpated from human
e8isten"e. >he idea that people "an 'e totall4 satisfied and thus released from the need for violen"e is for =reud a naive illusion. So human
a//ression is innate@ 'ut nonetheless not un"ontrolla'le. >he first step is to a"&no(led/e its presen"e in life@ in human 'ehaviour and ps4"hi"
pro"esses. =reud6s initial step is to tr4 and over"ome the resistan"e to a"&no(led/in/ the fa"t that (e "ontain a//ressive tenden"ies. >he
interpretation of this assumption is (hat (ill a"tuall4 /ive "ontent to =reud6s "laims@ as the Juestion of ho( to handle our a//ression is the one
that has pra"ti"al impli"ations@ 'oth on a "lini"al level and on a so"ial and politi"al level. In this sense the ethi"al Juestion is not (hether
a//ression "an 'e a'olished from the human ps4"he@ 'ut rather ho( this a//ression "an 'e "hannelled to non-destru"tive
a"tivities and turned into a positive ener/4 sour"e@ a (ill to po(er. +e "an "on"lude that the thesis of inherent a//ression does not
ne"essaril4 lead to ethi"al determinism. A//ression "an 'e re/arded as neutral ener/4@ (hi"h "an 'e used for various purposes. >his idea is
reinfor"ed '4 a'andonin/ the dualisti" model@ so the death drive is no lon/er a destru"tive for"e (hose antidote is !ros@ 'ut rather a
fundamental human for"e.
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#8tremes are *ron0J >he57ll sa5 !ps5$hoanal5sis e8plains ever5 internal lin(+ or that
!solvin0 one item fi8es the entire death drive+. '?> I> IS <> >;A> SI-6F# their
totaliBin0 $laims and don7t e8plain the *hole *orld.
>ed A. Smith:the most recent review of Zizek: is assistant professor of ethi"s and so"iet4 as (ell as
dire"tor of the 5ro/ram in >heolo/4 and 5ra"ti"e at Eander'ilt 7ivinit4 S"hool )evie* o# :izek$s 8he 2arallax
;ie* 5oliti"al >heolo/4 10.* C*009D -10--19
httpG$$dis"overar"hive.vander'ilt.edu$#spui$'itstream$130-$-10*$1$SmithRevie(5aralla8Eie(10.*d*009.pdf
Ui\e&6s anal4sis has tremendous e8planator4 po(er. And he is ri/ht to (or& to(ards a theor4 that "an relate the politi"al and e"onomi" levels@
and to "riti"iIe %adiou6s e8"lusive fo"us on the politi"al. %ut Ui\e& asso"iates nar"issisti" pro#e"ts of self-fulfillment and re/ulator4
s4stems of domination too neatly (ith the politi"al and e"onomi" levels@ respe"tivel4. Su"h asso"iations miss the pro#e"ts for selfrealiIation
"arried out on the politi"al level@ espe"iall4 in demands for re"o/nition of identit4. And@ in fo"usin/ primaril4 on "onsumption@ Ui\e&6s
asso"iations of self-realiIation and the e"onomi" level miss the intense 'iopoliti"al domination that is often involved in the produ"tion of
"onsumer /oods in /lo'al s(eatshops. Ui\e&6s de"laration of a post-Oedipal "omple8 (ould 'e stron/er if he unhoo&ed it
from an attempt to relate politi"al and e"onomi" levels@ and simpl4 let it illumine all that it "an illumine. Ui\e&6s ar/ument (ould also 'e
stron/er if he noted its limits. A post-Oedipal "omple8 mi/ht dominate mu"h of !urope and <orth Ameri"a@ 'ut it
does not fit as readil4 (ith (hatever is emerging in China :a matter of no small si/nifi"an"e for theories of politi"al
e"onom4 at the 'e/innin/ of the t(ent4-first "entur4. If Ui\e&6s des"ription of the politi"al and e"onomi" orders is po(erful 'ut limited@ his
pres"riptions are ne"essaril4 elusive. ;e is espe"iall4 savv4 in namin/ the po(er of the post-Oedipal order to "o-opt (hat loo&s li&e radi"al
dissent. >he deadlo"& of Tresistan"e6 'rin/s us 'a"& to the topi" of paralla8@) Ui\e& (rites of Simon Crit"hle46s proposal for a politi"s of
impossi'le demands. All that is needed is a sli/ht shift in our perspe"tive@ and all the a"tivit4 of Tresistan"e@6 of 'om'ardin/ those in po(er (ith
impossi'le Tsu'versive6 Ce"olo/i"al@ feminist@ antira"ist@ anti/lo'alistaD demands@ loo&s li&e an internal pro"ess of feedin/ the ma"hine of po(er@
providin/ the material to &eep it in motion) C--0D. Su"h forms of resistan"e miss their deep s4m'iosis (ith the he/emoni" order the4 oppose. >he
dominant order provides a"ts of resistan"e (ith meanin/ and dire"tion@ andtheir presen"e:loud 'ut ineffe"tual:provides the dominant order
(ith a safe form of le/itima"4. On a deeper level@ a"ts of resistan"e "onform to the post- Oedipal order6s mandate for pleasure. It "an feel /ood to
smash the (indo( of a Star'u"&s or /et arrested at the S"hool of the Ameri"as. And these pleasures@ Ui\e& implies@ are not so different from
other trans/ressive pleasures that promise self-realiIation. Ui\e& "alls for a politi"s that does not #ust sa4 no to !mpire@) 'ut also refuses to en#o4
the rumsprin/a of resistan"e@ all the forms of resistin/ (hi"h help the s4stem to reprodu"e itself '4 ensurin/ our parti"ipation in ita) C-3-D. >he
i"on of this refusal is ;erman ,elville6s %artle'4@ the s"rivener (ho sa4s@ I (ould prefer not to.) %artle'4 does not sa4@ I do not (ant to):he
does not simpl4 ne/ate dominant desires@ for then his a"tion (ould 'e"ome dependent on those dominant desires for its meanin/ and dire"tion.
%artle'4 rather arti"ulates an a"tive preferen"e for the ne/ative@ a desire that lives (ithout referen"e to an4 o'#e"t. Ui\e&6s %artle'4 does not offer
a preliminar4@ /round-"learin/ refusal@ li&e the %artle'4 of ,i"hael ;ardt and Antonio <e/ri. In Ui\e&6s voi"e@ I (ould prefer not to) is not a
prelude to properl4 politi"al resistan"e. It is instead the ne/ative "ontent of that resistan"e. +hat (ould 'e the shape of a politi"s of the %artle'4
paralla8)L Ui\e& a"&no(led/es the "hallen/eG >he diffi"ult4 of ima/inin/ the <e( is the diffi"ult4 of ima/inin/ %artle'4 in po(er) C-3*D.
Ui\e& /ives no le/islative a/enda for a %artle'4 administration. >he Real of his politi"s:li&e the Real of his theolo/4 and
ps4"holo/4:is a void. %ut perhaps Ui\e& still helps the reader ima/ine %artle'4 in po(er@ indire"tl4@ '4 (ritin/ somethin/ that loo&s for all
the (orld li&e %artle'46s 'oo&. In an intervie( for a film a'out his life Ui\e& e8pressed his fear that he is nothin/ (ho pretends all the time to 'e
some'od4@ and has to 'e h4pera"tive all the time #ust to fas"inate people enou/h so that the4 don6t noti"e that there is nothin/.) Ui\e&6s (orr4
a'out himself is at on"e the harshest #ud/ment on >he 5aralla8 Eie( and the "learest statement of its po(er. It is not his ma/num opus@ nor
even his refusal to (rite one. It is rather the lon/@ 'rilliant@ "ompulsive em'odiment of his preferen"e for the ne/ative.
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AndC Studies matter
<ot to )e rude )ut their authors aren7t ps5$holo0ists. >he5 ma(es s*eepin0 $laims a)out
the human $ondition that $all for more than a Slovenian dude that7s read his share of
Fa$an. >he )est studies disprove the pessimisti$ readin0s of human nature. Claimin0
violen$e and destru$tion to )e inevita)le is *ron0.
C>heir authors ta&e one-sided vie(s (hi"h dis"ount the full ran/e of eviden"e a'out human nature. A//ressive instin"ts are "ountered
'4 the human need for so"ial intera"tion and the politi"al "hoi"e to "ooperateD
=re5)er0-Inan *00/ CAnnette@ Civil !du"ation 5ro#e"t Eisitin/ =a"ult4 =ello( at the ?niversit4 of %u"harest@
+hat ,oves ,enG >he Realist >heor4 of International Relations and Its Aud/ment of ;uman <ature@ p. 11*-11-D
It is interestin/ to see that the three 'asi" motivational "ate/ories identified '4 ,"Clelland and others "orrespond to the three motives of the
Athenian thesis. >he needs for po(er@ affiliation@ and a"hievement at least rou/hl4 "orrespond to the motives of fear@ the desire for honor@ or
pride@ and the Juest for profit@ or material su""ess. +e have seen that@ perhaps as a result of samplin/ error@ realist theor4 adopts a vie( of all
three of these motives as essentiall4 divisive@ "ompetitive@ and destru"tive. >his strate/4@ (hi"h is e8posed '4 >hu"4dides@ leads
realism do(n the slipper4 slope to(ard a restri"tive and one-sided vie( of human motivation. %4 "ontrast@ the vie(s
on the ran/e of important motives that are more "ommon in ps4"holo/i"al and politi"al de"ision-ma&in/ approa"hes
in"lude the desire for affiliation@ or "ommunit4@ as (ell as the operation of altruism.6* Su"h motives@ (hi"h introdu"e so"ial
and "ooperative elements into the ima/e of human nature@ have traditionall4 'een disre/arded '4 realism@ (hi"h@ as a "onseJuen"e@ has adopted a
dim vie( of human nature and a pessimisti" outloo& on possi'ilities for sustained international pea"e and "ooperation. Realism i/nores the
relevan"e of the human needs for "ommunit4 as (ell as moralit4. As a "onseJuen"e@ its #ud/ments of the possi'ilities for inter-
human identifi"ation@ empath4@ s4mpath4@ and "ooperation@ as (ell as for human learnin/ and so"ial pro/ress@ are
e8tremel4 pessimisti". >his pessimism is so stron/ that it appears at times even in"ompati'le (ith other elements of realist thou/ht. =or
e8ample@ realists /enerall4 fail to ta&e note of the fa"t that non"ooperative 'ehavior is often in the lon/ run self-defeatin/ and thus ill-"ompati'le
(ith the assumption of rationalit4.*- >his is 'e"ause individuals and states are 'ound to intera"t (ith others not onl4 on"e and never a/ain 'ut
often on a "ontinuin/ 'asis@ (hi"h reJuires them to "ultivate a reputation for 'ein/ a""epta'le pla4ers.) Inasmu"h as nation:states in toda46s
(orld are interdependent@ at least e"onomi"all4@ the motive of a"hievement "ould a"tuall4 'e e8pe"ted to en"oura/e states to value their
reputations) more hi/hl4. >hus it does not have to operate in the d4sfun"tionall4 "ompetitive (a4s predi"ted '4 realism.*. <either does the
motive of pride@ if (e "onsider that it is an important emotional element in@ and drivin/ for"e to support@ an individual6s identifi"ation (ith
others. Su"h identifi"ation@ in turn@ pla4s a "ru"ial role in the esta'lishment of "ommunit4. >he fa"t that individuals "an develop
various overlappin/ identities and an in"lusive sense of "ommunit4 at least "ountera"ts the "ompetitive and hostile
aspe"ts of ;o''esian vain/lor4. It should 'e noted that@ '4 insistin/ on their vie( of human nature@ realists "hoose to disre/ard a
host of "ontradi"tor4 findin/s. Assumin/ the sta'ilit4 of human nature@ for one@ flies in the fa"e of the entire
dis"ipline of ps4"holo/4@ and espe"iall4 its su'field of ps4"hiatr4@ (hose ver4 raison d6etre is that human nature) "ontains a si/nifi"ant
ran/e of dependent varia'les@ and that so"iall4 destru"tive 'ehavior@ for e8ample@ "an 'e "ured.) >he ver4 notion of "hara"ter)
implies that an4 individual personalit4 is "omposed of various traits@ some a//ressive@ some nona//ressive@ and that
the stren/th of an4 parti"ular trait varies and "an 'e affe"ted '4 e8perien"e or treatment. =i8ed traits are found '4
ps4"holo/ists to 'e minimal and to e8tend not far 'e4ond instin"ts. >he4 "ertainl4 do not in"lude a "hoi"e of parti"ular /oals or strate/ies
to a"hieve them. In addition@ most ps4"holo/i"al studies of motivation a""ede that needs or instin"ts fun"tion as natural)
motives onl4 as lon/ as a"tors are not "ons"ious of their impa"t.*0 In this vie(@ "ons"iousness almost '4 definition
implies "hoi"e. >his perspe"tive "ontradi"ts the deterministi" vie( of human motivation (hi"h is propa/ated '4 realism. It is
also (orth notin/ that man4 ps4"holo/i"al approa"hes vie( man as an inherentl4 so"ial 'ein/.*1 >he4 point out that the interests and /oals
of human 'ein/s are not simpl4 attri'utes of individuals 'ut are developed in so"ial intera"tion and "an@ throu/h
"omple8 pro"esses of identifi"ation@ "reate interpersonal and "ommunal 'onds@ (hi"h@ in turn@ shape individual preferen"es
and strate/ies. +hile su"h approa"hes also ta&e note of the pro'lems that affe"t so"ial intera"tion@ their #ud/ment of its possi'ilities tends to
'e vastl4 more optimisti" than that (hi"h "hara"teriIes realist theor4.*2 In fa"t@ their vie(@ (hi"h emphasiIes the possi'ilities of adaptation@
learnin/@ and so"ial evolution@ is "onsidera'l4 "loser to the vie( of human nature that informs politi"al idealist approa"hes.
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KiBe(7s death drive ar0ument i0nores human a0en$5:choice $an and does over*helm
9ifford *00. CAames@ 5h7 Candidate at the ? of Al'erta@ +hat Is Ui\e& So Afraid OfLG !8emplifi"ation A/ainst
>he !8istential ;ordes)@ A SpotG Aournal of So"ial and 5oliti"al >hou/ht@ *G1@ Aanuar4@
>o 'e/in ans(erin/ m4 o(n Juestions@ if the tenden"4 to(ard a "ontrar4 to the pleasure prin"iple is fueled '4 a need to assert a/en"4 over the
inevita'le throu/h pro#e"tion or the (ill@ then it is more "orre"t to "onsider the death drive as e8a"tl4 the opposite of an instin"tual drive@ 'ut
rather an aspe"t of the "ons"ious e/o and the e8istential dilemma of 'ein/ trapped in a deadl4 time-limited press 'et(een "orporealit4 and
mentalit4. As su"h@ it is not a "ontradi"tion to the pleasure prin"iple. >he traumati" &ernel is the denial of su"h. +hat I am /ettin/ at here is the
"onfli"t 'et(een an instin"tual death drive and an e/o-"entri"@ e8istential angst that leads to the "ons"ious or even un"ons"ious s4stem of
destru"tive a/en"4 over death. If death an8iet4 and mortalit4 salien"e e8ist and are elemental human provo"ations@ then the instin"tual drive
theor4 is pro'lematiIed 'e"ause "ons"ious (illful rea"tion Cand un"ons"ious rea"tionD is eJuall4 dependent on the self-"ons"ious and self-
refle8ive human "ondition as it is on instin"ts. +hether or not (e ta&e the Self as a pro'lemati" "onstru"t@ in des"ri'in/ human motivation and
a"ts@ neither instin"t nor Tsu'#e"tive a/en"46 C"ons"ious (illD "an displa"e the other. Ui\e&6s dis"ussion of drives is limited '4 his
disre/ard for the fa"t that instin"ts are present and "onstrued in self-"ons"ious "reatures@ a(are of themselves as
instin"tual animals "apa'le of self-refle"tion@ and this deepl4 modifies an4 readin/ of instin"ts and drives.
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Claims a)out the inevita)ilit5 of apo$al5pse *ithin the $urrent death drive are suspe$t:
their determinism i0nores human a0en$5 and )lo$(s personal freedom.
9ifford *00.. CAames@ 5h7 Candidate W ? of Al'erta@ +hat Is Ui\e& So Afraid OfLG !8emplifi"ation
A/ainst >he !8istential ;ordes)@ A SpotG Aournal of So"ial and 5oliti"al >hou/ht@ vol. II@ num'er 1@
Aanuar4@ httpG$$(((.4or&u."a$#spot$0$#/ifford.htmD
>o reiterate the pro'lem of an8iet4 here@ m4 readin/ of Ui\e&6s dis"ussion of mortalit4 C(here death 'e"omes 'oth the
s4m'oli"all4 desired ne"essit4 and the prohi'ited impossi'ilit4D hin/es on Ba"an6s earl4 assertion C"reativel4 out of
"onte8t in m4 readin/D that an8iet4 is 'orn (ith life) CClar& 1*1D. +hen death an8iet4 or the more /eneral terror of e8isten"e is
seen as intrinsi" to the human "ondition@ (hether "ons"ious or un"ons"ious@ it must 'e asserted that su"h an8iet4 is
derivative of self-refle8ivit4 and is in the domain of the e/o@ even if it primaril4 fun"tions un"ons"iousl4. >his fundamental
support for e/o-"entri" ps4"hoanal4sis@ (hi"h is antitheti"al to Ui\e&6s a'ove eJuation@ is also deepl4 s4mpatheti" to the s4m'oli" a/en"4 of the
e/o in (illin/@ and in parti"ular to the fun"tion of the (ill in "hoosin/ the inevita'le an8iet4-filled event in order to over"ome 'ein/ dominated '4
the inevita'le . In effe"t@ death 'e"omes that (hi"h is (illed so as to retain a/en"4 Cs4m'oli" a/en"4D over it and to "ontrol fear@ rather than the
parado8i"al desire for the inevita'le that is "reated To'versel46 Cto misuse the termD from prohi'ition. ,oreover Cand m4 des"ent into #ar/on is
temporar4D@ unli&e Ui\e&6s approa"h@ the 'elief in the a"tive (ill Ceven if onl4 s4m'oli" D renders a theor4 (here this death-terror is not onl4
(ithin the domain of the e/o@ 'ut so too are the repressive rea"tions. Ui\e&6s rea"tive formation of the (illful en"ompassin/ of the inevita'le
parallels his transposition of the feared to the desired as an aspe"t of drive theor4@ hen"e (e ma4 read the refutation of the (ill as a distal defense
a/ainst the dual threat of an in"rease in the salien"e of mortalit4 that anal4Iin/ su"h a (ill entails. >o this (e ma4 add@ Ui\e&6s refutation of the
(ill also fun"tions as the defense of the distal defense itself@ a/ainst an alternative s4stem of thou/ht that removes the death-den4in/ fun"tion of
his Ba"anian pro#e"t (ithin the "ultural s4m'oli" s4stem. ?nli&e drive theor4@ the (ill to over"ome and e/o-"entri" ps4"holo/4
leave us a spa"e (ith (hi"h to "hallen/e the "apitulation to terror and su'seJuent dero/ation and repression. In
%e"&er6s terms@ (e have an a"tive spa"e to es"ape evil rather than es"ape the Real. >his does not mean that drive theor4 or the
un"ons"ious are dis"arded@ 'ut are rene/otiated to a""ommodate the TI@6 (hi"h is irrefuta'l4 a "ore "omponent of our s4stems of
s4m'oliIation. Some(here 'et(een the TI6 that e8ists as a net(or& of so"ial identifi"ations@ lin/uisti" ha'its@ and the un"ons"ious series of
"onne"tions that Tprompt6 su"h identifi"ations throu/h drives@ desires@ and instin"ts@ there nonetheless remains a lin/uisti" spa"e (here
(e "an as& (hat mi/ht 'e said a'out the individual TI6 (ho ma&es@ ad#usts@ and ta&es responsi'ilit4 for theMseN
identifi"ations) CAltieri -D @ as (ell as the intentionalit4 that need not eJuate to "ommensurate a"ts or results.
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@ A >he !death drive+ is a protective impulse:it doesn7t $ause literal death
9ifford 200. CAames@ 5h7 Candidate and Be"turer in the 7epartment of !n/lish@ ?niversit4 of Al'erta@ +hat Is
Ui\e& So Afraid OfLG !8emplifi"ation A/ainst >he !8istential ;ordes@) AS5O>@
If the primar4 anta/onism in this paper no( turns to address Ui\e&6s la"& of interest in and avoidan"e of pro'lems "on"ernin/ the a"tive (ill in
ps4"hoanal4ti" theor4 Cre/ardless of (hat is doin/ this (illin/Di M11N @ as (ell as his un(illin/ness to address the de'ate surroundin/ e/o or
e8istential anal4sis in the Ba"anian death drive@ then I (ill Tinevita'l46 return to =reud6s tentative assertion of the realit4 prin"iple em'od4in/@ via
repetition@ an instin$tual tenden$5 to*ard stasis or death. >his tenden"4 must )e $arefull5 distin0uished from an
a$tive *illin0 of the inevita)le Ce/o-affirmin/ rather than e/o-den4in/D@ (hi"h ma4 also lead to the tenden"4 to repeat and (here
>hanatos ma4 a"tuall4 'e s4m'oli"all4 self-preservative. In an e"ho of Otto Ran&@ Audith 'utler notes As a 5earnin0 for the
prote$tion asso$iated *ith the *om)@ this 4earnin/ *hi$h *e $all the death instin$t ma5 )e less a desire for literal
death than a $all for a radi$al prote$tion *ithin the terms of life) C*2.D. In the lan/ua/e of >error ,ana/ement >heor4@ I
(ould des"ri'e this situation as one (here distal defenses ma4 a"tuall4 'e"ome life-limitin/ or even lifeendan/erin/@ (hile nevertheless fulfillin/
the purpose of s4m'oli"all4 prote"tin/ life. It is in this sense that %utler6s des"ription of sadism6s aim as the literal re"over4 of radi"al safet4)
C*2.D is hi/hl4 a&in to >,>6s re"o/nition of a tenden"4 to(ard dero/ation follo(in/ an in"rease in mortalit4 salien"e. In order to ma&e this
ar/ument@ I intend to "ontrast the e8amination of the "hain of (or&s from <ietIs"he to >,> a/ainst the Ba"anian death-drive des"ri'ed '4 Ui\e&
and its histori"al 'e/innin/s in the =reudian tenden"4 to repeat.
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A-to !De)ate 'ad+ K7s
Conventional de)ate norms are vital to tea$hin0 us to )e effe$tive so$ial $riti$s and leaders
in a variet5 of *al(s of life.
=ran( 793
C7avid A. =ran& is an assistant professor and 7ire"tor of =orensi"s at ?niversit4 of Ore/on. Ar/umentation V Advo"a"4
Sprin/ p. 190D
In her admira'le attempt to dis"ern the reasons (h4 the de'ate "ulture is not open@ Stepp o'serves that tournament de'atin/ is
"hara"teriIed '4 Ktu's of eviden"e@ information pro"essin/@ linear thin&in/@ dedu"tive thin&in/@ "ontrol@ o'#e"tivit4@
and independen"e. >hese "hara"teristi"s are asso"iated (ith mas"uline role stereot4pes.K Ruotin/ Re'e""a %#or& and Carrie Crensha(@ Stepp
ar/ues that (omen de'aters find themselves in a "ulture of s4m'oli" violen"e. She then su//ests that there is a Kfeminist vie( that humans are
stor4tellers and (e ma&e our de"isions '4 "hoosin/ the most appropriate stor4 instead of refutin/ ar/uments.K Althou/h a"ademi" de'ate
ma4 overemphasiIe e8ternal eviden"e@ dedu"tive lo/i"@ and o'#e"tivit4@ I fear Stepp ver/es on "onflatin/ ver'al
a//ression (ith several le/itimate forms of reasonin/@ and that the a'ilit4 to "ommand some "ontrol@ o'#e"tivit4@ and
independen"e are essential ha'its and s&ills ne"essar4 for effe"tive advo"a"4 . Certainl4@ human 'ein/s should &no( ho( to
nurture and "ooperate@ 'ut there are rhetori"al situations that "all for "onfrontation and "laims that invite opposition. ,e *ill
not serve the interests of the pu'li" sphere or the "auses of diversit4 if (e do not tea"h students ho( to refute
ar/uments and to use reason to its fullest e8pression. !viden"e@ linear thin&in/@ dedu"tive lo/i"@ and o'#e"tivit4 are not
essential properties of mas"ulinit4@ nor do feminists limit their ar/umentative form and st4le to the intuitive and (arm. Indeed@ the males runnin/
for ?nited States president in 1991 filled their spee"hes (ith (hat !llen 9oodman "alls the !-(ordsG e8perien"e@ emotion@ and empath4.
9oodman (rites that there K is an emotional narrative in the air and on the air this 4ear. >he politi"al has 'e"ome thorou/hl4 personalK C72D
+hile a de/ree of the personal and the emotional are 'oth ne"essar4 and desira'le in pu'li" dis"ourse@ 9oodman "on"ludesG M>Nhe "urrent
passion for first-person@ stor4tellin/ politi"s narro(s the so"ial lens. In the 4ear of the !-(ords@ (e are turnin/ the Kpersonal is politi"alK eJuation
upside do(n. +hen all politi"s is personal@ (e donFt see our private "on"erns pro#e"ted on the pu'li" s"reen. +e see the politi"ianFs (oes on the
private s"reen. And (hen all politi"s is personal@ itFs not a'out our o(n "olle"tive life@ itFs a'out the "andidateFs life. C72D >he pu'li" sphere is
a'out the "ommunal and the "olle"tive. >o desi/n a de'ate peda/o/4 that features the personal narrative@ empath4@ and the
ane"dote@ and #ettisons dedu"tion @ "onsisten"4@ and e8pert testimon4 is to deprive our students of the eJuipment the4
need for livin/. !viden"e@ linear thin&in/@ dedu"tive lo/i"@ and o'#e"tivit4 are tools that (omen and men useCdD in
attemptin/ to solve pro'lems in the pu'li" sphere. +omen and feminists use reason and rationalit4 to ma&e "laims. SteppFs resear"h@
for e8ample@ is a (onderful e8ample of a sustained ar/ument that uses eviden"e@ linear thin&in/@ dedu"tive lo/i"@ and an impartial stan"e. At the
same time@ emotions and empath4 'elon/ in the mosai" of ar/uments en"ountered '4 "itiIens as the4 ma&e "olle"tive #ud/ments. +e should
'roaden our definitions of rationalit4 and epistemolo/4@ 'ut (e do not need to "ondemn traditional forms of
rationalit4 to enlar/e the domain of reason. ,artha <uss'aum@ a (ell-&no(n feminist s"holar@ ma&es 'oth of these points Juite (ell in a
series of re"ent arti"les. !motions "an provide K/ood reasonsK for ma&in/ #ud/ments@ 'ut (e also need dedu"tion@ indu"tion@ a'du"tion@
#u8taposition@ and the man4 other forms of rationalit4 to help us test "laims. <uss'aum notes also that (e "annot a'andon
the aspirations of impartialit4 and universalit4@ for (omen sufferin/ from oppression ma&e-and need to ma&e-appeals to universal values. In
attemptin/ to remove 'arriers to parti"ipation in de'ate and to in"rease diversit4 in the de'ate "ulture@ (e should follo( Kristine %artanenFs
advi"e and in"orporate Kalternative rhetori"al st4les and politi"al ideolo/iesK and Kmas"uline and feminine (a4s of &no(in/K C1*D. ContinuesG
CO<CB?SIO< Zarefs&4Fs address esta'lishes a useful frame(or& to evaluate inter"olle/iate de'ate@ and SteppFs resear"h reveals that the de'ate
"ulture is Juite far from a"hievin/ Zarefs&4Fs aspirations. I hope de'ate edu"ators and students (ill "onsider Zarefs&4Fs appeals and treat
a"ademi" de'ate as a pre"ious and fra/ile simulation desi/ned to promote pu'li" deli'eration and pro'lem solvin/. >hat the de'ate "ulture is
not more diverse and that si/nifi"ant 'arriers deter parti"ipation of (omen and minorities is (ell-esta'lished '4 Stepps resear"h. ;o(ever@ (e
must resist the temptation to la'el eviden"e@ dedu"tion@ and o'#e"tivit4 as essentiall4 mas"uline and$or move to(ard
a de'ate peda/o/4 that privile/es non-"ompetitive stor4tellin/ over the refutation of ar/uments.
C<oteG our ev "ites dedu"tion@ "onventional resear"h@ for"ed refutation@ and o'#e"tivit4 as /oodD
0.
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Fife lessons ar0umentJ
Defensivel5 -ovin0-a*a5 from $onventional de)ate norms *ill fail )e$ause there are
$ountless non-dis$ursive dis$iplinar5 rules.
ffensivel5 their efforts onl5 tea$hes us a life lesson that renders us ineffe$tive at
$ommuni$atin0 so$ial $han0e.
>ada%e*s(i P2
C7r. ,ar& >ada#e(s&i -- Be"turer in Criti"al ,ar&etin/. ?niversit4 of !sse8@ ?K -- ,ar&etin/ >heor4@ Eol. 1@ <o. *@ 11--199 --
httpG$$mtJ.sa/epu'."om$"/i$reprint$1$*$11-D
Bo(e et al. C*00.D and Bo(e et al.1 C*000D offer us a re"ent e8ample of this dis"ursive movement and t4pif4 the disre/ard for the relationship
'et(een po(er$&no(led/e and the in"ommensura'ilit4 thesis. Stressin/ the value of mappin/ paradi/m de'ate as a Ttool6 to over"ome the
hermeti" in"ommensura'ilit4 thesis@ Bo(e et al. C*00.D depi"t the epistemi" or/aniIation of mar&etin/ theor4 as a form of livin/ s4stem (hose
essential "hara"teristi"s reJuire "larifi"ation so that /reater "onversation 'et(een in"ommensura'le paradi/ms "an ta&e pla"e. >his@ of "ourse@ is a
(orth(hile pro#e"t in itself. >he impli"it assumption in their thesis@ ho(ever@ is that paradi/m de'ate o""urs (ithin
a free spee"h situation@ (here'4 paradi/m differen"es are over"ome 'e"ause all dis"ussants are eJuall4
free to spea& their o(n minds. !a"h has eJual@ and ample@ opportunit4 to do so (ith no one mem'er in a
position to impose their o(n (ill on the others or impose pressures of an4 nature@ (ith the result that
/ood ar/umentation prevails over "oer"ion. Re0retta)l5 this assumption is mispla$ed G there are "lear so"ial@
lin/uisti" and non-dis"ursive institutional pressures that delimit (hat "an and "annot 'e said (ithin mar&etin/ theor4 C%ro(n@ 1990@ 1993H Cahill@
199-H 7esmond@ 1993H 7hola&ia et al.@ 1930H =frat@ 193.@ 1933a@ 1933'H ;ol'roo&@ 1990H Bev4@ *00-a@ *00-'@ *000H ,"7ona/h@ 1990D. It is
not simpl4 that there are paradi/m relative rules of dis"ursive formation restri"tin/ an4 movement 'e4ond the
in"ommensura'ilit4 thesis@ 'ut that there are non-dis"ursive pra"ti"esG the Tthorou/hl4 hetero/eneous ensem'le . . . of re/ulator4
de"isions@ la(s@ administrative measures@ s"ientifi" statements@ philosophi"al@ moral and philanthropi"
propositions6 (hi"h support parti"ular t4pes of &no(led/e and so"ial orders C=ou"ault@ 1930G 19.D. +ithin this
ensem'le@ there are onl4 "ertain statements that "an "ount as serious "ontenders for the mantle of truth@
(hereas others are e8"luded '4 virtue of the rules of dis"ursive formation that /overn de'ate. As 5aul Anderson re/isteredG editors as (ell
as the editorial revie( 'oards have a parti"ular idea of (hat is a /ood theor4 . . .and ho( to /o a'out presentin/ them. I
thin& (e6ve /ot to respond to that other(ise (e6re simpl4 not /oin/ to 'e a'le to "ommuni"ate (ith our
"ollea/ues . . . in the meantime@ unfortunatel4@ (e are /oin/ to have to respond to the "riteria as (e find them. C5eter et al.@ 1930G 10D
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@ A >heir K of deterren$e and $onseGuen$es assumes all moral prohi)itions are $reated
eGualJ We $ritiGue that assumption as *ron0 and dan0erous
Aeff -$-ahan is 5rofessor of 5hilosoph4 at Rut/ers ?niversit4 Sour"eG !thi"s@ Eol. 90@ <o. -@ Spe"ial IssueG S4mposium on !thi"s and
<u"lear 7eterren"e CApr.@ 1941D@ pp. 012-0-1 5u'lished '4G >he ?niversit4 of Chi"a/o 5ress Sta'le ?RBG httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$*-310-0
In short@ if the (ron/ness of havin/ the "onditional intention to use nu"lear (eapons is not a'solute@ then it seems that the presumption a/ainst a
poli"4 (hi"h involves people havin/ this intention "ould 'e overridden '4 a "onsideration of "onseJuen"es. %ut suppose@ on the other hand@
that the prohi'ition a/ainst "onditionall4 intendin/ to do (hat it is a'solutel4 for'idden to do is itself a'solute. In that "ase the 7eontolo/istFs
Ar/ument 4ields the "on"lusion (hi"h it is normall4 supposed to haveG that nu"lear deterren"e is ruled out@ *hatever the con<
se%uences. >here is@ ho(ever@ a pri"e to 'e paid for derivin/ the "on"lusion in this (a4H for@ /iven this interpretation of the se"ond
premise@ the ar/ument has implausi'le impli"ations. In parti"ular@ it implies that to follo( a poli"4 of nu"lear deterren"e@
even if the poli"4 is su""essful and nu"lear (eapons are never used@ is eGuall5 (ron/ as a"tuall4 usin/ nu"lear
(eapons (ould 'e.F2>his "laim assumes that all violations of a'solute prohi'itions are a'solutel4 and therefore
eJuall4 (ron/. >his (ill 'e true if there is@ as one (ould e8pe"t@ a stri"t "orrelation 'et(een the stren/th of a parti"ular dut4@ the de/ree of
(ron/ness of violatin/ the dut4@ and the strin/en"4 of the "onditions (hi"h (ould release one from the ne"essit4 of fulfillin/ the dut4. >o ta&e an
un"ontroversial e8ample@ (e 'elieve that the dut4 not to murder is stron/er than the dut4 not to lie. Other thin/s 'ein/ eJual@ (e "an infer from
this 'oth that it is less (ron/ to lie than it is to murder and that the "onditions@ if an4@ (hi"h (ould release a person from the dut4 not to murder
(ould also release him from the dut4 not to lie@ thou/h not all the "onditions (hi"h (ould release him from the dut4 not to lie (ould also release
him from the dut4 not to murder. >he same /eneral "laims (ill hold true even in the "ase -of a hierar"h4 of duties in (hi"h the orderin/ of the
duties is not "orrelated (ith the "onseJuen"es of fulfillin/ or violatin/ the duties. C=or e8ample@ in su"h a hierar"h4@ the dut4 not to lie mi/ht
al(a4s override the dut4 to help others.D In /eneral@ then@ if C1D the dut4 to do 8 is stron/er than the dut4 to do 4@ then it follo(s C*D that it is less
(ron/ not to do 4 than it is not to do 8@ C-D that@ in "ases of "onfli"t@ one ma4 fail to do 4 in order to do 8@ thou/h one ma4 not fail to do 8 in order
to do 4@ and C.D that an4 "onditions (hi"h (ould release one from the dut4 to do 8 (ould also 'e suffi"ient to release one from the dut4 to do 4@
thou/h not all the "onditions (hi"h (ould release one from the dut4 to do 4 (ould release one from the dut4 to do 8. =rom an4 one of these
"laims-"laims a'out the relative stren/ths of "ertain duties@ the relative de/rees of (ron/ness of violatin/ the various duties@ and the "onditions
under (hi"h one (ould 'e released from performin/ them-one "ould infer the others. >hus@ if the "onditions (hi"h (ould release one from the
performan"e of one dut4 are the same as those (hi"h (ould release one from the performan"e of another dut4@ then it follo(s that 'oth duties are
eJuall4 stron/ and that it (ould 'e eJuall4 (ron/ to violate either. In the "ase of a'solutes@ the "onditions (hi"h (ould release one from the
ne"essit4 of o'e4in/ them are@ in a sense@ al(a4s the sameG for@ in the "ase of a'solutes@ there are no e8"usin/ "onditions. >hus@ if I am ri/ht that
there is a stri"t "orrelation 'et(een the e8"usin/ "onditions for a "ertain dut4 and the de/ree of (ron/ness of violatin/ the dut4@ then it follo(s
that the violation of an4 a'solute prohi'ition is eJuall4 (ron/ as the violation of an4 other. Of "ourse@ from the fa"t that the violation of one dut4
is eJuall4 (ron/ as the violation of another@ it does not follo( that the t(o a"ts must 'e in ever4 respe"t morall4 eJuivalent. =or e8ample@ an
a'solutist seems "ommitted to the "laim that it is eJuall4 (ron/ to murder one person as it is to murder a hundred. %ut that does not e8"lude the
possi'ilit4 that &illin/ a hundred people ma4 'e (orse@ or more evil@ or even more "ulpa'le@ than &illin/ onl4 one. It mi/ht 'e thou/ht that this
admission undermines the attempted redu"tio ad a'surdum of the 7eontolo/istFs Ar/ument. =or it "on"edes to the defender of the ar/ument the
repl4 that@ (hile pursuin/ a poli"4 of nu"lear deterren"e is indeed eJuall4 (ron/ as a"tuall4 usin/ nu"lear (eapons (ould 'e@ the t(o are
nevertheless not morall4 eJuivalent. Aust as &illin/ a hundred people is (orse than &illin/ one@ so usin/ nu"lear (eapons
(ould 'e (orse@ or more evil@ or more "ulpa'le@ than pursuin/ a poli"4 of nu"lear deterren"e is. And@ as lon/ as the
defender of the ar/ument "an thus avoid 'ein/ "ommitted to the vie( that "onditionall4 intendin/ to use nu"lear (eapons and a"tuall4 usin/ them
are morall4 eJuivalent@ he need not 'e em'arrassed '4 the impli"ation that the t(o are eJuall4 (ron/. =or@ it mi/ht 'e "laimed@ the redu"tio has
for"e onl4 if (e ille/itimatel4 "onflate eJual (ron/ness (ith "omplete moral eJuiv- alen"e. >his repl4@ (hile undenia'l4 for"eful@ "annot res"ue
the 7eontolo/istFs Ar/ument. >he a"t of usin/ nu"lear (eapons (ould 'e (orse than the su""essful pursuit of deterren"e 'e"ause its pro'a'le
"onseJuen"es (ould 'e (orse. It (ould also 'e more evil@ or more "ulpa'le@ in that it (ould indi"ate a /reater de/ree of moral "orruption or
depravit4 in the a/ent. %oth a "on"ern (ith "onseJuen"es and a "on"ern (ith the evaluation of a/ents are@ moreover@ "ertainl4 relevant to an4
moral "omparison 'et(een usin/ nu"lear (eapons and runnin/ a deterrent strate/4. >hese modes of evaluation are a""essi'le to the deontolo/ist
and are "ompati'le (ith his vie(. %ut the4 are e8traneous to the "ore of that vie(. 7eontolo/4@ and a fortiori the 7eontolo/istFs
Ar/ument@ are "on"erned (ith the intrinsi" moral "hara"ter of a"tion. And in this respe"t-that is@ in terms of their intrinsi" natures
-usin/ nu"lear (eapons and runnin/ a su""essful deterrent strate/4 are held '4 the ar/ument to 'e morall4
eJuivalent. >his $on$lusion alone is suffi$ientl5 a)surd to $ondemn the a)solutist version of the Deontolo0istEs
Ar0ument.
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@ A Deterren$e is moral means&end distin$tion is *ron0.
Russell ;ardin is 5rofessor of 5oliti"s at <e( or& ?niversit4 Sour"eG ?niversit4 of 5enns4lvania Ba(
Revie(@ Eol. 1.1@ <o. 0 C,a4@ 199.D@ pp. 1232-1311 Sta'le ?RBG httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$--1*02.
Stron/ moral "laims a'out pie"emeal a"tions in intera"tive "onte8ts are more /enerall4 pro'lemati". One response to ar/uments a/ainst
outla(in/ 'la"&mail is to as& (h4 one "annot threaten to do (hat one has the full le/al ri/ht to do Csu"h as pass relevant information to the
pressD.** In some moral ar/uments it is even plausi'le to "laim one "an 'e in the ri/ht to threaten somethin/@ (hi"h if "arried out@ (ould 'e
(ron/. In the moral "riti"ism of nu"lear deterren"e@ it is often asserted that it is (ron/ to threaten (hat it (ould 'e (ron/
to do Cto immolate "ities full of inno"ents@ in"ludin/ 4oun/ "hildrenD.*- >his is often asserted a8iomati"all4@ as thou/h it (ere
a 'asi" or dire"tl4 intuited moral prin"iple. %ut in a"tual pra"ti"e@ one "annot separate the threat and (hat ma&es it "redi'le
from the end to 'e a"hieved. +hat ma&es it "redi'le is "ompellin/ eviden"e that it (ould 'e "arried out (ith some si/nifi"ant pro'a'ilit4.
If su$h threatenin0 produ$es massivel5 0ood resultsC it is hardC even lunatic C to sa5 that the threatenin0 is
*ron0. 5erhaps nu"lear deterren"e has never produ"ed massivel4 /ood results@ 'ut this is an empiri"al matter (hose resolution "annot res"ue
the moral a8iom. Splittin0 the threat from its lar0er endC even 0iven the possi)ilit5 of a *orse out$ome if the
threat fails to deter and retaliation follo*sC is $on$eptuall5C and therefore morall5C perverse.*.
@ A #ven if $onseGuentialism is generally *ron0C it7s a$$urate in the nu$lear $onte8t
+illiam ;. Sha* is 5rofessor of 5hilosoph4 and Chair of the 5hilosoph4 7epartment at San Aose State ?niversit4.
Sour"eG !thi"s@ Eol. 9.@ <o. * CAan.@ 194/D@ pp. *.3-*10 Sta'le ?RBG httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$*-30010
In this essa4 I have defended the moral le/itima"4 of nu"lear deterren"e (ithin a deontolo/i"al frame(or&. I have
"ontended that nu"lear deterren"e@ vie(ed as a pure "ase@ need not 'e impermissi'le@ 'ut I have not ar/ued that "urrent Ameri"an strate/i"
poli"4 is morall4 le/itimate@ let alone (ise. >hat strate/4 is a "omple8 one@ e8er"ised in a "ompli"ated environment@ and there are man4 diffi"ult
and important Juestions "on- "ernin/ the permissi'ilit4 of aspe"ts of that poli"4@ for instan"e@ the use of nu"lear (eapons to deter "onventional
a//ression@ (hi"h I have not tou"hed upon. ,4 fo"us has 'een@ more simpl4@ on the moral a""epta'ilit4 of the 'asi" deterrent thin&in/ (hi"h lies
at the "ore of "urrent poli"4. =# all the moral issues that #ace us today @ ho(ever@ nu$lear poli$5 is the one that @ 'e"ause
of the "omple8 fa"tual issues and num'er of persons li&el4 to 'e affe"ted@ most $ries out to )e handled in
$onseGuentialist terms. Althou/h it is "learl4 /ood even on utilitarian /rounds that (e have a repu/nan"e to ma&in/ threats of immoral
'ehavior@ even (here 51 (ould "ondone it@ the limits of a narro(l4 deontolo/i"al perspe"tive are soon o'vious. =or one thin/@
su"h dis"ussions do not easil4 inte/rate finel4 /rained fa"tual issues or Juestions of pro'a'ilit4@ su"h as the "han"es of a
nu"lear a""ident@ into their overall moral assessments. ,u"h han/s on the real@ histori"al and politi"al Cas opposed to merel4
/ame-theoreti"all4 supposedD@ "onseJuen"es of the "ontemporar4 pra"ti"e of deterren"e nu"lear proliferation-and on assessin/
a""uratel4 the feasi'ilit4 of alternatives to the "urrent arms ra"e. A moral theor5 *ith si0nifi$ant $on- seGuentialist strands
*ould seem to )e ne$essar5 to 0ive these sorts of $onsiderations their due.
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@ A Even if nu$lear deterren$e uses people as meansC that o)%e$tion should )e overridden.
<u$lear poli$5 $an serve as the lone e8$eption.
Steven Lee is the ;.B.A. ;art Eisitin/ Resear"h =ello( at the Center for !thi"s and 5hilosoph4 of Ba( and ?niversit4 Colle/e for
,i"haelmas@ as (ell as Eisitin/ Resear"h =ello( at the Chan/in/ Chara"ter of +ar 5ro/ramme. ;e is a 5rofessor in the ;umanities and
5rofessor of 5hilosoph4 at ;o'art and +illiam Smith Colle/es@ Sour"eG !thi"s@ Eol. 90@ <o. -@ Spe"ial IssueG S4mposium on !thi"s and <u"lear
7eterren"e CApr.@ 1941D@ pp. 0.9-011 Sta'le ?RBG httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$*-310-2
Se"ond@ the ar/ument in terms of hosta/e holdin/ applies even (hen the retaliator4 intention is dire"ted a/ainst militar4 rather than
"ivilian tar/ets. ;osta/es in"lude all inno"ent persons (ho@ (ithout their "onsent@ are dire"tl4 put at ris& of harm '4 a threat@ (hether the
threatenerFs harm of them (ould 'e dire"tl4 intended or merel4 foreseen Cor (hether the ris& to them is 'elieved '4 the threatener to 'e
instrumental to the su""ess of the threatD. If a terrorist threatens to 'lo( up an airplane@ all a'oard the plane are hosta/es even if the terrorist
'elieves that the threat to destro4 the plane itself is suffi"ient for his or her demands to 'e met. 9iven the (idespread harmful effe"ts of nu"lear
e8plosions@ even retaliation a/ainst militar4 tar/ets (ould &ill a ver4 lar/e num'er of inno"ent persons. So a deterren"e poli"4 of
threatenin/ nu"lear retaliation a/ainst militar4 tar/ets also holds hosta/es. >he "on"lusion is that nu"lear deterren"e involves in
its treatment of inno"ent persons s4stemati" violation of non"onseJuentialist moral rules. A""ordin/ to 5,SI@ then@ nu"lear deterren"e
is morall4 una""epta'le. III %ut "an su"h a #ud/ment 'e allo(ed to stand (hen so mu"h is at sta&eL +hen the
"onseJuen"e of a'andonin/ an institution is a su'stantial ris& of /rave disaster@ should not an e8"eption 'e allo(ed
to the prin"iple of the moralit4 of so"ial institutionsL If the so"ial 'enefit is of suffi"ientl4 /reat ma/nitude@ the
ans(er should perhaps 'e 4es. >he "omparison (ith vi"arious punishment ma4 a/ain 'e helpful. +e ma4 so readil4 #ud/e vi"arious
punishment to 'e morall4 una""epta'le 'e"ause (e &no( that there is a morall4 a""epta'le alternative@ ordinar4 nonvi"arious punishment@ that
also se"ures the so"ial 'enefit of deterrin/ "rime. %ut ima/ine a (orld in (hi"h the threat of ordinar4 punishment is not a deterrent 'ut the threat
of third-part4 punishment is. In su"h a (orld@ the immense so"ial 'enefit of "rime "ontrol (ould 'e a"hieva'le onl4 '4 vi"arious punishment@ and
this (ould@ it seems@ morall4 #ustif4 su"h an institution despite its s4stemati" in#usti"e.F- %ut perhaps our (orld is li&e this ima/inar4 (orld (hen
the institution in Juestion is nu"lear deterren"eG there is immense so"ial 'enefit from this institution that onl4 it "an a"hieve. Should it 'e /ranted
that nu"lear deterren"e a"hieves immense so"ial 'enefit (hen "ompared (ith the alternative poli"4 of unilateral nu"lear disarmamentL 7espite
the apparent plausi'ilit4 of this assumption@ it is not diffi"ult to raise dou'ts a'out it.F. Sin"e the "onseJuen"es of poli"ies must 'e fi/ured in
terms of e8pe"ted so"ial 'enefit@ not onl4 must the &ind of "onseJuen"es sou/ht from nu"lear deterren"e 'e of /reat so"ial value@ 'ut also the
li&elihood that the poli"4 (ould a"hieve su"h "onse- Juen"es must 'e su'stantiall4 /reater than the li&elihood that the alternative poli"4 (ould
a"hieve them. Other(ise@ these t(o fa"tors (ill not 4ield a produ"t lar/e enou/h to override the poli"4Fs s4stemati" violation of
non"onseJuentialist rules. =urther@ the e8pe"ted so"ial 'enefit must remain lar/e enou/h even after the "osts of deterren"e poli"4@ su"h as an
in"reased li&elihood of a""idental nu"lear (ar@ are ta&en into a""ount. <evertheless@ I shall a""ept the assumption for the sa&e of ar/ument
'e"ause I am interested in the moral diffi"ulties of present nu"lear (eapons poli"4 that follo( even (hen the assumption is /ranted. 9iven this
assumption@ the "laim that the institution of nu"lear deterren"e should 'e an allo(a'le e8"eption to 5,SI is 'ased@ li&e the prin"iple itself@ on
the model of our moral evaluation of individual a"tions. Aust as an individual a"tion that violates non"onseJuentialist rules ma4 'e morall4
#ustified if it a"hieves a /reat amount of so"ial 'enefit@ an institution that s4stemati"all4 violates these rules ma4 'e morall4 #ustified if its amount
of so"ial 'enefit is "orrespondin/l4 /reater. >he prin"iple (as stated earlier in "ate/ori"al form@ (ithout allo(an"e for
e8"eptions@ 'e"ause the amount of so"ial 'enefit needed for an e8"eption is so /reat that I (as supposin/ that
institutions (ould not 'e a'le to a"hieve this mu"h. In fa"t@ nu"lear deterren"e ma4 (ell 'e the onl4 so"ial institution
(ith "onseJuen"es of suffi"ient ma/nitude to Jualif4 as an e8"eption to the prin"iple. It is@ of "ourse@ important to add that
not onl4 must the so"ial 'enefit 'e suffi"ientl4 /reat 'ut also there must 'e no alternative so"ial institution (ithout the s4stemati"
non"onseJuentialist rule violation that "an a"hieve that 'enefit. On our assumption@ the poli"4 alternative to nu"lear deterren"e@ unilateral nu"lear
disarmament@ does not a"hieve that 'enefit.
C<oteG 5,SI g prin"iple of the moralit4 of so"ial institutionsD
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>heir nu$lear ethi$s ar0uments $an )e true and still not )e a reason to vote for them
here7s proof that our $on$erns simpl5 out*ei0h
Aohn ,elsh Commander@ ?S <av4 ?SA+C S>RA>!9 R!S!ARC; 5ROA!C> ?.S. Arm4 +ar Colle/e 5u'li"ations <u"lear
7eterren"e is ;ere to Sta4 *00. httpG$$(((.dti".mil$"/i-'in$9et>R7o"LA7gA7A.1.001VBo"ationg?*Vdo"g9et>R7o".pdfD
>here are man4 ar/uments to support a (orld that is free of nu"lear (eapons. Amon/ these areG nu"lear (eapons are
not reall4 (eapons at all@ 'ut instruments of mass annihilation@ of /eno"ide@ and possi'l4 of omni"ideH nu"lear (eapons are inhumane
and undermine our humanit4 '4 their ver4 e8isten"eH the4 are "it4 destro4in/ (eapons that tar/et the inno"ent@ &illin/ and maimin/
indis"riminatel4*0. Additionall4 in 1991@ the International Court of Austi"e ruled that that the threat or use of nu"lear (eapons (ould /enerall4
'e "ontrar4 to the rules of international la( appli"a'le in armed "onfli"t@ and in parti"ular the prin"iples and rules of humanitarian la() *1
7espite the ar/uments for the a'olition of nu"lear (eapons@ there are several "ompellin/ reasons a/ainst thisG =irst is the "ost of
ph4si"all4 destro4in/ all nu"lear (eapons in a rapid manner. In toda46s fis"all4 "onstrained environment@ it (ould 'e prohi'itivel4 more
e8pensive to destro4 these (eapons than to maintain them. In addition to the "ost@ there is a related issue (hi"h is a loss of te"hni"al e8perien"e
and the "orrespondin/ infrastru"ture to destro4 them in a reasona'le time. >he strate/i" infrastru"ture personnel 'ase is shrin&in/ due to hi/h
retirement rates of senior personnel@ ina'ilit4 to re"ruit #unior personnel@ and the attra"tiveness of private-se"tor emplo4ment. >he 'ottom line is
that (ithout s&illed@ &no(led/ea'le individuals in the infrastru"ture@ the destru"tion of (eapons (ill ta&e a prolon/ed time@ a""ompanied '4 a
heft4 pri"e ta/. *2 Se"ond@ a (orld(ide 'indin/ resolution (ould have to 'e a/reed on '4 ever4 nation (ho possesses or
aspires to possess nu"lear (eapons to destro4 them simultaneousl4@ so as prevent a po(er shift in /lo'al po(ers due to differin/
rates of the "omplete nu"lear dra( do(n. 7espite the <on 5roliferation and Comprehensive >est %an >reaties 'ein/ in e8isten"e@ 'oth 5a&istan
and India developed and tested nu"lear (eapons Cneither one are si/natories to either treat4D. Also@ it is "lear 'ased on re"ent terror atta"&s@ that
terrorists are onl4 "on"erned (ith the furtherin/ of their ideals and do not and (ill not a'ide '4 an4 resolution '4 an4 /overnin/ 'od4
(hatsoever. !ven the most effe"tive verifi"ation s4stem that "an 'e envisioned (ould not produ"e "omplete "onfiden"e that
a small num'er of nu"lear (eapons had not 'een hidden or fa'ri"ated in se"ret. ,ore fundamentall4@ the &no(led/e of
ho( to 'uild nu"lear (eapons "annot 'e erased from the human mind. !ven if ever4 nu"lear (arhead (ere destro4ed@ the
"urrent nu"lear (eapons states@ and a /ro(in/ num'er of other te"hnolo/i"all4 advan"ed states@ (ould 'e a'le to 'uild nu"lear (eapons (ithin a
fe( months or fe( 4ears of a national de"ision to do so >he third reason a/ainst the total a'olition of nu"lear (eapons is@ despite a ne( sense of
friendship and "ooperation 'et(een the Cold +ar rivals@ the demo"ratiIation of Russia is still in its earl4 sta/es@ (ith indi"ations of hi/h internal
tensions. ConseJuentl4@ if Communist hardliners (ere to affe"t a "oup and restore the former Communist part4 to po(er@ the ?.S. (ould on"e
a/ain present a threat to the Russian Communist norms and ideals. Additionall4@ It is not no( o'vious@ for e8ample@ (hether Russia@ China@ or
some "om'ination thereof (ill 'e politi"all4 'eni/n or Juite hostile even in the near future. Boo&in/ out over the "omin/ de"ades@ it is Juite
plausi'le that a variet4 of other re/ional a//ressors armed (ith (eapons of mass destru"tion C+,7D "ould arise to "hallen/e the ?nited States.
>he diII4in/ pa"e of "han/e in the international s4stem over the past t(o de"ades@ from the rapid transition of Iran from all4
to foe@ to the si/nifi"ant shifts in ?.S.-Russian and ?.S.-Chinese relations sin"e the 1930s@ demonstrates that the future shape of the
international se"urit4 environment is an4thin/ 'ut hi/hl4 predi"ta'le. Similarl4@ the "urrent pa"e of proliferation ma&es
predi"tions a'out the future level of +,7 threat to the ?nited States hi/hl4 spe"ulative.) *9 =inall4@ the nu"lear era represents the
lon/est period (ithout (ar amon/ ma#or po(ers sin"e the emer/en"e of the modern nation state in the si8teenth "entur4.
>hus@ it is ar/ued that@ if the ma#or po(ers 'elieved the ris& of nu"lear (ar had 'een eliminated@ the4 mi/ht initiate or
intensif4 "onfli"ts that mi/ht other(ise have 'een avoided or limited. -0 In "on"lusion@ despite the /lo'al pea"e (hi"h so
man4 /roups de"lare as 'ein/ possi'le onl4 throu/h the "omplete a'olition and destru"tion of nu"lear (eapons@ the
pro'lemati" issues des"ri'ed a'ove are in m4 opinion valid reasons for maintainin/ a nu"lear arsenal for the ?nited States6 and
for our allies6 se"urit4. %ased on the a'ove ar/uments@ a (orld (ith no nu"lear (eapons "ould 'e a far dan/erous and less
se"ure pla"e for the ?.S. than a (orld full of them.
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@ A 'e$ause some retaliation is moralC deterren$e is as *ell
=rederi"& Kroon is Asso"iate 5rofessor of 5hilosoph4 at the ?niversit4 of Au"&land. !thi"s 101 CAanuar4 1992DG -00--22 A-Stor
=or the same reason@ deterren"e is a strate/i" option availa'le to morall4 /ood a/ents. !ven if su"h a/ents re"o/niIe that
retaliation is immoral@ the4 also re"o/niIe that the4 are naturall4 sus"epti'le to emotions li&e an/er and the desire
for reven/e in the fa"e of /reat insults to interests or values@ and the4 re"o/niIe the (a4 this sus"epti- 'ilit4 is a'le to use them to
their o(n advanta/e. 7eterrent "onditional intentions are mind-sets that refle"t this re"o/nition. A/ent-moralism is thus as
via'le a position as a/ent-rationalism. E <o( for some o'#e"tions to this (a4 of understandin/ a/ent-rationalism Cand@ impli"itl4@ a/ent-
moralismD. iD ShouldnFt a trul4 rational a/ent 'e "redited (ith the a'ilit4 someho( to override her stron/ desire for
reven/e displa4ed in her rea"tion to the thou/ht of C o""urrin/L And so shouldnFt the C"ondi- tionalD deli'erations of a trul4 rational
a/ent 'e free of the distortions produ"ed '4 su"h emotionsL Repl4G !ven if the ans(er to the first Juestion is 4es
Calthou/h I am dou'tfulD@ the ans(er to the se"ond should 'e a "lear no. =or havin/ the a'ilit4 doesnFt provide the a/ent
(ith a "lear reason to e8er"ise the a'ilit4 unless it is in the a/entFs overall interests to do so. >o thin& that it does is
a/ain to fall vi"tim to the mista&en vie( that a trul4 rational a/ent "anFt 'e /uided '4 emotion. In terms of a more "on"rete
e8ample@ re"all on"e a/ain our a/ent Smith (ho sees that she (ould 'e"ome ps4"hoti" if some un(el"ome event ? (ere to happen@ 'ut (ho
re"o/niIes that she is (ell off (ith this possi'ilit4 sin"e it deters those intent on ?. A rational a/ent (ould not "hoose to "han/e the situation
even if it meant ris&in/ irrational 'ehavior.
@ A Deontolo05 is *ron0 in the deterren$e $onte8t it i0nores the $omple8ities of intention.
7avid Con*a5 is 5rin"ipal Be"turer in 5hilosoph4 at ,iddlese8 5ol4te"hni" =orei/n 5oli"4 5erspe"tives <o. 19
1990 httpG$$(((.li'ertarian."o.u&$lapu's$forep$forep019.pdf
+e "an afford to 'e 'rief in "onsiderin/ thesis CiiD. I "on"ur (ith +illiam Sha( entirel4 (hen he (ritesG It )e0s the Guestion at issue to
assume that a $onditional intention to retaliate immorall5C *hen that intention is part of a threat that *ill
@li(el5A 0uarantee that there is no initial immoral atta$( Cand thus no need to retaliateD and *hen the threat is
honoura)l5 motivatedC is immoral.13 In other (ords@ it )e0s the Guestion to sa5 that havin0 a *illin0ness to do
*hat is morall5 *ron0 is al*a5s in itself morall5 *ron0. It depends on *hat one7s motivation in havin/ that
(illin/ness is and on the "onseJuen"es of havin/ that (illin/ness. If one7s motivation in havin/ that (illin/ness is to prevent
another evil from happenin0C and if that *illin0ness is ver5 unli(el5 to result in an5 a$tual *ron0 a$t 'ein/ done@
then the *illin0ness to do moral *ron0 is not in itself morall5 *ron0. I "on"lude@ therefore@ that the moral $ase
a0ainst nu$lear deterren$e has not )een made out. 5remise C*D remains unproven@ and@ (hile it does@ nu$lear deterren$e
ma5 )e pra$tised )5 the ,estern nu$lear po*ers in 0ood $ons$ien$e.
C<oteG Several philosophers Cfn1D in re"ent 4ears have ar/ued that the poli"4 of nu"lear deterren"e as "urrentl4 pra"tised '4 the +estern nu"lear
po(ers is morall4 (ron/a Cfn1D 8hese philosophers include most notably A. Kenn4@ T%etter 7ead >han Red6@ in <. %la&e and K. 5ole Ceds.D
O'#e"tions to <u"lear 7efen"e@ Routled/e and Ke/an 5aul@ Bondon@ 193.H ". 6ummett >8he "orality o# 6eterrence$@ in 7. Copp Ced.D@ <u"lear
+eapons@ 7eterren"e@ and 7isarmament@ ?niversit4 of Cal/ar4 5ress@ Cal/ar4@ 1931H and A. =innis@ A. ,. %o4le and 9. 9riseI@ <u"lear
7eterren"e@ ,oralit4 and Realism@ Clarendon 5ress@ O8ford@ 1932. D
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@ A >heir $ritiGue of $onseGuentialism is %ust flat *ron0 in the nu$lear $onte8t
>homas Donaldson is the ,ar& O. +in&elman 5rofessor of Be/al Studies and %usiness !thi"s at the +harton
S"hool of the ?niversit4 of 5enns4lvania Revie(ed (or&CsDG >he Bo/i" of 7eterren"e '4 Anthon4 Kenn4 <u"lear
+eapons and the =uture of ;umanit4G >he =undamental Ruestions '4 Avner Cohen H Steven Bee Sour"eG !thi"s@
Eol. 92@ <o. - CApr.@ 1943D@ pp. 1-3-10- 5u'lished '4G >he ?niversit4 of Chi"a/o 5ress Sta'le ?RBG
httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$*-3113.
Kenn4Fs pro'lems 'rin/ to mind Russell ;ardinFs "riti"ism of deontolo/i"al reasonin/. In KRis&in/ Arma/eddonK C<+@ pp.
*01-*0D@ ;ardin refers to a remar& '4 9ermain 9riseI that the poli"4 of nu"lear deterren"e is morall4 evil and should 'e
dismantled immediatel4 re/ardless of "on- seJuen"es sin"e ends do not #ustif4 means. ;ardin responds@ K+hen the
"onseJuen"es are as /rievous as the4 ma4 'e in various nu"lear arms re/imes@ other(ise honora'le "on"erns (ith
perfe"tion@ virtue@ ri/hts@ and the do"trine of dou'le-effe"t simpl4 /ive (a4. >he differen"e 'et(een lettin/ humanit4 or
some lar/e part of it 'e immolated and "ausin/ it to 'e immolated is a moral differen"e that pales into
insi/nifi"an"e.K 1*
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@ A #delman $an7t es$ape his o*n $ritiGue it7s fundamentall5 $ir$ular and la$(s an5 proof
Sidne4 Kraus is a professor in the 7epartment of Communi"ation at Cleveland State ?niversit4 and 7ennis
9iles is also in the 7epartment of Communi"ation at Cleveland State ?niversit4. Revie(ed (or&CsDG
Constru"tin/ the 5oliti"al Spe"ta"le '4 ,urra4 !delman Sour"eG 5oliti"al 5s4"holo/4@ Eol. 10@ <o. - CSep.@ 1949D@
pp. 012-0*0 5u'lished '4G International So"iet4 of 5oliti"al 5s4"holo/4 Sta'le ?RBG
httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$-291-11
!delmanFs pra"ti"e in this 'oo& is am'ivalent in that he invo&es a (orld outside the m4stif4in/ pra"ti"e of politi"al
dis"ourse (hi"h seems intended as a "orre"tion of politi"al spe"ta"le@ or an e8pose of its falsities. Are statements li&e the
Rea/an statement@ then@ intended as KproofK of his theor4@ or as 'rief illustrations of the &ind of anal4sis that "ould 'e "arried out utiliI- in/ his
theor4L At times@ he "ites anal4ti"al or histori"al studies Cin footnotesD as support of his statements@ 'ut more often he
seems to present su"h statements as thou/h the4 (ere self-evident Kfa"ts.K If all politi$al realit5 is indeed a
$onstru$tion of lan0ua0eC ho* $an one re0ard #delmanEs statements of ap- parentl5 self-evident fa$ts as
an5thin0 other than a further instan$e of self- interested lin0uisti$ $onstru$tionI Statements li&e the des"ription
of the Kreal- it4K 'ehind the m4stifi"ations of Rea/anFs politi"al dis"ourse "an onl4 'e re/arded@ then@ as mere opinions of
the author@ sin"e the4 are unsupported '4 an e8tensive anal4sis. !delman sa4s that Kthe notion of realit4 "onstru"- tion implies
that some are valid and others not.... It "an 'e done (ell or 'adl4 and 'e ri/ht or (ron/K Cpp. 1@ 1*1D. %ut ho( "an the reader #ud/e the validit4 of
statements su"h as the one a'out Rea/anL +h4 is !delmanFs statement Kri/htK (hereas other su"h statements ma4 'e
K(ron/KL Althou/h !delman here does not "laim to 'e (ritin/ a 'oo& of e8tended anal4sis@ 'ut rather ela'orates theor4@ man4 of the
statements he ma&es a'out Krealit4K remain unpersuasive sin"e the4 are not a""ompanied '4 anal4ti"al (or& (hi"h
"ould sho( (h4 this KopinionK is more valid than an4 other. If@ a""ordin/ to his o(n theor4@ !delmanFs statements
a'out realit4 are themselves "onstru"ted a""ordin/ to the so"ial$politi"al position and the KinterestsK of the
spea&er$o'server@ there is no reason (h4 a "riti"al reader should re/ard them as dem4stifi"ations or de"onstru"tions
of politi"al dis"ourse.
1*
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A-to #delman&6oliti$al Spe$ta$le K $ont7
@ A #delman7s K is overl5 pessimisti$ a)out the human $ondition
In his latest effort@ Constru"tin/ the 5oliti"al Spe"ta"le@ !delman e8- tends his ideas a'out meanin/s in politi"al
statements (hile e8aminin/ the spe"ta"le "reated '4 politi"al ne(s@ the interpretations /enerated@ and their Kimpli"ations for
demo"rati" theor4K Cp. 1D. ;e 'e/ins (ith a 'rief dis"ussion of Kpremises a'out politi"s@K espe"iall4 those related to a "on"eptual frame(or&
'orne out of theoreti"al notions of poststru"turalist (riters. !del- manFs "on"eptual frame(or& K/ives politi"al a"tion@ tal&@ (ritin/@ and ne(s
reportin/ a different import from that ta&en for /ranted in politi"iansF statements and in "onventional so"ial s"ien"e (ritin/.K ;e "on"ludes '4
su//estin/ (e "an 'e Keman"ipated from the m4stifi"ations of politi"s and li'erated from a relian"e on te8t or dis"ourse as essential modes for
understandin/ realitiesK Cp. 1*3D. ,ost readers (ill find this 'oo& e8"eptionall4 interestin/. Indeed@ it should 'e reJuired readin/ for politi"al and
literar4 theoreti"ians@ so"ial s"ientists@ #ournalists@ and philosophers. +e feel that ,urra4 !delman has made a uniJue and important
"ontri'ution to the s"holarl4 dis"ussion of mass "ommuni"ation and politi"s@ "hallen/in/ some of our 'asi" "on"eptions of the intera"tions
amon/ institutions@ the press@ and "itiIens in a demo"ra"4. +hile (e re/ard !delmanFs theoreti"al 'eliefs a'out politi"al
"ommuni"ation in Ameri"a as innovative and insi/htful@ (e (ould dra( differentl4 his 'lea& and often emphati" pi"ture
Kof the human "onditionK that renders "itiIens una'le Kto prote"t and promote their o(n interests ...K Cp. 1D. +e dis"uss
these different Kpi"turesK '4 "onsiderin/ !delmanFs "onstru"tionsH the de"onstru"tion Juestion itselfH and Juestions a'out mass
media@ ne(s@ and pu'li" opinion.
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Aff K Core
@ A #delman assumes a false di$hotom5 politi$s is not !5es+&+no+C there are shades of
0re5.
!delman assumes Cli&e the earl4 =ran&furt S"hoolD that vie(ers$auditors of the spe"ta"le Chere@ the politi"al spe"ta"leD have
onl4 t(o "hoi"es- the4 "an a""ept the terms CrulesD of the /ame or re#e"t them. >here is no room for a ne/otiated readin/
of politi"al dis"ourse or the appropriation of politi- "al Kpro'lemsK '4 individuals to serve their interests-their le/itimate (ell- 'ein/ as the4
define it. In this theor4@ spe"tators$parti"ipants are presented (ith a "rude dualismG a""ept it all@ re#e"t it all. I/nored in the
dis"ussion are the so-"alled K"ulturalK studies pu'lished durin/ the past de"ade Me./.@ ;all C1930D@ ,orel4 C1930@ 1931D@ Rad(a4
C193.@ 1931D@ =is&e C1931D@ 9iles C1931DH "f. t(o re"ent studies not availa'le to !del- manG Steiner C1933D@ and 9iles C1939DN@ (hi"h have
e8tended Kre"eption the- or4K Me./.@ Iser C1923D@ Suleiman and Crosma C1930D@ Aauss C193*D (ith an introdu"tion '4 5aul de ,anDN. >his
ma#or theoreti"al perspe"tive of "ulture@ literar4@ film and television studies in the ?nited States and %ritain re- #e"ts the notion of a universall4
passive appropriation of a te8t on its o(n terms Cpoliti"al or other(iseD to e8plore the a"tual pra/mati"s of the a"t of vie(in/$readin/ a
Kspe"ta"le.K >hese studies present alternatives to the either$or stan"e of !delman. +hile assumin/ that an4 pra"ti"e of
dis"ourse "onstru"ts its o(n illusionar4 K(orldK Cin <elsonFs termsD and is potentiall4 m4stif4in/@ these "riti"s stress the
a'ilit4 and freedom of vie(ers$auditors and spe"tators$parti"ipants to "onstru"t their Ko(nK meanin/s Cli&e !del- manFsD.
>his developin/ 'od4 of theor4 and anal4sis posits and des"ri'es the a'ilit4 of vie(ers of the Kspe"ta"leK to ne/otiate the
meanin/ of te8ts-to read and realiIe CIserFs termD meanin/s (hi"h often diver/e from the KdominantK readin/s preferred
'4 the politi"al and media institutions.
1.
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Aff K Core
@ A #delman assumes a false di$hotom5 6eople $an 0rasp meanin0 *ithin the spe$ta$le
*ithout *holes$ale re%e$tion.
5erhaps most disheartenin/ is !delmanFs "4ni"al vie( that politi"al parti"ipation is a Knarro( fo"usK on politi"s@
and onl4 reinfor"es (hat he "riti- "iIes a'out the polit4. ;ere a/ain@ !delman does not ma&e "lear (hat effe"t votin/ turnout (ould
have on Kde"isive "han/eK (ere it in"reased su'stan- tiall4 in ele"tions. !delman seems to 'e ar/uin/ that politi"al lan/ua/e@ as no( pra"ti"ed
and per"eived@ lulls voters into satisfa"tion (ith the status Juo. Eotin/ does not "han/e so"iet4 and ma&e for 'etter individual (ell-'ein/. If
voters Cand presuma'l4 non-votersD (ere "o/niIant of the Klon/ odds a/ainst su'stantial "han/eK the4 (ould Khelp shape effe"tive strate/iesK or
lon/-term "han/e. >hose strate/ies@ ho(ever@ (ould 'e more effe"tive (hen K"oupled (ith the re"o/nition that art@ s"ien"e@ and "ulture "onstru"t
politi- "al thou/ht and a"tion rather than simpl4 "oe8istin/ (ith themK Cp. 1-0D. KRealit4@K as !delman re/ards it@ is dis/uised Cnot des"ri'edD '4
lan- /ua/e. ;e "on"edes that his K... perspe"tive offers a diffi"ult anal4ti" "hallen/e 'e"ause entities do not remain sta'le (hile 4ou stud4 them
and su'#e"ts and o'#e"ts are "ontinuousl4 evolvin/ "onstru"tions of one anotherK Cp. *D. !delman "autions us to 'e s&epti"al a'out@ and 'e
Kli'eratedK from politi"al te8ts or dis"ourseH to loo& for Kmultiple and "ontradi"tor4 realitiesKH and to e8a- mine other dis"ourse@ different Kso"ial
situations and ... histori"al "onte8tsK Cpp. 1*3-1*9D. %ut impli"it in his dis"ussion is the vie( that the pu'li" la"&s the a'ilit4 to
KreadK and use a politi"al spe"ta"le in terms of their o(n interests. !delman sees the de"eption of lin/uisti"
pra"ti"e@ the fraudulent 'a- sis of politi"al "onstru"tions@ (hile assumin/ that all those (ho are not duped '4 the s4stem must@
li&e himself@ ne"essaril4 re#e"t it. %et(een these t(o poles lies a (hole (orld of Kne/otiatedK politi"al intera"tion
(hi"h stru//les for truth (ithin self-interest-'ut the terms are not mutuall4 e8"lusive.
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@ A #delman7s alternative is thin and is needs to )e more effe$tive
>he pro'lem (ith advan"in/ de"onstru"tion as a tool for dis"riminatin/ amon/ and (ithin politi"al messa/es is one
of presumed dissem'lan"e. It pretends to ta&e an ina""urate or inappropriate politi"al pi"ture apart and put it 'a"&
to/ether "orre"tl4. On"e sorted out@ the pie"es of the puIIle are there for posterit4. 5erhaps@ 'ut nonde"onstru"tionists ma4 in fa"t K"orre"tK
differentl4@ and some ma4 not see some messa/es as puIIles to 'e/in (ith. It is ne"essar4@ (e feel@ to distin/uish 'et(een@ for e8ample@ politi"al
slo- /ans and editorials or position papers. >he tas& of determinin/ Kfa"tK or Krealit4K is not here made easier for the reader (ho has follo(ed the
prevailin/ dis"ussion of de"onstru"tion '4 literar4 theorists@ re"entl4 #olted '4 the dis"over4 that the theor4Fs foremost Ameri"an "hampion@ 5aul
de ,an@ authored anti-Semiti" essa4s for a pro- <aIi %el/ian pu'li"ation durin/ the Se"ond +orld +ar Csee@ for e8ample@ Behman@ 1933H
;artman@ 1933H ;eller@ 1933D. +hile (e hesitate to ma&e /eneraliIations a'out the theor4 in li/ht of de ,anFs apparent earlier ideolo- /4@ the fa"t
that his (or& underpins@ in part@ the ar/ument presented@ su/- /ests that the theoreti"al frame(or& ou/ht to 'e e8amined alon/ (ith the Juestions
raised initiall4 '4 !delmanG >he pervasiveness of litera"4@ television@ and radio in the industrialiIed (orld ma&es freJuent reports of politi"al
ne(s availa'le to most of the population@ a mar&ed "han/e from the situation that prevailed until appro8imatel4 the Se"ond +orld +ar. +hat
"onseJuen"es for ideolo/4@ a"tion@ and Juies"en"e flo( from preo""upation (ith politi"al ne(s as spe"ta"leL ;o( does the spe"ta"le /enerate
interpretationsL +hat are its impli"ations for demo"rati" theor4L Cp. 1D !delmanFs proposition that politi"al spe"ta"le de"onstru"ts
itself Cpp. 110-119D is trou'lin/ (hen pla"ed to(ard the end of some 100 pa/es (hi"h have attempted to demonstrate
that the "onstru"tion of pro'lems@ leaders@ and enemies forms a self-reinfor"in/ s4stem of m4stifi"ation.
11
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to #pistemolo05&-ethods 1
st
$ont7
@ A #mphasiBin0 a sin0ular method is $ounter-produ$tive
It al*a5s )e$omes mantraC and it hurts their o*n a0enda )e$ause students do not learn to
distinguish between methodolo0ies. >he impa$t is $riti$al thin(in0
Avdela from the ?niversit4 of Athens e8plains in 2000
C!fi Avdela@ Asso"iate 5rofessor 7ept of !arl4 "hildhood !du"ation ?niv of Athens -- Aournal of ,odern 9ree& Studies - Eolume 13@ <um'er
*@ O"to'er *000@ pp. *-9-*0- availa'le via online data'ase 5ro#e"t ,use --
httpG$$muse.#hu.edu$#ournals$#ournaldofdmodernd/ree&dstudies$v013$13.*avdela.pdfD
As a result of this situation@ a "lear hierar"h4 of priorities develops in the "lassroom. >he 'asi" purpose of the lesson 'e"omes the
"ultivation of patriotism and demo"rati" ideals throu/h the appropriate sele"tion and interpretation of histori"al events. Kno(led/e of the past is
su'ordinated to an a/enda that lies outside the sphere of histori"al &no(led/e@ an a/enda that is e8pli"itl4 dida"ti" in the sense that its /oal is to
ma&e sure students dra( the proper) "on"lusions from histor4.0 In this "onte8t@ familiariIin/ students (ith the te$hniGues of
histori"al resear$h $an $arr5 no more than se$ondar5 importan$e. Althou/h the /uidelines spe"if4 that histor4
"lasses should 'oth en"oura/e students to as& Juestions and develop their interest in histor4@ in realit4 a sin/le@ spe"ifi" point
of vie( is imposed on students. =urthermore@ "lasses never e8plain ho( this point of vie( evolvedH the fa"t that it is an interpretation of
the histori"al eviden"e is "on"ealed. Students do not learn how to distin/uish 'et(een histori"al data and the interpretation of
dataH the4 do not learn ho( to dis"ern opinions from fa"ts. As a result the4 do not learn ho( to pose Juestions a'out the past@
somethin/ that is a prereJuisite for the development of "riti"al thin&in/. A""ordin/ to the /eneral /oals stated in the histor4
s4lla'us for the /4mnhsio@ students are e8pe"ted to learn that "iviliIation is a "olle"tive endeavorH that (e are inde'ted to the past and responsi'le
for the present and the futureH that histori"al events are "onne"ted '4 "ausal relationshipsH that investi/atin/ motives helps us ma&e de"isionsH and
that "iviliIation is an e8pression of the (a4 people in ea"h era have rea"ted to the (orld around them C,inistr4 of <ational !du"ation and
Reli/ion 199*G*1-3D. ,ore spe"ifi" o'#e"tives of the "urri"ulum in"ludeG introdu"in/ students to histori"al sour"esH introdu"in/ them to the
9ree& tradition and the pro'lems of "ontemporar4 ;ellenismH developin/ an a(areness of ;elleni" "ontinuit4)H tea"hin/ the differen"es
'et(een various forms of /overnment and familiariIin/ students (ith demo"ra"4H and finall4@ "ultivatin/ /enuine national pride.) ;istor4 is
tau/ht for three hours a (ee& in the first 4ear of the /4mnhsio@ t(o hours a (ee& in the se"ond 4ear@ and t(o hours a (ee& in the third 4earH it
'e/ins in prehistori" times and "ontinues throu/h 9ree"e6s #oinin/ the !!C@ re"ent events in C4prus@ and the Ae/ean Juestion. >he
instru"tions on tea"hin/ methods for histor4 "ourses in the /4mnhsio stress that issues related to the evaluation and interpretation
of sour"es should not 'e emphasiIed. Sour"es should onl4 'e used to do"ument) the lessons C,inistr4 of <ational !du"ation and
Reli/ion 199*G-0-*D. In other (ords@ it is "onsidered unne"essar4 for students to 'e"ome a"Juainted (ith the most
essential pro)lem of histori"al resear$h @ namel4@ that histori"al sour$es do not spea( for themselves )ut must )e
e8plained and $orro)oratedC and that the5 are open to multiple and sometimes $onfli$tin0 interpretations.
Several differen"es 'et(een the primar4 s"hool "urri"ulum and the one desi/ned for the /4mnhsio are immediatel4 apparent. A""ordin/ to the
e8pli"itl4 stated /oals@ primar4 s"hool histor4 "ourses are more responsi'le for shapin/ attitudes and "ultivatin/ national "ons"iousness@ (hile at
the /4mnhsio level /reater importan"e is pla"ed on tea"hin/ students ho( to thin& histori"all4. >hese differen"es refle"t prevailin/ vie(s in
9ree"e on the a'ilities of different student a/e /roups to "omprehend fundamental histori"al "on"epts CAvdela 1993G1091*1D. At an4 rate@
thin&in/ histori"all4 is e8"lusivel4 understood at 'oth levels of "ompulsor4 edu"ation as re"o/niIin/ "ausal relationships 'et(een histori"al
events. <o referen"e is made to different methods of histori"al resear"h@ to the importan"e of interpretation@ or to the "omple8ities of the sour"es
themselves. In other (ords@ tea"hin/ students to thin& histori"all4 is not treated as an end in itself 'ut "ompletel4 serves the main o'#e"tives of
national edu"ation. >he essential pi"ture that emer/es from the primar4 s"hool and /4mnhsio "urri"ula is that the main purpose of histor4
"ourses is the development of national "ons"iousness@ ethi"al "ondu"t@ and "itiIenship. Se"ondaril4@ and seemin/l4 unrelated to their
main purpose@ histor4 "ourses are also assi/ned the tas&s of impartin/ some &no(led/e of histor4@ tea"hin/ students ho( to thin& histori"all4@
"ultivatin/ interest in the stud4 of histor4@ and familiariIin/ students (ith the te"hniJues of histori"al resear"h. >hese t(o opposin/ tenden"ies
are a'le to "oe8ist in the s4lla'us throu/h the sele"tion of histori"al events and interpretations that advan"e the main o'#e"tives of national
edu"ation. As a result@ histor4 'e"omes eJuated in the minds of the students (ith the one@ sin/le truth presented in the
s4lla'us and the te8t'oo&sH the various dis"ussions a'out different histori"al methods@ not to mention the elementar4 prin"iples of s"ientifi"
histori"al resear"h@ are simpl4 i/nored. >hus@ more than an4 other s"hool su'#e"t@ the stud4 of histor4 has 'e"ome a simple matter of
memoriIation@ a fa"t that is (ell eviden"ed '4 repeated offi"ial instru"tions ur/in/ the "ontrar4. Students are simpl4 not /iven the opportunit4
to understand ho( histori"al &no(led/e is produ"ed or ho( the stud4 of histor4 is "ontinuall4 advan"ed '4 ne( findin/s that either add to or
revise previous "on"lusions. >hus the4 do not learn ho( to distin/uish fa"t from opinion@ ho( to or/aniIe or en/a/e in s4stemati" inJuir4@
ho( to "ross-"he"& and "orro'orate fa"ts @ or ho( to distin/uish 'et(een the presentation of "on"lusions and their do"umentation.
12
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to #pistemolo05&-ethods 1
st
$ont7
@ A Criti$al thin(in0 vital to edu$ation
>$hudi 744
CStephen >"hudi -- professor of !n/lish at the ?niversit4 of <evada@ Reno@ >he !n/lish Aournal@ Eol. 22@ <o. 1. CAan.@ 1933D@ pp. **--0
AS>ORD
>here is also a dan/erous impli"ation in the 'otaniIed approa"h that thin&in/ s&ills are dis"rete@ that the4 "an
'e tau/ht in isolation@ and that master4 of isolated s&ills "an enhan"e total performan"e. >his is the
Juestion of tea"hin/ '4 parts or (holes@ and it is one (e have de'ated for man4 4ears in lan/ua/e instru"tion. 7o (e have students
pra"ti"e isolated senten"e s&ills or "reate (hole pie"es of (ritin/L 7o (e as& them to pra"ti"e phoni"s and vo"a'ular4 or to read real literature for
meanin/L 7o (e offer dis"ourse forms or have students e8perien"e the pro"ess of (ritin/L >he dis"rete s&ills model "alls for the
tea"her to instru"t in identifia'le su's&ills or su'routines@ (hile the holisti" model "alls for tea"hin/ as a (a4
of aidin/@ a'ettin/@ assistin/@ fosterin/@ and "atal4Iin/ a naturalisti" /ro(th pattern. Certainl4 the /reat 'ul& of
resear"h in lan/ua/e and lan/ua/e learnin/ of the past several de"ades@ indeed@ of mu"h of this "entur4@ points in the dire"tion of
lan/ua/e learnin/ as a holisti" pro"ess. Of "ourse@ one need not ta&e an a'solutist position on holism versus s&ill instru"tion@ and
man4 tea"hers ar/ue for a middle /round or a /olden mean that in"ludes (hole e8perien"es (hile developin/ ne"essar4 s&ills. %ut (hat middle
/roundL +hose /olden meanL ?nfortunatel4@ the lan/ua/e of "ompromise) "an have a motherhood and apple piet4 rin/ to it that fails to
advan"e the dis"ussion@ to /enuinel4 resolve oppositions. >he same de'ate@ parts versus (holes@ (ill provide the fo"us for mu"h dis"ussion of
"riti"al thin&in/ in the immediate future. ;o( did 7ann4 learn his "riti"al s&ills in ru/'4L ;o( do 4oun/sters Cand oldstersD "ome to master
"riti"al thin&in/ s&illsL +hat roles "an tea"hers pla4 in the pro"essL ,ortimer Adler has prodded m4 thin&in/ on thin&in/ in an !du"ation +ee&
essa4@ +h4 TCriti"al >hin&in/6 5ro/rams +on6t +or&.) ;e "omments@ ;o( are... intelle"tual ha'its of s&ill developedL !8a"tl4 in the same
(a4 that all 'odil4 ha'its of s&ill are developedG '4 "oa"hin/@ not '4 dida"ti" instru"tion usin/ te8t'oo&s that state rules to 'e follo(ed. C*3D ;e
/oes on to des"ri'e his e8perien"es tea"hin/ te8t'oo& lo/i" at Colum'ia and Chi"a/o universities onl4 to dis"over that the students (ho (ere
a'le to /et hi/h mar&s in a lo/i" "ourse did not turn out to 'e students (ho@ as a result of that@ sho(ed themselves a'le to thin& "riti"all4 in their
other "ourses.) >he &e4 point in Adler6s ar/ument@ one that "an provide us (ith a middle /round@ (hether that /round) is the ru/'4 field or the
intelle"tual arena@ is that form) in thin&in/ is not separa'le from "ontent) >here is no su"h thin/ as thin&in/ in and of itself. All the thin&in/
an4 of us do is thin&in/ a'out one su'#e"t matter or another@ or it is the thin&in/ (e do in the pro"ess of performin/ other a"ts of mind. C*3D
>hin&in/ s&ills are not separate from the e8perien"es:per"eptual@ "o/nitive@ affe"tive:(hi"h the4 a""ompan4. =rom his "on"rete e8perien"es
(ith ru/'4@ 7ann4 has developed the ela'orate "riti"al thin&in/ patterns (hi"h 7avid Ireland des"ri'ed. =rom their diverse e8perien"es seein/
the (orld around them@ meditatin/ a'out its si/nifi"an"e@ and movin/ from idea into a"tion@ people develop po(erful thin&in/ s&ills. =rom
pra"ti"e thin&in/ a'out real "on"erns Ca pra"ti"e that is ine8tri"a'l4 'ound to lan/ua/eD students learn to thin&. At its 'est@ holisti" thin&in/
pra"ti"e leads to (hat I "all Cand (hat 7ann4 demonstratesD invisi'le thin&in/:inte/rated@ ima/inative@ spontaneous@
responsive "riti"al anal4sis that is insepara'le from its "ontent and thus does not "all attention to itself. ,ost students "ome to s"hool
doin/ some invisi'le thin&in/ C(hi"h is not to 'e "onfused (ith none8istent thin&in/D a'out the matters that are uppermost in their mindsG their
musi"@ their media@ their personal relationships@ their ph4si"al and emotional needs and interests. A ma#or tas& of tea"hin/ thin&in/
in the s"hools is to e8tend the ran/e of that invisi'le@) naturalisti" thin&in/ to other areas@ dra(in/ on the tea"her6s s&ill as
an intelle"tual "oa"h@ and re"o/niIin/ that this /ro(th ta&es pla"e lar/el4 throu/h lan/ua/e.
13
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Aff K Core
#8perts 9ood
@ A #8perts are (e5 to effe$tive ris( $al$ulus
MertB)er0erC 91
5rofessor at the 7epartment of International Relations@ the ;e're( ?niversit4 of Aerusalem@ Israel Caa"ov . I.
EertI'er/er@ Aune 1990@ Rethin&in/ and Re"on"eptualiIin/ Ris& in =orei/n 5oli"4 7e"ision-,a&in/G A
So"io"o/nitive Approa"h)@ 5oliti"al 5s4"holo/4@ Eol. 11@ <o. *@ pp. -.2--30@ httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$-2913-0D
Ris& in =orei/n 5oli"4 7e"ision-,a&in/ issues@ su"h as environmental haIards@ (here the4 per"eive these "riteria as relevant. In person-
'ased validation@ "onfiden"e is rooted in the individual (ho is the sour"e of the &no(led/e. >he user does not "are
a'out ho( &no(led/e (as /enerated@ 'ut (ho is disseminatin/ it. Confiden"e in a parti"ular person ma4 derive from several
sour"esG innate Jualities Cli&e "harismaDH affe"tive Jualities Csu"h as li&in/DH past e8perien"e Cthe person has proven himself in the past to 'e
"redi'leDH an esta'lished relationship Ca lon/-time friendD@ and other reasons. >he third sour"e of "onfiden"e is 'elief-'ased validation. In this
"ase@ &no(led/e that "onforms or is "on/ruent (ith important 'eliefs of the user (ill 'e "onsidered as valid@ even if
the &no(led/e is methodolo/i"all4 fla(ed. In this "ase@ the identit4 of the person deliverin/ the &no(led/e is of
little "onseJuen"e to the user. Ideolo/ues@ su"h as former 5resident Ronald Rea/an@ are in"lined to use this validation "riterion. >hus
Rea/anFs "onfiden"e in the e8a//erated assess-ments that there (as a hi/h pro'a'ilit4 that a ,ar8ist re/ime in 9renada (ould pose a hi/h threat
to the ?nited States (as 'elief-'ased. It stemmed from his intense 'elief in the evil motives drivin/ su"h re/imes and their unavoida'le
su'ordination to the interest of the Soviet ?nion. >he fourth and least important sour"e is situation-'ased validation. ;ere "onte8t determines the
relia'ilit4 of &no(led/e@ (hi"h is applied (hen the o'server distrusts his or her information sour"es. Situation-'ased validation is 'ased on the
premise that in parti"ular situations the information either "annot 'e manipulated and therefore "an 'e trusted or the sour"e of information has no
in"entive to manipulate information 'e"ause the "osts are too hi/h or the /ains are mar/inal. %ein/ "o/nitive misers@ people tend to
devise a hierar"h4 of their most preferred to least preferred validation "riteria. Aud/ment of the relia'ilit4 of value
and pro'a'ilit4 assessments (ill relate to this hierar"h4. 7e"ision-ma&ers (ill start '4 appl4in/ their most preferred
"riterion. If the most preferred "riterion "annot 'e applied in their #ud/ment of relia'ilit4@ the4 (ill pro"eed to the
ne8t level in the hierar"h4@ and so on@ movin/ do(n the list of preferen"es@ ea"h step representin/ a lo(er level of
"onfiden"e. 5referen"e for one sour"e of validation over another has important impli"ations for the in"rease or de"rease of "onfiden"e levels
over time. !pistemi"-'ased validation has 'uilt-in rules for dis"reditin/ or falsif4in/ "urrentl4 held assessments. 5erson-'ased validation
(ill "han/e (hen there is diminished trust in a parti"ular person or (hen a hi/hl4 re/arded person provides
invalidatin/ information. %elief-'ased validation is the most diffi"ult to dis"redit 'e"ause 'eliefs@ espe"iall4 "ore
'eliefs@ "han/e ver4 slo(l4. 5ra"ti"all4 the onl4 Jui"& (a4 of "onvin"in/ a de"ision-ma&er rel4in/ on 'elief-'ased
validation to "han/e is '4 reframin/ the information in a manner that (ill "onvin"e the de"ision-ma&er that it is not
"on/ruent an4 lon/er (ith his or her 'eliefs@ or that the preferen"e for relian"e on 'elief-'ased validation (as an
error.
@ A #8perts *ill ma(e )etter predi$tions
Doremus 93
M5rofessor of Ba( at the ?niversit4 of California@ ;oll4@ KArti"leG Bistin/ de"isions under the endan/ered spe"ies
a"tG (h4 'etter s"ien"e isnFt al(a4s 'etter poli"4@K =all 92@ 20 +ash. ?. B. R. 10*9@ Be8isN
;un"hes and in"ompletel4 "onfirmed intuitions are 'oth less o'#e"tive and less relia'le than theories (hi"h have 'een stron/l4 "onfirmed '4
empiri"al data. <onetheless@ #ust as the4 have a role in the s"ientifi" pro"ess@ the4 have value for poli"4ma&ers. In parti"ular@ the hun"hes of
s"ientists ma4 represent the most relia'le ans(er availa'le to Juestions (hi"h have not 4et 'een tested@ or (hi"h for
some reason "annot 'e tested at this time.
n*12
Mb102*N <either s"ientists nor la4persons "an &no( the ans(ers to su"h
Juestions (ith an4 de/ree of "ertaint4. >here is /ood reason to 'elieve@ ho(ever@ that the edu"ated intuitions of
s"ientists ma4 prove more trust(orth4 than the /uesses of non-e8perts.
n*13
=or one thin/@ su""essful s"ientists are li&el4
to have developed spe"ial o'servational s&ills in their area of e8pertise. n*19 >heir "hoi"e of "areer demonstrates a
po(erful personal interest li&el4 to motivate "areful@ insi/htful o'servation@ n**0 and their su""ess at that "areer
depends in part upon their a'ilit4 to distin/uish relia'le data and theories (orth4 of further pursuit from unrelia'le
data and unprodu"tive theories.
n**1
In addition@ e8perts in the field (ill 'e more familiar than the la4 pu'li" (ith the 'a"&/round
&no(led/e a/ainst (hi"h novel data and theories must 'e interpreted.
n***

19
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
#8perts 9ood
>he use of e8perts in spe$ifi$ fields serves to fa$ilitate dis$ussion of relative pro)a)ilities
and rational poli$5ma(in0. >his *ill )e a)le to solve transnational pro)lems that $onfront
$iviliBation.
=is$herC 94
5rofessor of 5oliti"al S"ien"e at Rut/ers ?niversit4 C=ran&@ %!O<7 !,5IRICIS,G 5OBIC I<R?IR I<
5OS>5OSI>IEIS> 5!RS5!C>IE!)@ 5u'lished in 5oli"4 Studies Aournal@ Eol. *1. <o.1 CSprin/@ 1993DG 1*9-1.1 $$
=irst@ a deli'erative model of poli"4 anal4sis e8tends the anal4ti" /oal 'e4ond the te"hni"al effi"ien"4 of the
/overnin/ institutions to in"lude an assessment of the politi"al interests and needs of the lar/er politi"al "ommunit4.
=rom this perspe"tive@ the politi"al "ommunit4 is inha'ited '4 "itiIens (ho Klive in a (e' of interdependen"ies@ lo4alties@
and asso"iationsK in (hi"h Kthe4 envision and fi/ht for the pu'li" interest as (ell as their individual interestsK CStone
1933GviiD. ?nli&e most "ontemporar4 poli"4 anal4sis@ the postpositivist approa"h (ould not Kta&e individual preferen"es as
F/ivenF...'ut (ould instead have to a""ount for (here people /et their ima/es of the (orld and ho( the4 shape their
preferen"es.K >hat is@ in "ontrast to the mainstream approa"h (hi"h provides no meanin/ful (a4 of tal&in/ a'out ho(
people fi/ht over visions of the pu'li" or "ommunit4 interest@ a postpositivist approa"h emphasiIes dis"ourse as Ka
"reative and valua'le feature of so"ial e8isten"eK CStone 1933G.D. Ideas thus move to the $enter of poli$5 evaluation.
>he4 are the fundamental media of all politi"al "onfli"tsH the4 ma&e possi'le the shared meanin/s and assumptions
that motivate people to a"tion and (eld individual strivin/ into "olle"tive "auses CRei"h 1933D. 6oli$5ma(in0@ 'ased on
strate/i"all4 "rafted ar/uments@ is thus re$on$eived as a $onstant stru00le over the ver5 ideas that 0uide the *a5s
$itiBens and poli$5 anal5sts thin( and )ehave@ the )oundaries of politi$al $ate0oriesC and the $riteria of
$lassifi$ation--(hat Aohn =orester and I C1932D have else*here $alled the Hpoliti$s of $riteria.K %asi" to this approa"h must 'e
the re"o/nition that anal4ti"al "on"epts are themselves 'ased on politi"al "laims and "annot 'e /ranted privile/ed status. %e"ause poli"4
ideas are ar/uments that favor different (a4s of seein/ and relatin/ to so"ial pro'lems@ their evaluation must
in$lude an assessment of their transformational impa$ts on the thou0ht and deli)erations of the politi$al
$ommunit5. >he endurin0 ideas of politi$s@ offerin/ "riteria into (hi"h "itiIens read "ompetin/s meanin/s@ serve as measures
a0ainst *hi$h $ommunit5 aspirations are interpreted and %ud0ed. >he #o' of the anal4st is to tease out the normative
"onfli"ts lur&in/ 'ehind the often eJuall4 plausi'le interpretations of the same a'stra"t /oal or value. In the pro"ess@ various modes of definin/
poli"4 pro'lems have to 'e re"o/niIed as "ompetin/ lan/ua/es in (hi"h people offer and defend "onfli"tin/ interpretations C7anIi/er 1990H
Stone 1933D. In parti"ular@ attention has to )e paid to $onte8t. As ;eale4 C199-G*-3D (rites@ K&no(led/e for a"tion@ prin"iples of
a"tion@ and (a4s of &no(in/ are a"tivel4 "onstituted in the parti"ularities of time and pla"e.K K9oodK and Kri/htK a"tions are Kthose (e "an "ome
to a/ree on@ in parti"ular times and pla"es@ a"ross our diverse differen"es in material "onditions and (ants@ moral perspe"tives@ and e8pressive
"ultures and in"linations.K >he fundamental 0oal of su$h poli$5 anal5sis $an )e reformulated as dis$overin0 *a5s of
Hlivin0 to0ether differentl5 )ut respe$tfull5H C;eale4 199-G *-3D !spe"iall4 important@ in this vie(@ is the need to rethin& the
relationships of the roles of the anal4sts@ "itiIens and the de"ision ma&ers. As "riti"al studies of so"ial epistemolo/4 ma&e "lear@ a more
sophisti"ated understandin/ of the nature of an open and demo"rati" e8"han/e must "onfront the need to 'rin/ these roles to/ether in a mutual
e8ploration. !8perts must esta'lish a parti"ipator4 or "olla'orative relationship (ith the "itiIen$"lient C;a(&es(orth@ 1933H S"hon@ 193-H ;eale4
1992D. ,ethodolo/i"all4@ an approa"h "apa'le of fa"ilitatin/ the &ind of open dis"ussion essential to a parti"ipator4 "onte8t is needed. Su"h a
method (ould provide a format and a set of pro"edures for or/aniIin/ the intera"tions 'et(een poli"4 e8perts and the la4 "itiIens that the4 see&
to assist. Al'eit in Juite different (a4s@ (riters su"h deBeon C199*D@ 7urnin/ C199-D@ Baird C199-D and =is"her C1990D have "alled for su"h a
Kparti"ipator4 poli"4 anal4sis.K In this formulation@ the e8pert serves as Hfa$ilitatorH of pu)li$ learnin0 and politi$al
empo*erment. Rather than providin/ te"hni"al ans(ers desi/ned to 'rin/ politi"al dis"ussions to an end@ the tas( of the anal5sts-as-
fa$ilitator-is to assist $itiBens in their efforts to e8amine their o*n interests and to ma(e their o*n de$isions
C=is"her 1990H Cald(ell 1920D. >he fa$ilitator see(s to inte0rate the pro$ess of evaluation *ith the empiri$al
reGuirements of te$hni$al anal5sis. %rin/in/ to/ether the anal4ti"al perspe"tives of so"ial s"ien"e and the "ompetin/ normative
ar/uments of the relevant parti"ipant in the poli"4ma&in/ pro"ess@ the intera"tion "an 'e li&ened to a "onversation in (hi"h the horiIons of 'oth
"itiIens and so"ial s"ientists are e8tended throu/h a mutual dialo/ue C7r4Ie& 193*D.
20
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#8perts 9ood:S$ien$e
#8pert predi$tions in s$ien$e matter:use of unGualified eviden$e $reates sufferin0 and
poor de$isionma(in0 models.
>re*avasC 4
5rofessor ,ole"ular and Cell %iolo/4 CAnthon4@ ?. !din'ur/h@ and =ello( of Ro4al So"iet4@ and +inner of the
Ameri"an So"iet4 for 5lant %iolo/ists Correspondin/ ,em'ership@ >rends in %iote"hnolo/4@ >he "ult of the
amateur in a/ri"ulture threatens food se"urit4)@ *1G9@ S"ien"e7ire"t $$
>he pu'li"ation of TSilent Sprin/6@ a misleadin/ polemi" a'out pesti"ides Cspe"ifi"all4 77>D '4 Ra"hel Carson sa( the start of
opposition to "onventional a/ri"ulture M2N. ;er &no(led/e of to8i"olo/4@ (hi"h (as the real su'#e"t of her 'oo&@ (as
poorH unsurprisin/ 'e"ause she (as a"tuall4 a marine 'iolo/ist. ;o(ever@ her messa/e of fear@ despite her mar/inal Jualifi"ation@
appealed to a se"tion of the pu'li"@ (ho (ere even less Jualified 'ut stron/l4 opinionated. As a result of minorit4
a/itation@ 'ans (ere imposed on 77> use. >he disastrous "onseJuen"e (as an enormous resur/en"e of malaria in
developin/ and third (orld "ountries (here it had 'een virtuall4 eliminated and the asso"iated premature deaths of
man4 millions of third (orld "hildren M3N. >hat is the true Carson memorial. >he (estern environmental a"tivists (hose
thou/htless a/itation (as responsi'le for implementation of the 'an have never sho(n sorro( or "ontrition. ,oderation of 77> use
(ould have 'een a more sensi'le "ourse of a"tion. 77> is an or/ano-halo/en and remar&a'l4 non-to8i" to man&ind 'ut supposedl4
'anned 'e"ause of its 'ioa""umulation. >here are at least -300 or/ano-halo/ens made naturall4 '4 marine or/anismsG some even have "hemi"al
stru"tures similar to "urrentl4 used fire retardants M9N and M10N. Some of these natural or/ano-halo/ens 'ioa""umulate throu/h marine food "hains
and have even 'een dete"ted in human 'reast mil&. +hat ne8t@ 'an natureL ,an&ind values (hat is s"ar"e. An a'undan"e of "heap@ nutritious
food from the late 1910s on(ards produ"ed /overnment and pu'li" indifferen"e. 9overnments had de"ided food se"urit4 (as solved and need no
lon/er 'e their "on"ern. ConseJuentl4@ a/ri"ultural resear"h fundin/ (as slashed@ institutes (ere "losed and related universit4 "ourses a'andoned.
>e"hnolo/i"al advan"es (ere no lon/er defended a/ainst environmental a/itation. It (as Jui"&l4 for/otten that the prime aim of a/ri"ulture (as
to /ro( food and provide food se"urit4. Earious environmental /roups moved to fill the va"uum left '4 /overnment and to
/et their (a4@ traffi"&ed in fear. >here had al(a4s 'een env4 amon/st these environmentalist /roups of the status
a""orded to s"ientifi" &no(led/e@ and the aim (as to repla"e it (ith poli"ies 'ased on their o(n fears and i/noran"e.
>o promote or/ani" a/ri"ulture@ for e8ample@ it (as "laimed that s4ntheti" pesti"ide tra"es CT"hemi"als6D (ere dan/erous@ "itin/ 'iolo/i"al effe"ts
o'served in test animals at amounts not@ vert@ similar1 million times hi/her than present in foodstuffs. >hose (ho a/itate a'out pesti"ides "an list
the names of the pesti"ide tra"es in their food do(n to the femto-mole level. %ut the name of an4 natural pesti"ide es"apes them. ;i/her plants
s4nthesiIe an estimated 100 000 natural pesti"ides Crepresentin/ 10S of the dr4 (ei/htD that effi"ientl4 &ill inse"t her'ivores 11 %.<. Ames and
B.S. 9old@ 5ara"elsus to paras"ien"eG the environmental "an"er distra"tion@ ,utat. Res. ..2 C*000D@ pp. -1-. Arti"le i 57= C10- KD i Eie(
Re"ord in S"opus i Cited %4 in S"opus C.2DM11N@ M1*N and M1-N and o""asionall4 humans M1.N. ,an4 of these have 'een e8tra"ted@ and (hen tested
li&e s4ntheti" pesti"ides are eJuall4 to8i". >he avera/e fruit and ve/eta'le diet "ontains numerous nerve to8ins@ "ar"ino/ens@ terato/ens@
oestro/en mimi"s@ "lasto/ens@ ps4"hoa"tive "hemi"als and other "hemi"als that dama/e 'lood@ th4roid and s&inH similar if not identi"al in a"tion
to the 'iolo/i"al effe"ts of s4ntheti" pesti"ides. %ut at *- /m$da4 in the avera/e diet@ these natural "hemi"als out(ei/h the s4ntheti" tra"es '4 at
least *0 000-fold. !nvironmentalist /roups "laim there are possi'le health effe"ts of a T"o"&tail6 of s4ntheti" pesti"ides. %ut sin"e ea"h "rop
spe"ies s4nthesiIes its o(n uniJue natural pesti"ide mi8ture@ the natural ris& is man4 orders of ma/nitude hi/her. 5u'li" and a"tivist "on"ern is
li&e (orr4in/ a'out a "old (hen e'ola is rife. >he politi"al response to a/itation (as to "onstru"t re/ulations@ 'ut this onl4
hei/htened "on"ern (here it didn6t e8ist 'eforeH food must "ontain somethin/ dan/erous no( it had to 'e re/ulated.
+hat (as needed instead (as leadership to assert the prima"4 of &no(led/e over opinionated i/noran"e.
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#8perts 9ood:6osner 6rodi$t
@ A 6osner pro-di$t.
,iener P1
CAonathan %.@ 5er&ins 5rofessor of Ba(@ !nvironmental 5oli"4@ and 5u'li" 5oli"4 at 7u&e ?niversit4@ and a
?niversit4 =ello( of Resour"es for the =uture@ %oo& Revie(G CatastropheG Ris& and ResponseH CollapseG ;o(
so"ieties "hoose to fail or su""eed)@ Aournal of 5u'li" Anal4sis and ,ana/ement@ Autumn@ Eolume *.@ Issue .@ pp.
330-9D
>he most important Jualit4 of these t(o 'oo&s@ ho(ever@ is neither the spe"ifi" ris&s the4 assess nor the spe"ifi" remedies the4 favor. It is
that serious@ thou/htful e8perts are sa4in/ that (orr4in/ a'out disaster is not "raI4. 7oomsa4ers are t4pi- "all4 dismissed as
fanati"s on the left Climits-to-/ro(th alarmists "r4in/ (olfD or on the ri/ht Creli/ious Iealots (ho ma4 even invite the endD. ;oll4(ood depi"tions
of asteroid "ollisions and other disasters ma&e them seem sill4 to the pu'li". ,i"hael Cri"hton@ (ho has made a "areer of 'oo&s that h4pe
impro'a'le "alamities@ has #ust (ritten a novel "omplete (ith appendi"es to attempt to de'un& the alarmists. %ut 5osner and 7iamond do
not fit these e8tremist "ari"atures. >heir te8ts are detailed and so'er. <either is a ludditeH 5osner as"ri'es some
ris&s to rapid te"hnolo/i"al "han/e@ 'ut others he studies@ su"h as asteroids@ are not "aused '4 te"hnolo/4 C'ut (ill
reJuire te"hnolo/i"al solutionsD. 7iamond is (orried a'out so"ial ri/idit4 in the fa"e of "han/e. 5osner is a "onservative
e8ponent of la( and e"onomi"s (ho is ar/uin/ that the ris&s of "atastrophe@ in"ludin/ a'rupt /lo'al "limate "han/e C(hi"h some "onservatives
have la'eled a hoa8)D@ are (orth redu"in/@ even at si/nifi"ant "ost. >hat posture is espe"iall4 persuasive pre"isel4 'e"ause it is not (hat narro(-
minded pi/eon-holers (ould e8pe"t. It is the "ounterpart to a moderate-to-li'eral #urist (ritin/ a 'oo& ar/uin/ that the "osts of ris& re/ulation
are (orth redu"in/: namel4@ the 'oo& %rea&in/ the Ei"ious Cir"le@ (ritten '4 Austi"e Stephen %re4er in 199-. %oth %re4er and 5osner are
pra/matists (ho (ish pu'li" de"isionma&ers (ould (ei/h the e8pe"ted "onseJuen"es of their a"tions. Still@ 7iamond6s and 5osner6s
ar/uments are open to some Juestions. 5osner6s %CA methods are often Jui"& and "rude@ as noted a'ove. 7iamond6s resear"h fo"uses
mainl4 on islands@ (hi"h ma4 not 'e /eneraliIa'le to modern open e"onomies inte/rated into (orld trade and politi"s Cthou/h perhaps the4
/eneraliIe to the !arth as an islandD. >he "laim that people tend to disre/ard lo(-pro'a'ilit4@ hi/h-"onseJuen"e ris&s:(hi"h
forms a &e4 part of 5osner6s ar/ument in Chapter *:is "ompli"ated Cas 5osner mentions in Chapter -D '4 resear"h '4 5aul Slovi"@ !l&e
+e'er@ and others findin/ that people sometimes ne/le"t routine Chi/h-pro'a- 'ilit4D ris&s and overstate rare and dreaded ris&s.
2*
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A-to #8tin$tion K
@ A Despite ever5 fla* in $al$ulatin0 ris( of human e8isten$eC *e are still ri0htJ 5ou have to
*ei0h survival as an a priori Guestion and s$ulpt deli)erate poli$ies to prote$t humanit5.
-athen5 P3
MAason@ 7epartment of ;ealth 5oli"4 and ,ana/ement@ %loom'er/ S"hool of 5u'li" ;ealth@ Aohns ;op&ins ?niversit4. Redu"in/ the Ris& of
;uman !8tin"tion.) )isk 3nalysis. Eol *2@ <o 0@ *002@ httpG$$(((.upm"-'iose"urit4.or/$(e'site$resour"es$pu'li"ations$*002dori/-
arti"les$*002-10-10-redu"in/ris&.htmlN
9. Con"lusion +e ma4 'e poorl4 eJuipped to re"o/niIe or plan for e8tin"tion ris&s Cud&o(s&4@ *002D. +e ma4 not 'e
/ood at /raspin/ the si/nifi"an"e of ver4 lar/e num'ers C"atastrophi" out"omesD or ver4 small num'ers Cpro'a'ilitiesD
over lar/e timeframes. +e stru//le (ith estimatin/ the pro'a'ilities of rare or unpre"edented events CKunreuther et al.@ *001D.
5oli"4ma&ers ma4 not plan far 'e4ond "urrent politi"al administrations and rarel4 do ris& assessments value the
e8isten"e of future /enerations.13 +e ma4 un#ustifia'l4 dis"ount the value of future lives. =inall4@ e8tin"tion ris&s are
mar&et failures (here an individual en#o4s no per"epti'le 'enefit from his or her investment in ris& redu"tion. ;uman survival ma5 thus
)e a 0ood reGuirin0 deli)erate poli$ies to prote$t. It mi/ht 'e feared that "onsideration of e8tin"tion ris&s (ould lead to a reductio
ad absurdumG (e ou/ht to invest all our resour"es in asteroid defense or nu"lear disarmament@ instead of AI7S@ pollution@ (orld hun/er@ or other
pro'lems (e fa"e toda4. On the "ontrar4@ pro/rams that "reate a health4 and "ontent /lo'al population are li&el4 to redu"e
the pro'a'ilit4 of /lo'al (ar or "atastrophi" terrorism. >he4 should thus 'e seen as an essential part of a portfolio of
ris&-redu"in/ pro#e"ts.
2-
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to #8tin$tion K
@ A ,e a0ree that assessin0 the ris( of e8tin$tion is diffi$ult and potentiall5 impossi)le:
ho*ever it7s ne$essar5 to evaluate the de)ate in a ma0nitude times pro)a)ilit5 frame*or(.
;uman e8tin$tion must )e evaluated.
-athen5 P3
MAason@ 7epartment of ;ealth 5oli"4 and ,ana/ement@ %loom'er/ S"hool of 5u'li" ;ealth@ Aohns ;op&ins ?niversit4. Redu"in/ the Ris& of
;uman !8tin"tion.) )isk 3nalysis. Eol *2@ <o 0@ *002@ httpG$$(((.upm"-'iose"urit4.or/$(e'site$resour"es$pu'li"ations$*002dori/-
arti"les$*002-10-10-redu"in/ris&.htmlN
In this arti"le@ I dis"uss a su'set of "atastrophi" events:those that "ould e8tin/uish humanit4.1 It is onl4 in the last "entur4@ (ith the invention of
nu"lear (eapons@ that some of these events "an 'e 'oth "aused and prevented '4 human a"tion. +hile e8tin"tion events ma5 )e ver5
impro)a)le @ their "onseJuen"es are so /rave that it "ould 'e "ost effe"tive to prevent them . A sear"h of !"onBit and the
So"ial S"ien"es Citation Inde8 su//ests that virtuall4 nothin/ has 'een (ritten a'out the "ost effe"tiveness of redu"in/
human e8tin"tion ris&s.* ,a4'e this is 'e"ause human e8tin"tion seems impossi'le@ inevita'le@ or@ in either "ase@
'e4ond our "ontrolH ma4'e human e8tin"tion seems in"onseJuential "ompared to the other so"ial issues to (hi"h "ost-
effe"tiveness anal4sis has 'een appliedH or ma4'e the methodolo/i"al and philosophi"al pro'lems involved seem insupera'le. Certainl4@ the
pro'lems are intimidatin/. %e"ause human e8tin"tion is unpre"edented@ spe"ulations a'out ho( and (hen it "ould o""ur are hi/hl4 su'#e"tive. >o
effi"ientl4 spend resour"es in redu"in/ e8tin"tion ris&s@ one needs to estimate the pro'a'ilities of parti"ular e8tin"tion events@
the e8pe"ted duration of humanit4 in an event6s a'sen"e@ the "osts of e8tin"tion "ountermeasures@ and the relative
value of "urrent and future human lives. ;ere@ I outline ho( one mi/ht 'e/in to address these pro'lems. *. ;umanit46s Bife !8pe"tan"4
+e have some influen"e over ho( lon/ (e "an dela4 human e8tin"tion. Cosmolo/4 di"tates the upper limit 'ut leaves a lar/e field of pla4. At its
lo(er limit@ humanit4 "ould 'e e8tin/uished as soon as this "entur4 '4 su""um'in/ to near-term e8tin"tion ris&sG nu"lear detonations@ asteroid or
"omet impa"ts@ or vol"ani" eruptions "ould /enerate enou/h atmospheri" de'ris to terminate food produ"tionH a near'4 supernova or /amma ra4
'urst "ould steriliIe !arth (ith deadl4 radiationH /reenhouse /as emissions "ould tri//er a positive feed'a"& loop@ "ausin/ a radi"al "han/e in
"limateH a /eneti"all4 en/ineered mi"ro'e "ould 'e unleashed@ "ausin/ a /lo'al pla/ueH or a hi/h ener/4 ph4si"s e8periment "ould /o a(r4@
"reatin/ a true va"uum) or stran/elets that destro4 the planet C%ostrom@ *00*H %ostrom V Cir&ovi"@ *002H Beslie@ 1991H 5osner@ *00.H Rees@
*00-D. =arther out in time are ris&s from te"hnolo/ies that remain theoreti"al 'ut mi/ht 'e developed in the ne8t "entur4 or "enturies. =or
instan"e@ self-repli"atin/ nanote"hnolo/ies "ould destro4 the e"os4stemH and "o/nitive enhan"ements or re"ursivel4 self-improvin/ "omputers
"ould e8"eed normal human in/enuit4 to "reate uniJuel4 po(erful (eapons C%ostrom@ *00*H %ostrom V Cir&ovi"@ *002H I&le@ *001H Ao4@ *000H
Beslie@ 1991H 5osner@ *00.H Rees@ *00-D. =arthest out in time are astronomi"al ris&s. In one 'illion 4ears@ the sun (ill 'e/in its red /iant sta/e@
in"reasin/ terrestrial temperatures a'ove 1@000 de/rees@ 'oilin/ off our atmosphere@ and eventuall4 formin/ a planetar4 ne'ula@ ma&in/ !arth
inhospita'le to life CSa"&mann@ %oothro4d@ V Kraemer@ 199-H +ard V %ro(nlee@ *00*D. If (e "oloniIe other solar s4stems@ (e "ould survive
lon/er than our sun@ perhaps another 100 trillion 4ears@ (hen all stars 'e/in 'urnin/ out CAdams V Bau/hlin@ 1992D. +e mi/ht survive even
lon/er if (e e8ploit nonstellar ener/4 sour"es. %ut it is hard to ima/ine ho( humanit4 (ill survive 'e4ond the de"a4 of nu"lear matter e8pe"ted
in 10-* to 10.1 4ears CAdams V Bau/hlin@ 1992D.- 5h4si"s seems to support Kaf&a6s remar& that MtNhere is infinite hope@ 'ut not for us.) +hile
it ma4 'e ph4si"all4 possi'le for humanit4 or its des"endents to flourish for 10.1 4ears@ it seems unli&el4 that humanit4 (ill live so lon/. Homo
sapiens have e8isted for *00@000 4ears. Our "losest relative@ homo erectus@ e8isted for around 1.3 million 4ears CAnton@ *00-D. >he median
duration of mammalian spe"ies is around *.* million 4ears CAvise et al.@ 1993D. A "ontroversial approa"h to estimatin/ humanit46s life
e8pe"tan"4 is to use o'servation sele"tion theor4. >he num'er of homo sapiens (ho have ever lived is around 100 'illion C;au'@ *00*D. Suppose
the num'er of people (ho have ever or (ill ever live is 10 trillion. If I thin& of m4self as a random sample dra(n from the set of all human
'ein/s (ho have ever or (ill ever live@ then the pro'a'ilit4 of m4 'ein/ amon/ the first 100 'illion of 10 trillion lives is onl4 1S. It is more
pro'a'le that I am randoml4 dra(n from a smaller num'er of lives. =or instan"e@ if onl4 *00 'illion people have ever or (ill ever live@ the
pro'a'ilit4 of m4 'ein/ amon/ the first 100 'illion lives is 00S. >he reasonin/ 'ehind this line of ar/ument is "ontroversial 'ut has survived a
num'er of theoreti"al "hallen/es CBeslie@ 1991D. ?sin/ o'servation sele"tion theor4@ 9ott C199-D estimated that humanit4 (ould survive an
additional 0@000 to 3 million 4ears@ (ith 90S "onfiden"e. -. !stimatin/ the <ear->erm 5ro'a'ilit4 of !8tin"tion It is possi'le for humanit4 Cor its
des"endentsD to survive a million 4ears or more@ 'ut (e "ould su""um' to e8tin"tion as soon as this "entur4. 7urin/ the Cu'an
,issile Crisis@ ?.S. 5resident Kenned4 estimated the pro'a'ilit4 of a nu"lear holo"aust as some(here 'et(een one out of three and even)
CKenned4@ 1919@ p. 110D. Aohn von <eumann@ as Chairman of the ?.S. Air =or"e Strate/i" ,issiles !valuation Committee@ predi"ted that it (as
a'solutel4 "ertain C1D that there (ould 'e a nu"lear (arH and C*D that ever4one (ould die in it) CBeslie@ 1991@ p. *1D. ,ore re"ent predi"tions of
human e8tin"tion are little more optimisti". In their "atalo/s of e8tin"tion ris&s@ %ritain6s Astronomer Ro4al@ Sir ,artin Rees C*00-D@ /ives
humanit4 00-00 odds on survivin/ the *1st "entur4H philosopher <i"& %ostrom ar/ues that it (ould 'e mis/uided) to assume that the pro'a'ilit4
of e8tin"tion is less than *0SH and philosopher Aohn Beslie C1991D assi/ns a -0S pro'a'ilit4 to e8tin"tion durin/ the ne8t five "enturies. >he
Stern Revie() for the ?.K. >reasur4 C*001D assumes that the pro'a'ilit4 of human e8tin"tion durin/ the ne8t "entur4 is 10S. And some
e8planations of the =ermi 5arado8) impl4 a hi/h pro'a'ilit4 C"lose to100SDof e8tin"tion amon/ te"hnolo/i"al "iviliIations C5isani@ *001D..
!stimatin/ the pro'a'ilities of unpre"edented events is su'#e"tive@ so (e should treat these num'ers s&epti"all4. Still@ even if the
pro'a'ilit4 of e8tin"tion is several orders lo(er@ 'e"ause the sta&es are hi/h@ it "ould 'e (ise to invest in e8tin"tion
"ountermeasures.
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A-to #8tin$tion K
@ A #8tin$tion matters:*e have an ethi$al o)li0ation to value future lives. ur ar0ument is
not that it matters to prote$t future lives more than $urrent onesC )ut total disre0ard for
humanit57s future is morall5 repu0nant.
-athen5 P3 MAason@ 7epartment of ;ealth 5oli"4 and ,ana/ement@ %loom'er/ S"hool of 5u'li" ;ealth@ Aohns ;op&ins ?niversit4. Redu"in/ the Ris& of
;uman !8tin"tion.) Ris& Anal4sis. Eol *2@ <o 0@ *002@ httpG$$(((.upm"-'iose"urit4.or/$(e'site$resour"es$pu'li"ations$*002dori/-arti"les$*002-10-10-
redu"in/ris&.htmlN
0. 7is"ountin/ An e8tin"tion event toda4 "ould "ause the loss of thousands of /enerations. >his matters to the e8tent
(e value future lives. So"iet4 pla"es some value on future lives (hen it a""epts the "osts of lon/-term environmental poli"ies or haIardous
(aste stora/e. Individuals pla"e some value on future lives (hen the4 adopt measures@ su"h as s"reenin/ for /eneti" diseases@ to ensure the health
of "hildren (ho do not 4et e8ist. 7isa/reement@ then@ does not "enter on (hether future lives matter@ 'ut on ho( mu"h the4
matter.1 Ealuin/ future lives less than "urrent ones Cinter/enerational dis"ountin/)D has 'een #ustified '4 ar/uments a'out time preferen"e@
/ro(th in "onsumption@ un"ertaint4 a'out future e8isten"e@ and opportunit4 "osts. I (ill ar/ue that none of these #ustifi"ations applies to the
'enefits of dela4in/ human e8tin"tion. ?nder time preferen"e@ a /ood en#o4ed in the future is (orth less@ intrinsi"all4@ than a
/ood en#o4ed no(. >he t4pi"al #ustifi"ation for time preferen"e is des"riptive:most people ma&e de"isions that su//est that the4 value
"urrent /oods more than future ones. ;o(ever@ it ma4 'e that people6s time preferen"e applies onl4 to instrumental /oods@
li&e mone4@ (hose value predi"ta'l4 de"reases in time. In fa"t@ it (ould 'e diffi"ult to desi/n an e8periment in (hi"h time preferen"e for an
intrinsi" /ood Cli&e happinessD@ rather than an instrumental /ood Cli&e mone4D@ is separated from the other forms of dis"ountin/ dis"ussed 'elo(.
%ut even supposin/ individuals e8hi'it time preferen"e (ithin their o(n lives@ it is not "lear ho( this (ould ethi"all4 #ustif4 dis"ountin/ a"ross
different lives and /enerations C=rederi"&@ *001H S"hellin/@ *000D. In pra"ti"e@ dis"ountin/ the value of future lives (ould lead to
results fe* of us *ould a$$ept as )ein0 ethi$al. =or instan"e@ if (e dis"ounted lives at a 0S annual rate@ a life toda4
(ould have /reater intrinsi" value than a 'illion lives .00 4ears hen"e CCo(en V 5arfit@ 199*D. %roome C199.D su//ests most
e"onomists and philosophers re"o/niIe that this preferen"e for ourselves over our des"endents is un#ustifia'le and a/ree that ethi"al impartialit4
reJuires settin/ the inter/enerational dis"ount rate to Iero. After all@ if (e re#e"t spatial dis"ountin/ and assi/n eJual value to "ontemporar4
human lives@ (hatever their ph4si"al distan"e from us@ (e have similar reasons to re#e"t temporal dis"ountin/@ and assi/n eJual value to human
lives@ (hatever their temporal distan"e from us. I 5arfit C193.D@ Co(en C199*D@ and %la"&or'4 et al. C1990D have similarl4 ar/ued that time
preferen"e a"ross /enerations is not ethi"all4 defensi'le.2 >here "ould still 'e other reasons to dis"ount future /enerations. A "ommon
#ustifi"ation for dis"ountin/ e"onomi" /oods is that their a'undan"e /enerall4 in"reases (ith time. %e"ause there is
diminishin/ mar/inal utilit4 from "onsumption@ future /enerations ma4 /ain less satisfa"tion from a dollar than (e (ill CS"hellin/@ *000D. >his
prin"iple ma&es sense for inter/enerational transfers of most e"onomi" /oods 'ut not for inter/enerational transfers
of e8isten"e. >here is no diminishin/ mar/inal utilit4 from havin/ ever e8isted. >here is no reason to 'elieve
e8isten"e matters less to a person 1@000 4ears hen"e than it does to a person 10 4ears hen"e. 7is"ountin/ "ould 'e
#ustified '4 our un"ertaint4 a'out future /enerations6 e8isten"e. If (e &ne( for "ertain that (e (ould all die in 10 4ears@ it (ould
not ma&e sense for us to spend mone4 on asteroid defense. It (ould ma&e more sense to live it up@ until (e 'e"ome e8tin"t. A dis"ount s"heme
(ould 'e #ustified that devalued Cto IeroD an4thin/ 'e4ond 10 4ears. 7as/upta and ;eal C1929@ pp. *11*1*D defend dis"ountin/ on these /rounds
:(e are un"ertain a'out humanit46s lon/-term survival@ so plannin/ too far ahead is imprudent.3 7is"ountin/ is an appro8imate (a4 to a""ount
for our un"ertaint4 a'out survival C5onthiere@ *00-D. %ut it is unne"essar4:an anal4sis of e8tin"tion ris& should eJuate the
value of avertin/ e8tin"tion at an4 /iven time (ith the e8pe"ted value of humanit46s future from that moment
for(ard@ (hi"h in"ludes the pro'a'ilities of e8tin"tion in all su'seJuent periods C</@ *000D. If (e dis"ounted the e8pe"ted value of
humanit46s future@ (e (ould "ount future e8tin"tion ris&s t(i"e:on"e in the dis"ount rate and on"e in the undis"ounted e8pe"ted value:and underestimate the value
of redu"in/ "urrent ris&s. In an4 "ase@ 7as/upta and ;eal6s ar/ument does not #ustif4 traditional dis"ountin/ at a "onstant rate@ as the pro'a'ilit4 of human e8tin"tion
is unli&el4 to 'e uniform in time.9 %e"ause of nu"lear and 'iolo/i"al (eapons@ the pro'a'ilit4 of human e8tin"tion "ould 'e hi/her toda4 than it (as a "entur4 a/oH
and if humanit4 "oloniIes other planets@ the pro'a'ilit4 of human e8tin"tion "ould 'e lo(er then than it is toda4. !ven Rees6s C*00-D pessimisti" 00-00 odds on human
e8tin"tion '4 *100 (ould 'e eJuivalent to an annual dis"ount rate under 1S for this "entur4. CIf (e are 100S "ertain of a /ood6s e8isten"e in *002 'ut onl4 00S "ertain of a /ood6s e8isten"e in
*100@ then the e8pe"ted value of the /ood de"reases '4 00S over 9. 4ears@ (hi"h "orresponds to an annual dis"ount rate of 0.20S.D As </ C1939D has pointed out@ a "onstant annual dis"ount rate
of 1S implies that (e are more than 99.99S "ertain of not survivin/ the ne8t 1@000 4ears. Su"h pessimism seems un(arranted. A last ar/ument for inter/enerational dis"ountin/ is from
opportunit4 "ostsG (ithout dis"ountin/@ (e (ould al(a4s invest our mone4 rather than spend it no( on important pro#e"ts C%roome@ 199.D. =or instan"e@ if (e invest our mone4 no( in a sto"&
mar&et (ith an avera/e 0S real annual return@ in a "entur4 (e (ill have 1-0 times more mone4 to spend on e8tin"tion "ountermeasures Cassumin/ (e survive the "entur4D. >his reasonin/ "ould
'e e8tended indefinitel4 Cas lon/ as (e surviveD. >his "ould 'e an ar/ument for investin/ in sto"&s rather than e8tin"tion "ountermeasures ifG the rate of return on "apital is e8o/enous to the rate
of so"ial savin/s@ the avera/e rate of return on "apital is hi/her than the rate of te"hnolo/i"al "han/e in e8tin"tion "ountermeasures@ and the mar/inal "ost effe"tiveness of e8tin"tion
"ountermeasures does not de"rease at a rate eJual to or /reater than the return on "apital. =irst@ the assumption of e8o/eneit4 "an 'e re#e"ted. =undin/ e8tin"tion "ountermeasures (ould reJuire
spendin/ lar/e sumsH if@ instead@ (e invested those sums in the sto"& mar&et@ the4 (ould affe"t the avera/e mar&et rate of return CCo(en V 5arfit@ 199*D. Se"ond@ some spendin/ on
"ountermeasures@ su"h as resear"h on 'iodefense@ has its o(n rate of return@ sin"e learnin/ tends to a""elerate as a &no(led/e 'ase e8pands. >his rate "ould 'e hi/her than the avera/e rate of
return on "apital. >hird@ if the pro'a'ilit4 of human e8tin"tion si/nifi"antl4 de"reases after spa"e "oloniIation@ there ma4 'e a small (indo( of redu"i'le ris&G the period of ma8imum mar/inal
"ost effe"tiveness ma4 'e limited to the ne8t fe( "enturies. 7is"ountin/ (ould 'e a "rude (a4 of a""ountin/ for opportunit4 "osts@ as "ost effe"tiveness is pro'a'l4 not "onstant. A more pre"ise
approa"h (ould identif4 the optimal invest-and-spend path 'ased on estimates of "urrent and future e8tin"tion ris&s@ the "ost effe"tiveness of "ountermeasures@ and mar&et returns. In
summar4@ there are /ood reasons not to dis"ount the 'enefits of e8tin"tion "ountermeasures. >ime preferen"e is not
#ustifia'le in inter/enerational pro'lems@ there is no diminishin/ mar/inal utilit4 from havin/ ever e8isted@ and
un"ertainties a'out human e8isten"e should 'e represented '4 e8pe"ted values. I thus assume that the value of future
lives $annot )e dis$ounted. Sin$e this position is $ontroversialC I later sho( ho( a""eptan"e of dis"ountin/ (ould affe"t our
"on"lusions.
20
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to #8tin$tion K
@ A >al(in0 a)out the possi)ilit5 of e8tin$tion is vital to strate0ies to prevent it
Sand)er0 P4
@Anders Sand'er/@ et al Aames ,artin Resear"h =ello( at the =uture of ;umanit4 Institute at O8ford ?niversit4@ postdo"toral resear"h assistant
for the !? !nhan"e pro#e"tH Aason 9. ,athen4@ 5h7 "andidate in ;ealth 5oli"4 and ,ana/ement at Aohns ;op&ins %loom'er/ S"hool of 5u'li"
;ealth@ spe"ial "onsultant to the Center for %iose"urit4 at the ?niversit4 of 5itts'ur/h ,edi"al Center and "o-founder of <e( ;arvest@ and ,ilan
,. jir&ovik@ senior resear"h asso"iate at the Astronomi"al O'servator4 of %el/rade@ assistant professor of ph4si"s at the ?niversit4 of <ovi Sad
in Ser'ia and ,ontene/roH ;o( Can +e Redu"e the Ris& of ;uman !8tin"tion) httpG$$the'ulletin.or/$(e'-edition$features$ho(-"an-(e-redu"e-
the-ris&-of-human-e8tin"tion D
5erhaps least "ontroversial@ (e should invest more in efforts to enumerate the ris&s to human survival and the means to
miti/ate them. +e need more interdis"iplinar4 resear"h in Juantitative ris& assessment@ pro'a'ilit4 theor4@ and
te"hnolo/4 fore"astin/. And (e need to 'uild a (orld(ide "ommunit4 of e8perts from various fields "on"erned a'out
/lo'al "atastrophi" ris&s. ;uman e8tin"tion ma4@ in the lon/ run@ 'e inevita'le. %ut #ust as (e (or& to se"ure a lon/ life for
individuals@ even (hen our eventual death is assured@ (e should (or& to se"ure a lon/ life for our spe"ies.
@ A Rhetori$ of fear is ne$essar5 to mo)iliBe preventative a$tion a0ainst $atastrophe AIDS
proves.
9iddens P2K
CAnthon4H served as 7ire"tor of the Bondon S"hool of !"onomi"s and 5oliti"al S"ien"e CBS!D from 1992 to *00-. 5reviousl4 a =ello( and
5rofessor of So"iolo/4 at Kin/Fs Colle/e@ Cam'rid/e. Runa(a4 (orld G ho( /lo'aliIation is reshapin/ our lives) *000H p/ .2-.9D
In these "ir"umstan"es@ there is a ne( moral "limate of politi"s@ mar&ed '4 a push and pull 'et(een a""usations of
s"aremon/erin/ the one hand@ and of "over-ups on the other. If an4one -/overnment offi"ial@ s"ientifi" e8pert or resear"her -ta&es
a /iven ris& seriousl4@ he or she must pro"laim it. It must 'e (idel4 pu'li"ised 'e"ause people must 'e persuaded that the ris&
is real-a fuss must 'e made a'out it. et if a fuss is indeed "reated and the ris& turns out to 'e minimal@ those involved (ill 'e
a""used of s"aremon/erin/. Suppose@ ho(ever@ that the authorities initiall4 de"ide that the ris& is not ver4 /reat@ as the %ritish
/overnment did in the "ase of "ontaminated 'eef. In this instan"e@ the /overnment first of all saidG (eFve /ot the 'a"&in/ of
s"ientists hereH there isnFt a si/nifi"ant ris&@ and an4one (ho (ants to "an "ontinue eatin/ 'eef (ithout an4 (orries.
In su"h situations@ if events turn out other(ise -as in fa"t the4 did -the authorities (ill 'e a""used of a "over-up-as
indeed the4 (ere. >hin/s are even more "omple8 than these e8amples su//est. 5arado8i"all4@ s$aremon0erin0 ma5 )e ne$essar5
to redu$e ris(s *e fa$e -4et if it is su""essful@ it appears as #ust that@ s"aremon/erin/. >he "ase of AI7S is an e8ample.
9overnments and e8perts made /reat pu'li" pla4 (ith the ris&s asso"iated (ith unsafe se8@ to /et people to "han/e
their se8ual 'ehaviour. 5artl4 as a "onseJuen"e@ in the developed "ountries@ AI7S did not spread as mu"h as (as
ori/inall4 predi"ted. >hen the response (asG (h4 (ere 4ou s"arin/ ever4one li&e thatL et as (e &no( from its "ontinuin/ /lo'al
spread@ the4 (ere -and are -entirel4 ri/ht to do so. >his sort of parado8 'e"omes routine in "ontemporar4 so"iet4@ 'ut there is no
easil4 availa'le (a4 of dealin/ (ith it. =or as I mentioned earlier@ in most situations of manufa"tured ris&@ even (hether there are
ris&s at all is li&el4 to 'e disputed. +e "annot &no( 'eforehand (hen (e are a"tuall4 s"aremon/erin/ and (hen (e
are not.
21
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
9enealo/4 K
@ A 9enealo0i$al pro%e$ts fail the5 $ause politi$al paral5sis and move-a*a5 from their
ultimate o)%e$tive.
,olin P2
CRi"hard +olin 5rof W C?< in ,odern !uropean Intelle"tual ;istor4. South Central Revie(@ Eol. 19@ <o. *$-@ 9$11.
CSummer - Autumn@ *00*D@ pp. -9-.9. A StorD
Amid the fo/ of postmodern relativism disseminated '4 %audrillard@ ZiIe& and others@ somethin/ essential is missin/. 9oin/ 'a"& to the
>hu"4dides6 ,elian 7ialo/ue@ the massa"re of "ivilian inno"ents has 'een a tou"hstone of "iviliIed moral #ud/ment. It remains toda4 the
"ornerstone of human ri/hts la( and #ust (ar theor4. et@ for the "ultural left@) slavishl4 follo(in/ the 0enealo0i$al+
approa"h re"ommended '4 <ietIs"he and =ou"ault@ moral reasonin/ is merel4 another one of "iviliIation6s "lever
normaliIin/) ruses:hen"e@ an intelle"tual (ea&ness to 'e avoided at all "osts. On"e a/ain@
postmodernism6s ri/ht-(in/ intelle"tual pedi/ree:<ietIs"he@ Spen/ler@ and ;eide//er:has left it morall5 impotent
and politi$all5 $lueless. =or 4ears the Beft has demonstrated a predile"tion to romanti"iIe the other):;o Chi ,inh@ Che@ =idel@ as
(ell as "ountless other apostles of >hird +orld revolution:in the hope that the +ret"hed of the !arth (ould provide a remed4 for our o(n
seemin/l4 intra"ta'le politi"al impasse. 5redi"ta'l4@ at a "onferen"e I attended re"entl4@ a friend (ith impe""a'le left- (in/ "redentials (ho@ until
"ommunism6s re"ent "ollapse@ had 'een an ardent "hampion of the proletarian "ause@ #umped on the pan-Ara' 'and(a/on@ re"itin/ the names of
o's"ure ,uslim intelle"tuals (ho@ she "laimed@ offered a promisin/ politi"al alternative to the de'ilities of +estern li'eralism. 5lus la "han/e.
>he Beft "an i/nore the imperatives of moralit4 and international la( onl4 at its o(n peril. %4 romanti"iIin/ the lifest4les
and mores of non-+estern peoples@ it suspends "riti"al #ud/ment@ destro5s its o*n $redi)ilit5C and 0uarantees its
o*n politi$al irrelevan$e.
C D 9enealo0i$al pro%e$ts over-fo$us on histori$iBation this $auses $ontemporar5 politi$al
paral5sis
'o00s 793
CCARB %O99S 5rofessor and 5h.7. 5oliti"al S"ien"e@ <ational ?niversit4@ Bos An/eles -- >heor4 and So"iet4
*1G 2.1-230D
6ostmodernism and its offshoots Cpoststru"turalism@ semioti"s@ dimer- en"e feminism@ et".D have indeed reshaped mu"h of a"ademia@
in"ludin/ su$h dis$iplines as so"iolo/4@ histor5@ literature@ nlm@ and "ommuni"a- tions. ,ore than that@ the theor4 Cif that is the "orre"t
la'el for somethin/ so diffuseD amounts to a &ind of anti-paradi/m paradi/m@ (hi"h often refo"uses de'ates
around definin/ motifs of the post-=ordist orderG $ommodifi$ation of $ulture@ the media spe"ta"le@ proliferation of ima/es and
s4m'ols@ fra/mentation of identities@ the dispersion of lo"al movements@ and loss of faith in $onventional politi$al ideolo0ies and
or/aniIations. So far as all this is "on"erned@ post-modernism "an 'e vie(ed as mar&in/ a rather health4 'rea& (ith the past.00 >he pro'lem
is that the main thrust of postmodernism so devalues the "ommon realm of po(er@ /overnan"e@ and e"onom4 that the
d4nami"s of so"ial and institutional life vanish from si/ht. +here the realit4 of "orporate@ state@ and militar4 po(er (ind up
vanishin/ (ithin a postmodern amorphousness@ the ver4 effort to anal4Ie so"ial for"es and lo"ate a/en"ies or
strate/ies of "han/e 'e"omes impossi'le. In its rea"- tion a/ainst the "omprehensive histori"al s"ope of ,ar8ism@ the mi"ro
approa"h dismisses in toto ma"ropoliti"s and (ith it an4 "on"eiva'le modern pro#e"t of radi"al transformation. An e8treme oomi"roFF fo"us is most
visi'le in su"h theorists as %audrillard (ho@ as Steven %est and 7ou/las Kellner put it@ in effe"t ooannoun"e the end of the politi"al pro#e"t in the
end of histor4 and so"iet4FF01 p a stan"e that repli"ates the lo/i" of a profoundl4 depoliti"iIed "ulture.
22
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 9usterson K7s
@ A 9usterson7s e8planations are fla*ed poor anthropolo05 and ina$$urate ps5$holo0i$al
rationale
=ran& >i(als(5 is professor emeritus at the ?niversit4 of ,ontana )evie*ed *ork0s/: 1uclear )ites: 3
?eapons 'aboratory at the (nd o# the Cold ?ar by Hugh @usterson Sour"eG 5oliti"al 5s4"holo/4@ Eol. *0@ <o. *
CAun.@ 1999D@ pp. .*9-.-* 5u'lished '4G International So"iet4 of 5oliti"al 5s4"holo/4 Sta'le ?RBG
httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$-29*039
9ustersonFs (or& failed to offer "ompellin/ ar/uments for three reasonsG =irst@ the data summariIin/ his resear"h efforts@
alon/ (ith a definitive resear"h desi/n@ are not /iven. >hus@ it is a 'oo& for la4 persons and not a s"ientifi" audien"e. Se"ond@ his
o'servations often do not resonate (ith m4 e8perien"e at Bos Alamos. >o /eneraliIe findin/s and appl4 them to other nu"lear (eapons
la'oratories ma4 'e a mista&e. >hird@ his e8planations for various 'ehaviors are ordinaril4 ps4"holo/i"al as opposed to
anthropolo/i"al. >he ans(ers to (h4 (e had@ or "ontinue to have@ a nu"lear (eapons pro/ram are in m4 vie(
pro'a'l4 anthropolo/i"al as opposed to ps4"holo/i"al. =or e8ample@ the distin/uished anthropolo/ist Beslie +hite made the
follo(in/ o'servation a'out the "auses of (arG +arfare is a stru//le 'et(een so"ial or/anisms@ not individuals. Its e8pla-
nation is therefore so"ial or "ultural@ not ps4"holo/i"al. +e "ould never understand (h4 the ?nited States entered
+orld +ar II-or an4 other (ar-'4 an inJuir4 into the ps4"holo/i"al motives of men and (omen. One man (anted to Juit his
distasteful #o' as a 'an& "ler&@ another (anted adventure@ a third sou/ht release from an un'eara'le domesti" situation@ another (anted to see
(hat the (omen of =ran"e@ Samoa@ and China are li&e@ another (anted to (ear a uniform@ another fou/ht for 9od@ for Countr4@ and the <e(
7eal@ and so on. Of "ourse@ most men (ent to (ar 'e"ause the4 (ere o'li/ed to-or a""ept the de/radation of imprisonment or (orse.
23
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 9usterson K7s
@ A 9usterson7s )od5 and me$haniBation thesis is for$edJ >he eviden$e does not support
this $on$lusion and this proves our essentialism $laim
7r. Steven ,eiss has a %a"helor6s de/ree from the Ro"hester Institute of >e"hnolo/4 (ith ,aster6s and 7o"toral
7e/rees from >he 9eor/e +ashin/ton ?niversit4. ;e has numerous pu'li"ations in the I!!!. ;e tea"hes 'oth
introdu"tor4 and advan"ed@ /raduate level "ourses at Aohns ;op&ins ?niversit4 on antenna s4stems. S"ien"e@
>e"hnolo/4@ V ;uman Ealues@ Eol. *0@ <o. 1 C+inter@ 2000D@ pp. 1**-1*0 o'tained via A-Stor
In his 'oo& <u"lear Rites@ ;u/h 9usterson has the 'asis for t(o e8"ellent 'oo&sG an anthropolo/i"al e8amination of
nu"lear (eapons desi/ners at Ba(ren"e Bivermore <ational Ba'orator4 in the late 1930s and a s"ien"e-studies anal4sis of the "ultural and
politi"al tension 'et(een these desi/ners and a"tivists for nu"lear disarmament@ a /roup 9usterson posits as the antithesis of (eapons
s"ientists. ?nfortunatel4@ he has for"ed these t(o narratives into a sin/le volume@ "reatin/ a (hole that is less than the
sum of its parts. In his first narrative@ 9usterson offers a ri"h des"ription of the la'orator4 "ommu- nit4 at the Bivermore la'. ;e
uses anthropolo/i"al methods-e8perien"in/ la'orator4 "ulture as a parti"ipant-o'server and "ondu"tin/ intervie(s (ith man4 mem'ers in and
near the la'orator4 "ommunit4--to tease out important elements of the shared "ulture of (eapons desi/ners. ;e divides his anal4ses into five
ma#or topi"s@ ea"h "orrespondin/ to a "hapterG "omin/ to the la' and assimilatin/ pra"ti"es and attitudes appropriate for (eapons (or&H lo"atin/
the la'orator4 in its lar/er so"ial settin/H the effe"ts of se"re"4 on la'orator4 "ulture@ espe"iall4 the e8tent to (hi"h (eapons desi/ners internaliIe
a "ulture of se"re"4H "hara"teriIin/ the (eapons (or& as a me"haniIin/ of the ChumanD 'od4 and "onseJuent dehumaniIin/
of potential vi"tims of the (eapons the4 desi/nH and des"ri'in/ nu"lear tests as a "omin/-of-a/e ritual for (eapons s"ientists.
>hrou/hout these dis"ussions@ 9usterson Juite "arefull4 identifies and overtl4 attempts to minimiIe possi'l4 pre#udi"ial attitudes of his that mi/ht
taint his anal4sis. ;is 'a"&/round in"ludes opposition to nu"lear (eaponsG he opens the 'oo& '4 des"ri'in/ his /enuine puIIlement a'out ho(
an4one "ould possi'l4 desi/n and 'uild (eapons "apa'le of su"h (anton destru"tion. Con"erns a'out this potential 'ias e"ho throu/hout the
narrative. et intervie( Juotes are often too short to /au/e the ran/e and depth of his intervie(s@ espe"iall4 to assess (hether the Juestions
themselves /uided the intervie( and introdu"ed si/nifi"ant 'iases in the responses. Still@ 9uster- sonFs refle8ivit4 and overall attention to the
smallest details 'esto( /reat "onfiden"e in his anthropolo/i"al te"hniJue. %uildin/ on his eviden"e@ 9usterson is parti"ularl4 stron/ e8tendin/
traditional anthropolo/i"al anal4ses of primitive "ultures into his e8amination of the te"hni"all4 sophisti"ated la'orator4 (or&ers. ;e finds moral
essen"e in pra"ti"es@ so"ial order in se"re"4@ and ritual "hara"ter in (eapons testin/. %ut he does so deli"atel4@ not for"in/ KprimitiveK versions of
su"h anal4ses 'ut teasin/ out the su'tleties shared. In his "hapter on se"re"4@ he 'e/ins (ith a des"ription of ho( various levels of "lassifi"ation
at the la'orator4 stratif4 it. %ut 9usterson dis"overs a more su'tle order imposed '4 se"re"4. <otin/ the unevenness of enfor"ement@ this simple
version of la'orator4 order is inadeJuate. Instead@ la'orator4 emplo4ees personaliIe the notion of se"re"4@ adoptin/ se"urit4 pra"ti"es that
anti"ipate the rules. 7es"ri'in/ this latter a""ultura- tion@ 9usterson re"o/niIes the same "ultural po(er--far /reater than the rules and
institutional po(ers-similar to se"ret or isolated so"ieties studied '4 Sissela %o& and !rvin/ 9offman Cpp. 30-31D. As la'orator4 emplo4ees
personaliIe se"re"4@ then@ a "ultural rather than the re/ulator4 notion of se"re"4 emer/es. 5ro'lems in su"h mi"rolevel anal4ses onl4 arise
(hen 9usterson #u8taposes 'odies and ma"hines. ;ere his anal4sis does not tritel4 fit into the theoreti"al frame(or&s of
=ou"ault and other popular s"ien"e-studies theorists@ nor do his o'servations rin/ false. >he Cmas"ulinistD me"haniIation of the impa"t
and effe"ts of nu"lear (eapons and the "onseJuent dehumaniIation of the 'odies of potential vi"tims "reate a "om-
mon "ultural 'ond amon/ the (eapons desi/ners. Ho*ever @usterson presents this bond as the primary glue *ithin
the laboratory community-a position ne"essar4 to (eave his anthropolo/i"al anal4sis into a lar/er s"ien"e-studies essa4 fo"used on the
nu"lear (eapons as the "ultural "hara"teristi" distin/uishin/ inside from outside the la'orator4 fen"e. >hrou/hout his intervie(s and espe"iall4
resonant in the K"omin/ to BivermoreK stories@ 9ustersonFs su'#e"ts report an interest in the s"ien"e the4 "ould perform- indeed@ "ould onl4
perform-desi/nin/ (eapons. =or those (ho "hose to "ome@ mis- /ivin/s a'out the appli"ations of their (or& /et su'#u/ated '4 a variet4 of
"ultural@ personal@ and institutional pra"ti"es. %ut it is not ne"essar4 that "onstru"tion of the 'om's remains the primar4 "ultural fo"us of the
"ommunit4. !a"h of 9ustersonFs vi/nettes demonstrates (a4s in (hi"h the "ommunit4 of (eapons desi/ners internal- iIes and a""epts--4et
lar/el4 suppresses in da4-to-da4 pra"ti"e-the institutionall4 determined o'#e"t of the (or&@ desi/n of (eapons "apa'le of death and destru"tion.
Suppression of ethi"al and moral Jualms@ developin/ ha'its of se"re"4@ and refo"usin/ testin/ as rites of passa/e are e8a"tl4 the sorts of
pra"ti"es individuals use to sus- tain "ultural "onne"tion throu/h a "ommon 'ond that dares not 'e spo&en. >he institutional "onstraints of
Bivermore@ (hi"h the "onstru"ted "ulture of the (eapons-desi/ner "ommunit4 must someho( di/est@ pla"e (eapons desi/n Cand the possi'le use
of (eaponsD in su"h a "entral role. I (as un"onvin"ed that the "ommunit4 itself (ould "onsider this of su"h hi/h priorit4 as
the or/aniIation of 9ustersonFs 'oo& reJuires. Indeed@ follo(in/ the stories of s"ien"e-(hi"h 9usterson indi"ates he deli'eratel4 "hose
to avoid due to minimal e8pertise-prevents him from dis"overin/ the e8tent to (hi"h the "ommunit4 'onds throu/h s"ien"e. >he intentionall4
me"hanisti"-te"hni"al lan/ua/e that pervades all aspe"ts of their (eapons (or& sho(s a "ommon "ulture of s"ien"e and en/ineerin/. Su"h a
stron/ "ommitment to s"ien"e and a parti"ular set of s"ientifi" inJuiries does@ in fa"t@ do(npla4 the essen- tiall4 human tra/edies that their
(eapons are "apa'le of "reatin/. %ut it need not promote the dehumaniIation itself to the "entral "ultural 'ond. Yet
Gusterson needs this central organizing theme to set up the sciencestudies analysis in the second half of his
book! 7ire"tin/ his anthropolo/i"al inJuir4 to(ard the (eapons-desi/ner$a"tivist ne8us needlessly biases his
anthropology. In detail@ his des"riptions are stron/. In sum@ thou/h@ the4 are less "onvin"in/.
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@ A Re%e$t essentialism it em)ra$es a *orldvie* of unendin0 violen$e
;alden Doer0e editor (ith +ipf V Sto"& 5u'lishers@ spe"ialiIin/ in theolo/4 V ethi"s Ontolo/4@ 7ifferen"e@
and <arrative Inha'itatio 7ei April *@ *003 httpG$$(((.inha'itatiodei."om$*002$0.$0*$ontolo/4-differen"e-
and-narrative$.
S u"h an ontolo/4@ must 'e re#e"ted for a num'er of reasons @ one of (hi"h I (ant to ta&e a loo& at here. A &e4 pro'lem (ith
essentialism is that it is Tessentiall46 violent. !ssentialism is violent pre"isel4 'e"ause it determines our ontolo/i"al
status as somethin/ that (e posses in and of ourselves. If reason@ for e8ample ma&es me human Cas has often 'een thou/ht in
Christian theolo/4D@ then m4 possession of reason must 'e safe/uarded at all "osts in order for me to retain m4 personhood. On su"h an
essentialist frame(or&@ no matter (hat the "hara"teristi" is asserted to 'e@ m4 ontolo/i"al status is somethin/ that I
posses@ and therefore "an 'e dis-possessed of. >herefore an4thin/ that "omes to me from outside m4self@ that is different is a threat.
+ho I am as a 'ein/ is somethin/ that "omes from (ithin m4self. An4thin/ that "omes from outside "an onl4 diminish or (orse@ destro4 (ho I
am. An essentialist ontolo/4 ultimatel4 (ants to den4 an4 ontolo/i"al (ei/ht to differen"e. +ithin an essentialist
frame(or&@ differen"e "an onl4 'e violent@ sin"e m4 'e-in/ is self-en"losed 'e"ause m4 ontolo/i"al status e8ists '4 virtue of a /iven
"hara"teristi" that I possess in and of m4self. >hus@ for an essentialist@ it seems that differen"e (ould 'e the ultimate foe@ to 'e feared and resisted.
7espite its lon/ pedi/ree in Christian theolo/4@ (e have to "all this (hole ontolo/i"al frame(or& radi"all4 into Juestion pre"isel4 on
Chal"edonian /rounds.
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9usterson e8a00erates the impa$ts of his me$haniBation ar0s over*helmin0 per$enta0e of
people do not 0ro* deta$hed.
=ran& >i(als(5 is professor emeritus at the ?niversit4 of ,ontana )evie*ed *ork0s/: 1uclear )ites: 3
?eapons 'aboratory at the (nd o# the Cold ?ar by Hugh @usterson Sour"eG 5oliti"al 5s4"holo/4@ Eol. *0@ <o. *
CAun.@ 1999D@ pp. .*9-.-* 5u'lished '4G International So"iet4 of 5oliti"al 5s4"holo/4 Sta'le ?RBG
httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$-29*039
>here "an 'e little dou't that su"h defensive strate/ies are used. In fa"t@ isolation defenses alon/ (ith disso"iation and denial "an
'e seen in the mem'ers of almost ever4 profession that deals (ith life-and-death matters. Ba( enfor"e- ment@ medi"ine@ and the militar4 are
o'vious e8amples. >hus@ one impli"ation of the famed ,il/ram e8periments ma4 'e that the "ulture as a (hole e8pe"ts the
s"ientist@ in "ertain situations@ to fun"tion (ithout 'ein/ influen"ed '4 emotion. %ut@ on the other hand@ it (ould 'e a
serious mista&e to e8a//erate the impli"ations of su"h affe"t splittin/ in the "ase of s"ientists involved in nu"lear
(eapons (or&. =or e8ample@ one of m4 fun"tions as a ps4"holo/ist at Bos Alamos <ational Ba'orator4 (as to s"reen persons for
parti"ipation in a nu"lear (eapons pro/ram. In su"h s"reenin/s I e8plored (ith those 'ein/ evaluated their feelin/s a'out the miser4 nu"lear
(eapons "an and have e8a"ted. All of the persons I s"reened had deep feelin/s a'out the horri'le@ painful "onseJuen"es
su"h (eapons "ould "ause. ,ost (ere /rim (hen the4 dis"ussed su"h human miser4. =urthermore@ most of the s"ientists I
intervie(ed a"&no(led/ed havin/ su"h feelin/s 'efore #oinin/ the Ba'orator4. I remem'er@ for e8ample@ one s"ientist sa4in/@ Kou see@ 7r.
>i&als&4@ in a (orld of terrorists and /overnment leaders (ho donFt share enli/htenment values@ itFs our #o' to ensure that the ps4"hopaths of the
(orld donFt use nu"lear for"e.K Similarl4@ men in the Ameri"an militar4 did not vie( their role as that of a &iller. Rather@ their o'#e"tives (ere
phrased in loftier #ar/on su"h as ma&in/ the (orld safe for demo"ra"4. >he ps4"holo/4 se"tion I 'elon/ed to (hen I (as in the Arm4 (ould ta&e
a dim vie( of a soldier (ho said he (anted to #oin the Arm4 so that he mi/ht &ill. >o o'serve@ therefore@ that those (ho (or& on nu"lear (eapons
use denial or some other version of it is a 5s4"holo/4 101 o'servation-"ertainl4 not an4thin/ that "omes "lose to an epiphan4. ;o( does one
resolve the moral issues in 'e"omin/ a nu"lear (eapons s"ientistL 9usterson ar/ues that it is a su'tle so"ial pro"ess@
al'eit a "olle"tive one@ (herein the enterin/ s"ientist is en"oura/ed to loo& at su"h issues alone and apart from their
professional duties. It is a pro"ess 9usterson terms so"ialiIed individualism and "olle"tive privatiIation. If su"h pro"esses e8ist@ I
did not re"o/niIe them at Bos Alamos. In the man4 intervie(s I had (ith s"ientists it (as m4 understandin/ that moral issues (ere@ for
the most part@ resolved 'efore a""eptin/ emplo4ment. Certainl4@ this (as "learl4 true of the /raduate-level s"ientistsH ho(ever@ I did find
indi"ations of the pro"ess 9usterson is tal&in/ a'out as "hara"teristi" of some te"hni"ians and la4 staff persons. And@ as 9usterson notes@ the
s"ientists often revisit these moral issues privatel4. Of "ourse@ this ma&es sense (hen (e re"o/niIe the am'ivalen"e the parent
"ulture has a'out violen"e@ san"tionin/ it on the one hand@ "ondemnin/ it on the other. >he ver4 mores of our "ulture are apparentl4 "onfli"ted on
violen"e-Kturn the other "hee&K and Kan e4e for an e4e.K And@ of "ourse@ "han/es in (orld politi"s mi/ht also /enerate a ree8amination of nu"lear
(eapons use. ;asnFt defendin/ the Knational interestK /ranted appro'ation to violen"eL
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A-to ;iroshima K Alts
@ A ;iroshima K Alts $an7t lead to an anti-nu$lear a0enda.
5aul Soseph is 5rofessor of So"iolo/4 and 7ire"tor of the 5ea"e and Austi"e Studies 5ro/ram at >ufts ?niversit4.
;e is the author of several 'oo&s on Eietnam@ nu"lear (eapons poli"4@ and the se"urit4 de'ate after the end of the
Cold +ar. =or/ettin/ and Remem'erin/ ;iroshima in the ?.S. 5ea"e Revie(@ 10.0*109@ Aun 2000C Eol. 1*@ Issue
* o'tained via the data'ase 5oliti"al S"ien"e Complete
>hese student responses su//est that people "an for/et and remem'er at the same time--and that the4 $an remem)er in different
*a5s. ,e $an remem)er ;iroshima from the standpoint of the vi$timsC as an enormous human tra/ed4. ,e $an
remem)er ;iroshima as an e8pression of evil @ as a demonstration of the level of moral forfeit to (hi"h human 'ein/s "an sin&.
,e $an remem)er ;iroshima as the site of important histor5 lessons@ su"h as the de'ate over (hether KBittle %o4K (as the
a"t that ended +orld +ar II@ or the fateful step that mar&ed the 'e/innin/ of the Cold +ar. And@ alon/ (ith KenIa'uro Oe@ (e "an appre"iate the
"it4 of ;iroshimaFs remar&a'le re"over4 as po(erful "onfirmation of the human "apa"it4 to re'uild even after the most a(ful devastation. All are
important@ 'ut I (ould li&e to su//est still another (a4 of tr4in/ to remem'er ;iroshima@ one that is inspired '4 m4 personal favorite amon/ the
student responses in m4 "lass. One student (rote that K(e donFt seem to understand that the "onseJuen"es of ;iroshima are still around (ith us
toda4. A /lan"e at >he <e( or& >imes front pa/e is enou/h to tell 4ou that ;iroshima is a le/a"4 (e all have to "onfront and "ome to terms
(ith. If events li&e the arms ra"e 'et(een India and 5a&istan are to 'e dealt (ith@ ;iroshima must 'e on our minds.K As I understand this student@
it mi0ht )e possi)le to use ;iroshima as a universal s5m)olC as an i$on *hose memor5 inspires an am)itious
arms-$ontrol a0enda (ith the ultimate /oal of a'olishin/ of nu"lear (eapons. >hrou/hout the (orld@ people *ould use the
memor5 of ;iroshima in their o(n lo"al or0aniBin0 a0ainst the parti$ular e8amples of the nu$lear esta)lishment
that happened to $onfront them. >hose *ho opposed nu$lear testin0C militar5 )ases@ the produ"tion of *eapons-
0rade material@ resear"h and development "onne"ted to strate/i" moderniIation@ or the deplo5ment of *eapons s5stems *ould
follo* a path leadin0 throu0h ;iroshima and then )a$( a0ain to their o*n situation. 6ea$e a$tivists@ those
hopin/ to fo"us popular pressure so that their "it4 "oun"il mi/ht offi"iall4 support nu"lear a'olition@ or a stri"ter "ommitment to nonproliferation
measures@ or a ne( international nu"lear (eapons "onvention@ *ould similarl4 enlist ;iroshima on )ehalf of their mo)iliBin0
efforts. ;iroshima "ould 'e"ome a s4m'ol of /lo'aliIation that (ould 'e at least as po(erful as the <i&e s(oosh mar& or the /olden ar"hes of
,"7onaldFs. -an5 diffi$ulties appear as I thin( throu0h the impli$ations of this perspe$tive. 9lo'aliIation implies at
least partial deta"hment from nationalist moorin/s@ and 4et (e are relu"tant to "ast a(a4 that parti"ular identit4. =or e8ample@ the pro"ess of
Kfreein/ ;iroshimaK for an4one in the international pea"e "ommunit4 to use demands "omplete honest4 from Aapan in "onfrontin/ its o(n pattern
of for/ettin/ and sele"tive remem'erin/. >his is parti$ularl5 true *ith re0ard to SapanEs $ondu$t in the rest of Asia
durin0 ,orld ,ar II. ;iroshima $annot )e$ome a full4 a""epted s5m)ol for pea$e as lon0 as there are
unresolved Guestions re0ardin0 SapanEs past )ehavior and >o(5oEs $urrent attitudes to*ard it. +ithout a "andid
"onfrontation (ith histor4@ ;iroshimaEs $laim that it should )e re$o0niBed as the site of an ille0itimate $atastrophe
*ill )e $ontaminated. >he re"ent revisions of the pea"e museums in ;iroshima@ <a/asa&i@ and K4oto have helped this pro"ess of honest
appraisal 'ut the path is diffi"ult@ "ontested@ and still in"omplete. Remem'erin/ those parts of the past that have 'een deli'eratel4 for/otten "an
"arr4 "onsidera'le politi"al "osts. %ut I applaud (hat has 'een a""omplished thus far in Aapan and (ish the museums and institutions in the ?.S.
(ere at least as open to re"onsiderin/ the limits of its offi"ial histor4.
3*
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Aff K Core
;istori$al anal5sis of ;iroshima *on7t spillover to solve nu$lear s$enarios and ma(es use
more a$$epta)le.
5aul 'o5er is ,erle Curti 5rofessor of ;istor4 emeritus at the ?niversit4 of +is"onsin@ ,adison. ;iroshima in
;istor4 and ,emor4 edited '4 ,i"hael ;o/an 1992 5a/e 11*
Other resear"h su//ested that man5 fa$tors shaped attitudes to*ard nu$lear-related issuesC and thus to*ard the
meanin0 of ;iroshima. In an attitudinal stud5 of .22 Californians "ondu"ted in 1919-20@ for e8ample@ so"iolo/ist Ein"ent
Seffries found the 0reatest readiness to a$$ept nu$lear *ar in defense of our national interest) amon0 the 0eneration
)orn )efore 1923C and the least readiness amon0 those )orn )et*een 19/. and 19/9. In other *ordsC
Ameri$ans *ho had learned of ;iroshima as adultsC and *ho had lived *ith the (no*led0e the lon0estC
sho*ed a hi0her toleran$e for nu$lear *ar than did those *ith no dire$t memories of the event. Su$h eviden$e
$asts dou)t on the assumptionC often impli$it in the antinu$lear $ampC that the sharper the ;iroshima
memoriesC the 0reater the aversion to nu$lear *ar. =or the older a/e 0roupC ne*s of the atomi$ )om) had
$ome in a spe$ifi$ histori$al $onte8tJ at the $lose of a popular *ar a0ainst a hated enem5. >he 5oun0er and more
vehementl4 antinu"lear 0roup+ in Aeffries6 stud4@ )5 $ontrastC (ne* !;iroshima and <a0asa(i+ in a more $ulturall5
mediatedC less histori$all5 rooted frame*or(.
;iroshima has proven an ineffe$tive lens for $han0in0 $ontemporar5 nu$lear issues.
Shado* of the 'om) re-posted in <u"lear <e(s ori/inall4 appeared in the Au/ust .
th
@ *001 S4dne4
,ornin/ ;erald httpG$$(((.smh."om.au$ne(s$(orld$shado(-of-the-'om'$*000$03$0-$11**2.3200020.htmlL
one"li"&gtrue
;as the memor4 of the 'om'@ to adapt the (ords of the poet >.S. !liot@ 'e"ome more of a (himper than a 'an/L Does ;iroshima still
resonateI r does it seem@ li&e E5 7a4@ remote@ almost unre$o0nisa)leI >hou/h lin&ed@ the t(o events are@ of "ourse@ separate
issues. As a former <S+ RSB president@ Rust4 5riest@ sa4sG K;iroshima (as a means to an end@ the defeat of Aapan@ "ostin/ lives on one hand and
savin/ lives on the other hand. >he "ele'ration is reall4 for vi"tor4 in the 5a"ifi"@ the end of a dreadful (ar and the return of loved ones@ (hile
remem'erin/ those (ho did not return and those left 'ehind. >he4Fll "arr4 the s"ars of (ar forever.K Re0retta)l5C the $ommemoration
of these events no* )arel5 *ithin livin0 memor5 has never )een as *idespreadC as *holeheartedC as that
reserved for the far more distantC 0lo)all5 less si0nifi$antC 9allipoli $ampai0n of 90 4ears a/o. K,ore people no(
em'ra"e the stor4 of Ko&oda >ra"&@K sa4s 7avid Bo(@ (ho has 'een (or&in/ (ith +al&er on a pro#e"t "alled ,emories of +ar. K%ut@ sadl4@ so
mu"h of the 5a"ifi" "ampai/n (as a mess4@ unhol4 slo/. KAs (ell@ Australia (as mar/inalised M'4 the Ameri"ansN. ItFs someho( diffi"ult to
ma&e a /ood nation-'uildin/ stor4 out of it all. !ven the treatment of Australian prisoners of (ar doesnFt sit easil4 (ith the notions of 'raver4 and
mateship in a"tion that 4ou /ot (ith 9allipoli. ItFs almost li&e a "ompetin/ notion of (hat "onstitutes 'raver4.K Similarl4@ Bo( sa4s@ AustraliaFs
per$eption of ;iroshima has )een am)ivalentC and its (illin/ness to em'ra"e the messa/e in its mushroom "loud has 'een
intermittent andC as far as the a)andonment of nu$lear *eapons is $on$ernedC ineffe$tual.
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Aff K Core
@ A re-histori$iBin0 ;iroshima *on7t $han0e poli$5-ma(ers.
5aul 'o5er is ,erle Curti 5rofessor of ;istor4 emeritus at the ?niversit4 of +is"onsin@ ,adison. ;iroshima in
;istor4 and ,emor4 edited '4 ,i"hael ;o/an 1992 pa/e 110-111
;iroshima memories su)versivel5 under$ut the te$hno-rational vo$a)ular5 of nu$lear theorists. Artifa"ts from the
shattered "it4@ (hether survivors6 narratives@ photo/raphs or (ater"olors@ or the prose of a ;erse4 or I'use@ "ut throu/h the strate/ists6 'loodless
prose. As Aean %eth&e !lshtain has o'servedG ;uman )ein0s thin( most often in ima0esH a terri'le or deli/htful pi"ture "omes into
our minds and then (e see& (ords to e8press it@ to "apture it@ to ma&e it someho( mana/ea'le. >hus@ it is (ith the possi'ilit4 of nu"lear (ar. Our
ima/es are fi8ed. >he s"enes of utter destru"tion at ;iroshima and <a/asa&iH t(o "ities laid (aste@ people disappeared@ remainin/ as shado(s on
"ements or persistin/ in a terri'le and painful t(ili/ht Ione of lin/erin/ death from radiation. 'ut pre$isel5 ho*C if at allC did
;iroshima memories a$tuall5 affe$t nu$lear poli$5 I #viden$e of dire$t influen$e on poli$5ma(ers is s$ant.
=ormer Se$retar5 of Defense Ro'ert S. -$<amaraC as(ed in 1930 if he $ould re$all an5 film@ novel@ paintin/@ or other
ima/inative *or( that had shaped his vie* of nu$lear *arC $andidl5 repliedJ !<o I don7t thin( soa I *as so
asso$iated *ith the 7efense 7epartment and *ritin0s related to the Defense Department that *erea. s$ientifi$ or
te"hni"al or politi$al in $hara$ter that I thin( it *as those rather than artisti$ e8pression that influen$ed m5
thin(in0.+
3.
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
@ A ;iroshima as a lens for re-evaluatin0 nu$lear *eapons *on7t *or(.
5aul 'o5er is ,erle Curti 5rofessor of ;istor4 emeritus at the ?niversit4 of +is"onsin@ ,adison. ;IROS;I,A
I< A,!RICA< ,!,OR 1991 httpG$$(((.ohiostatepress.or/$'oo&s$CompleteS*057=s$%o4er
S*0=allout$12.pdf
<ot onl4 (as the meanin/ of K;iroshimaK "ontested@ 'ut the repeated use of this ima/e '4 a"tivists al(a4s "arried the ris& of e8ploitin/ the a"tual
event and of su'ordinatin/ it to oneFs o(n a/enda. 5aul 9oodman addressed this ris& in a sardoni" and dou'tlessl4 unfair "omment on 7eath in
BifeG K>he survivors of ;iroshima@ 7r. Bifton has sho(n us@ are "ertainl4 fu"&ed up@ 'ut the4 are not so fu"&ed up as 7r. Bifton. After all@ it is
rather mu"h to drop an atom 'om' on people and then to "ome as& them ho( the4 feel a'out it.K ;iro4u&i A/a(a made a similar point in his
1902 novel 7evilFs ;erita/e@ (hi"h 'itterl4 atta"&ed the ?.S. medi"al resear"h pro#e"t in ;iroshima for treatin/ the hi'a&usha li&e /uinea pi/s.
As ;iroshima memories *ere transmuted into literature and visual ima0esC and as "autionar4 lessons (ere dra(n from
the ordeal of the "it4 and its inha'itants@ the realit4 of (hat a"tuall4 happened on Au/ust 1@ 19.0:and (h4:sometimes seemed
to )lur. As the Sapanese ar$hite$t repeatedl5 tells the =ren"h a"tress in ;iroshima ,on Amour@ *hen she des$ri)es the
photo/raphs and artifa"ts displa4ed in the "it4Fs atomi$- )om) museumC H"ou have seen nothin0.H >he issues involved in
manipulatin0 and ima0inativel5 re*or(in0 histori$al events $an )e$ome e8$eedin0l5 $omple8. In 7eath in Bife@
Bif- ton refle"ted per"eptivel4 on the s4m'oli" status of ;iroshima@ distin/uishin/ it from other "ities devastated '4 (arG K+hen (e hear reports
a'out the ;iroshima 'om'@ our emotions are not e8a"tl4 the same as (hen "onfronted (ith eJuivalent eviden"e of 'om' destru"tion in Bondon@
Amsterdam@ ;am'ur/@ 7resden@ or >o&4o. >hese "ities@ to 'e sure@ "onve4 their o(n messa/es of manFs "apa"it4 and in"lination to assault
himself. %ut (ith ;iroshima Cand her ne/le"ted histori"al sister@ <a/asa&iD somethin/ more is involvedG a dimension of totalit4@ a sense of
ultimate annihilation:of "ities@ nations@ the (orld.K et this uniJue emotional po(er rested in part on e8tra"tin/ K;iroshimaK from histor4 and
elevatin/ it to the realm of metaphor. Bifton himself@ (ith admira'le motives@ "ontri'uted to this pro"ess@ as he made the ps4"hi"all4 num'ed
hi'a&usha s4m'ols of a num'ed (orld. %ut he (as hardl4 alone. ,an4 (ho spo&e out a/ainst nu"lear (ar over the de"ades used memories of
;iroshima in this instrumental and potentiall4 e8ploitative fashion. =or some a"tivists@ invo(in0 H;iroshimaH )e$ame a *a5 to
avoid hard thin(in0C an emotional )utton that $ould al*a5s )e pressedC a hi0h-volta0e %olt to an5 dis$ourse.
'ut the effe$t of this %olt $ould not al*a5s )e anti$ipated. =or some@ it simpl4 roused terror. >he Australian pediatri"ian and
antinu"lear a"tivist ;elen Caldi"ott Csee "hapter 10D fa"ed "riti"ism in the earl4 1930s for (hat some sa( as her irresponsi'le manipulation of
fearful ima/es. =or others@ repeated e8posure to the K;iroshimaK ima/e seems to have produ"ed the ver4 num'in/ that Bifton deplored. S4m'ols
:even the most potent ones:de"a4 over time. As And4 +arhol on"e o'servedG K+hen 4ou see a /ruesome pi"ture over and over a/ain@ it
doesnFt reall4 have an4 effe"t.K ;iroshima (as not immune to this pro"ess. As earl4 as 1931 a #ournalist (roteG K;iroshima has 'e"ome one more
histori"al "li"he@ li&e Be8in/ton or the %attle of <e( Orleans.K Contri'utin/ to this deadenin/ pro"ess (as the u'iJuitous pra"ti"e of usin/
;iroshima as a "onvenient date mar&er in 'oo& titles@ as in >he Ameri"an 5astG A ;istor4 of the ?nited States from Con"ord to ;iroshimaH Cold
+ar Ameri"aG =rom ;iroshima to +ater/ateH or =rom ;ardin/ to ;iroshimaG An Ane"dotal ;istor4 of the ?nited States from 19*- to 19.0. <e(
ima/inative (or&s in different /enres helped revive the ima/e@ 'ut as 19.0 re"eded further into the past@ the loss of immedia"4 and resonan"e that
eventuall4 envelops even the most horrendous or momentous histori"al events inevita'l4 too& its toll. ;iroshima@ then@ has "learl4 pla4ed a
"ru"ial and a "omple8 role in post(ar Ameri"an thou/ht and "ulture. >he slo*l5 dimmin0 memor5 of Au/ust 1@ 19.0@ has fun"tioned
as a palimpsest on (hi"h man4 different fears@ e8pe"tations@ and politi"al a/endas have 'een imprinted. In the realm of "ultural ima/er4@
H;iroshimaH has fun$tioned as a (ind of empt5 vessel @ repli"atin/ the literal void "reated in Au/ust 19.0. As one survivor
des"ri'ed his e8perien"e immediatel4 after the 'om'in/G KI "lim'ed ;i#i4ama hill and loo&ed do(n. I sa( that ;iroshima had disappeared. . . .
;iroshima #ust didnFt e8ist.K As the a"tual "it4 (as re'uilt and 'e"ame the 'ustlin/ metropolis of toda4@ the K;iroshimaK of the ima/ination
floated free@ pla4in/ its am'i/uous role in the first half "entur4 of our en"ounter (ith nu"lear (eapons. And (hat of the futureL ,ill
;iroshima 0raduall5 fade from our $ultural and politi$al dis$ourseI >he Cold +ar is over@ and (hile nu"lear mena"es
remain@ the threats of the superpo(er nu"lear arms ra"e and of /lo'al thermonu"lear holo"aust have "learl4 e''ed. ?nder these "ir"umstan"es@
"ultural attention to ;iroshima:al(a4s "losel4 lin&ed to 'roader "4"les of nu"lear a(areness and a"tivism:has diminished sharpl4. K=or
most peopleCH the historian Ri"hard ,inear o'served in 199-@ K;iroshima has )e$ome a non-issue.H
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@ A Anal5sis of ;iroshima *on7t helpC it7s too ar$ane
5aul 'o5er is ,erle Curti 5rofessor of ;istor4 emeritus at the ?niversit4 of +is"onsin@ ,adison =allout 1994
pa/e *10-11
>hese ne* historio0raphi$al emphases@ "oupled (ith the 'roader politi"al and "ultural "urrents that flo(ed a"ross Ameri"a in the (a&e
of Eietnam and +ater/ate@ en$oura0ed a s(epti$al reassessment of the re$eived *isdom on man5 topi$s. Inevita)l5
this reassessment in$luded attention to the events of Au0ust 1 and 9@ 19/1C that had ta&en the lives of (ell over one hundred
thousand human 'ein/s Cin"ludin/ lon/-term deaths related to radiation e8posureD and laid the /round(or& for an ever more dan/erous nu"lear
arms ra"e 'et(een the ?nited States and the Soviet ?nion. %4 around 1930@ the reassessment of the A-'om' de"ision laun"hed '4 AlperovitI and
others had 'een /enerall4 (el"omed as stimulatin/ and provo"ative. +ithin the /uild@ it *as *idel5 vie*ed as another
manifestation of the familiar pro$ess )5 *hi$h historians "ontinuall4 reassess the past and Guestion re$eived
interpretations. 7e'ated at s"holarl4 "onferen"es and disse"ted in #ournal arti"les@ the ne( anal4ti" h4potheses (ere 'e/innin/ to ma&e their
appearan"e in "olle/e te8t'oo&s and in "lassroom le"tures. =or most Ameri$ansC ho*everC historiansE de)ates on this topi$
remained ar$ane and remoteC a matter of no $on$ern. ,hile the *or( of AlperovitB @ Sher(in@ and others
$ertainl5 had some )roader impa$t throu0h the ma%or ne*spapers @ intelle"tual revie(s@ and #ournals of opinion@ the
re$eived *isdom a)out the %usti$e of the atomi$-)om) de$ision 0enerall5 retained its s*a5 in 0rassroots
Ameri$a. =or those *ho had em)ra$ed the H9ood ,arH paradi0mC an5 Guestionin0 of >rumanFs oft- repeated
#ustifi"ation of his a"tion $hallen0ed an ima0e of ,orld ,ar II that had )e$ome a $ornerstone of national self-
identit5. If the motives for droppin/ the atomi" 'om' "ould 'e pro'ed and pro'lematiIed '4 historians@ (hat part of the Ameri"an past (as
safe from s&epti"al "riti"al s"rutin4L As historian ,i"hael Kammen (rote in the aftermath of the Smithsonian de'a"le and other "ultural 'attles
involvin/ "onfli"tin/ interpretations of the Ameri"an past@ K;istorians 'e"ome nota'l4 "ontroversial (hen the4 do not perpetuate m4ths@ (hen
the4 do not transmit the re"eived and "onventional (isdom@ (hen the4 "hallen/e the "omfortin/ presen"e of a sta'iliIed pastK:and@ it ma4 'e
added@ (hen ne(s of (hat the4 are up to finall4 /ets out. 5erhaps no issue of the post(ar era "onfirmed this /eneraliIation more dramati"all4
than the an/r4 stru//le over (ho (ould finall4 determine the meanin/ of ;iroshima and <a/asa&iG historians or Kthe people.K
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@ A ;iroshima *on7t $han0e nu$lear poli$5 too mu$h time has lapsed.
?da4 -ohan is the 7ire"tor of Resear"h for Ameri"an ?niversit4Fs <u"lear Studies Institute. <u"learism and the
Be/a"4 of ?.S. ,edia Covera/e of ;iroshima 5resented at the >hin& Outside the %om') <ational outh
Conferen"e on <u"lear Issues@ +ashin/ton 7C@ April *1@ *003
httpG$$(((.(a/in/pea"e.or/$arti"les$*002$0.$*1dmohandnu"learismdanddthedle/a"4.htm
-u$h of the $overa0e of the first fe* da5s after the ;iroshima )om)in0 )ore the stamp of +illiam Fauren$e7s
*or(. M0N !ither dire"tl4 throu/h his <e( or& >imes '4line or throu/h ne(spaper stories 'ased on material handed to #ournalists that
Bauren"e had "rafted@ the media refle"ted to a lar/e de/ree an un"riti"al pro-'om' vie(point. <e(s reports noted@ for e8ample@ that the 'om' had
o'literated an arm4 'ase@ that s"ien"e had no( harnessed the po(er of the universe@ and that reven/e had finall4 'een visited on the Aapanese.
Initial editorial opinion (as almost uniforml4 supportive of the use of the 'om'. M1N As the +ashin/ton 5ost "ommented@ refle"tin/ a
(idespread vie(@ ;o(ever mu"h (e deplore the ne"essit4@ a stru//le to the death "ommits all "om'atants to infli"tin/ a ma8imum amount of
destru"tion on the enem4...) M2N It (asn6t until ei/ht 4ears later that the 5ost appeared to ta&e 'a"& these (ordsG On the da4 of his retirement in
190-@ +ashin/ton 5ost editor ;er' !lliston told a reporter that he had man4 re/rets as he loo&ed 'a"& over his tenure. One thin/ I re/ret is our
editorial support of the A-'om'in/ of Aapan. It didnFt #i'e (ith our e8pressed feelin/ M'efore the 'om' (as droppedN that Aapan (as alread4
'eaten.K M3N All in all@ the initial "overa/e of the atomi" atta"& (as remar&a'l4 faithful to the offi"ial@ pro-'om' vie(point. M9N As 9eneral
9roves "ommented@ most ne(spapers pu'lished our releases in their entiret4.) M10N 5erhaps not surprisin/l4 Cand refle"tin/ the un"riti"al
(artime moodD@ the +ashin/ton 5ress Clu'@ soon after the ;iroshima 'om'in/@ responded to the ne(s '4 offerin/ its mem'ers a ne( drin&@ an
Atomi" Co"&tail. M11N %ut Bauren"e represented a-'om' "hampionin/ at its most vi/ilant and enthusiasti". ;e heralded the 'om' in poeti"@ at
times 'i'li"al terms. And (ith his des"riptions he helped set the predominant ima/e of the a-'om' and of the atomi" era:an enormous@ po(erful
mushroom "loud that held vie(ers in a(e:an ima/e that photo/raph4 and film "emented throu/h repetition. In Bauren"e6s atomi" portraits@ the
vi"tims simpl4 didn6t merit attention@ 'ut the mushroom "loud did. In his e4e(itness a""ount of the <a/asa&i 'om'in/@ for e8ample@ he des"ri'ed
the e8plosion in terms of (onder and in"redulit4G A(e-stru"&@ (e (at"hed Mthe pillar of purple fireN shoot up(ard a 'e"omin/ ever more alive
as it "lim'ed s&4(ard throu/h the "loudsa. It (as a livin/ thin/@ a ne( spe"ies of 'ein/@ 'orn ri/ht 'efore our in"redulous e4esa. MANust (hen it
appeared as thou/h the thin/ has settled do(n a there "ame shootin/ out of the top a /iant mushrooma. >he mushroom top (as even more
alive than the pillar@ seethin/ and 'oilin/ in a (hite fur4 of "ream4 foama As the first mushroom floated off into the 'lue it "han/ed its shape
into a flo(erli&e form@ its /iant petal "urvin/ do(n(ard@ "ream4 (hite outside@ rose-"olored inside.) M1*N In his lon/ <e( or& >imes arti"le@
(hi"h in"luded ei/ht para/raphs on individual "re( mem'ers and others on the mission@ M1-N Bauren"e said virtuall4 nothin/ a'out the vi"tims.
+hen he did@ it (as #ust to dismiss themG 7oes one feel an4 pit4 or "ompassion for the poor devils a'out to dieL <ot (hen one thin&s a'out
5earl ;ar'or and the 7eath ,ar"h on %ataan.) Bauren"e6s dismissal of the vi"tims of the first use of nu"lear (eapons (as not un"ommon.
,edia fo"us on ri/hteous ven/ean"e@ supposed ne"essit4 of the 'om'in/s@ and the te"hnolo/i"al a""omplishment of Ameri"an and Allied s"ien"e
pushed the dead and d4in/ out of the spotli/ht. M1.N 9overnment "ensorship aided in this mar/inaliIation@ espe"iall4 throu/h "ensorship a'out
radiation and of visual eviden"e. >he first photo/raph of Aapanese vi"tims appeared in Bife ma/aIine a'out t(o months after the end of the (ar.
M10N %ut the ma/aIine used a "aption to under"ut the po(er of the photos. >he "aption stated that the photo/rapher reported that MtheN in#uries
loo&ed li&e those he had seen (hen he photo/raphed men 'urned at 5earl ;ar'or.) M11N =or the most part@ photo0raphs of the human
$ost of the atomi$ )om)in0s seldom appeared in the Ameri$an media until the 1910sC W12N )5 *hi$h time the5
*ould have had little influen$e on nu$lear poli$5C *hi$h had full5 a)sor)ed nu$lear arms and po*er into
Ameri$an militar5 plannin0 and $ivilian life.
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@ A ;istori$al ;iroshima 6ro%e$t *ill not aid the anti-nu$lear $amp. Resistan$e to re-
openin0 the issue *ill over*helm their efforts.
5aul 'o5er is ,erle Curti 5rofessor of ;istor4 emeritus at the ?niversit4 of +is"onsin@ ,adison =allout 1994
pa/e *11-13
>hose (ho arti"ulate su"h responses are not interested in de'ate. =or them@ unGuestionin0 support for >rumanEs atomi$-)om)
de$ision )e$omes a test of patriotism. In fa"t@ the5 re%e$t the le0itima$5 of the histori$al enterprise. +hat ri/ht have
4ou@ a mere a"ademi"@ su"h "riti"s are reall4 as&in/@ to pu'lish dissentin/ vie(s on matters a'out (hi"h true patriots "annot possi'l4 hold
differin/ opinionsL As m4 Bouisiana "orrespondent put itG K<o one "an dou'tthIt this horri'le (eapon saved Ameri"an livesK Cemphasis addedD.
>hat pre"isel4 this assertion is@ in fa"t@ a matter of "onsidera'le dou't@ and "ertainl4 open to histori"al inJuir4 and dis"ussion@ (as a position
(hose le/itima"4 he simpl4 "ould not a"&no(led/e. ;e (as left@ therefore@ (ith no alternative 'ut to impu/n the "hara"ter and the inte/rit4 of
those (ho do hold it. >he "onfrontation 'et(een popular memor4 and patrioti" affirmation@ on the one hand@ and the norms of histori"al resear"h
and ar/ument on the other@ "ould hardl4 'e more star&l4 revealed.. +hen even "olumnists Cand +orld +ar II veteransD li&e Russell %a&er of the
<e( or& >imes and the late ,i&e Ro4&o of the Chi"a/o >ri'une@ normall4 'emused o'servers of the passin/ s"ene@ (ere redu"ed to sputterin/
fur4 that an4one:espe"iall4 an4one (ho did not a"tuall4 fi/ht in the (ar:"ould even hint that the atomi"-'om' de"ision involved motives
'e4ond those pu'li"l4 pro"laimed '4 >ruman@ one realiIes the depths of the ideolo/i"al and /enerational "hasms e8posed '4 this de'ate. !ven
the SmithsonianFs se"retar4@ I. ,i"hael ;e4man@ in a postmortem on the "an"eled !nola 9a4 e8hi'it@ /ave the 'a"& of his hand to the historians
(ho had helped plan it@ and i/nored his institutionFs mandate to promote Kthe in"rease and diffusion of &no(led/e@K as he a'#e"tl4 "apitulated to
the e8hi'itFs detra"torsG KIn this important anniversar4 4ear@ veterans and their families (ere e8pe"tin/@ and ri/htl4 so@ that the nation (ould honor
and "ommemorate their valor and sa"rifi"e. >he4 (ere not loo&in/ for anal4sis@ and@ fran&l4@ (e did not /ive enou/h thou/ht to the intense
feelin/s su"h an anal4sis (ould evo&e.K +hether the Kintense feelin/sK aroused '4 thou/htful anal4sis and a 'roader diffusion of the relevant
s"holarship mi/ht in the lon/ run have 'een therapeuti" as Ameri"ans "ontinue to stru//le (ith the meanin/ of ;iroshima and <a/asa&i@ he did
not "onsider. In the fa$e of assumptions li&e this:that Hanal5sisH and Hfeelin0sH are mutuall5 e8$lusiveC and that
*hen passions run hi0hC anal5sis must 0ive *a5 to feelin0s:it is understanda)le that historiansC *ith their
'orin/ insisten"e on resear"h and their readiness to Guestion esta)lished interpretations and m4thi" versions of the past@ should
)e vie*ed as a threat. =or all the ran"or it /enerated@ the !nola 9a4 "ontrovers4 (as onl4 the latest manifestation of a half-"entur4 pro"ess
'4 (hi"h the events of Au/ust 1 and 9@ 19.0@ fi/ured rhetori"all4 in a variet4 of pu'li" dis"ourses. =or man5C the o)literation of
;iroshima and <a0asa(i )rou0ht vi$tor5 in a %ust $auseC spared "ountless Ameri"an lives@ repaid the trea"her4 of 5earl ;ar'or@
and demonstrated a po(erful nations s"ientifi" and te"hnolo/i"al master4. =or others@ it (as needless slau/hter@ s4m'oliIin/ the utter "ollapse of
all ethi"al restraints in modern (arfare. Still others vie(ed it as a "al"ulated move on a lar/er strate/i" "hess'oard. =or antinu$lear
a$tivistsC it *as the ultimate *arnin0. In the fiftieth-anniversar5 5ear@ (ith the "ultural mood 'oth retrospe"tive and
ideolo/i"all4 "har/ed@ attention fo"used on"e a/ain on the ori/inal events in all their #a//ed immedia"4. In the pro"ess@ man5 $itiBens
0rasped:perhaps for the first time:that for several de"ades@ s$holars had )een Guestionin0 the offi$ial
%ustifi$ations ori0inall5 advan$ed )5 5resident >ruman and endlessl4 reiterated thereafter. >he result *as not thou0htful
dis$ussion and the sear$h for a ne*C more histori$all5 defensi)le $onsensusC )ut re$rimination and
a$$usations of )ad faith and dislo4alt4. >he Smithsonian e8hi'ition simpl4 provided a "onte8t for this unfoldin/ "ultural ps4"hodrama.
>he SmithsonianFs lo"ation in the fish'o(l of +ashin/ton /uaranteed that the drama (ould 'e pla4ed out (ith shameless politi"al posturin/ and
the /lare of media pu'li"it4. >hou/h muted@ the "ontrovers4 (ill pro'a'l4 persist so lon/ as politi"ians see "apital in it and vast num'ers of
Ameri"ans:espe"iall4 +orld +ar II veterans:remain "onvin"ed that the atomi" 'om' (as an essential@ (holl4 #ustifia'le means to a ri/hteous
end. %ut historians@ too@ have their "onvi"tions and "ommitments@ and one ou/ht not underestimate the lon/-term po(er of "riti"al histori"al
inJuir4@ even on emotion-laden topi"s. +hatever the ultimate resolution of this divisive and unhapp4 national Juarrel@ ;iroshima and <a/asa&i
seem li&el4 for the foreseea'le future to remain the %anJuoFs /host of +orld +ar II@ perenniall4 "hallen/in/ "omfortin/ /eneraliIations a'out the
"onfli"t and unders"orin/ the disparit4 'et(een the m4thi" past ins"ri'ed in popular memor4 and the past that is the ra( material of histori"al
s"holarship.
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@ A ;iroshima is no* a poor startin0 point It no lon0er 0rasps the pu)li$7s attention in a
manner that7s ne$essar5 for sustained anti-nu$lear $riti$ism
5aul 'o5er is ,erle Curti 5rofessor of ;istor4 emeritus at the ?niversit4 of +is"onsin@ ,adison. ;IROS;I,A
I< A,!RICA< ,!,OR 1991 httpG$$(((.ohiostatepress.or/$'oo&s$CompleteS*057=s$%o4er
S*0=allout$12.pdf
%ut the politi"o-"ultural role of ;iroshima memories@ 'rou/ht to a &een ed/e '4 Aohn ;erse4 in 19.1@ flu$tuated over the 5ears
*ith the $5$les of a$tivism and Guies$en$e in Ameri$aEs lon0 en$ounter *ith the nu$lear threat. As ,i"hael
,andel'aum o'served in 193.@ KAmeri$ans have normall5 i0nored the nu$lear peril. #a$h episode of pu)li$ an8iet5
a)out the )om) has 0iven *a5 to lon0er periods in *hi$h nu$lear *eapons issues *ere the preo$$upation of
the nu$lear spe$ialists alone.H +ith the onset of the Cold +ar@ the Soviet A-'om' test in 19.9@ and >rumanFs /reen li/ht to the
h4dro/en-'om' pro#e"t@ ;iroshima and <a0asa(iC li(e nu$lear a*areness in 0eneralC faded from pu)li$
$ons$iousness. >a(ashi <a0ai s +e of<a/asa&i C1901D offered 0rippin0 testimon5 similar to that of ;erse4 s ;iroshimaC
)ut in an altered $ultural and politi$al $limateC the *or( attra$ted mu$h less attention.
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A-to Kato K
@ A Ima0inin0 potential nu$lear *ars serves as a $olle$tive *arnin0 a0ainst its possi)ilit5
and opens up spa$e for interro0atin0 national values
SeedC 6rofessor of #n0lish literature at the ?niversit5 of FiverpoolC 2000
C7avid@ Ima/inin/ the +orstG S"ien"e =i"tion and <u"lear +ar@) Aournal of Ameri"an Studies of >ur&e4@
Eol. 11@ pp. -9-.9@ httpG$$(((.'il&ent.edu.tr$O#ast$<um'er11$Seed.htmD
A num'er of re"urrin/ features emer/e from these narratives. In virtuall4 ever4 "ase the ?SA pla4s a rea"tive role@ never atta"&in/ first.
Se"ondl4@ the nation7s $apa$it5 to $ope *ith su$h an atta$( )e$omes a test of its morale and for that reason
the nu$lear aftermath@ in the short and lon/ term@ o$$asions an interro0ation of $herished national values. >hirdl4@
'e"ause nu"lear atta"& "an onl4 'e mounted (ith the latest te"hnolo/4@ these novels e8plore an8ieties a'out pro'lems of "ontrol. =inall4 this
fi"tion e8presses a "olle"tive horror of ultimate endin/s. Some human presen"e persists ho(ever tenuous or displa"ed. Cherished human
values li&e reason mi/ht 'e transposed on to e8traterrestrial 'ein/sH or reader mi/ht pla4 out the role of a survivor throu/h the ver4 a"t of
readin/ a narrative (hose deliverer has died. ?ltimatel4 there is an unusual "ir"ularit4 to su"h narratives. '5 deplo5in0 a *hole
ran0e of strate0ies to ima0ine a dreaded futureC the5 fun$tion as *arnin0s a0ainst su$h imminent
developments. >he more the future fails to develop alon0 these ima0ined linesC the more ne$essar5 is the
re$onfirmation of these narratives as mere ima0inar5 e8trapolations.
@ A Ima0inin0 future nu$lear s$enarios ena)les $riti$ism of nu$lear *eapons a)ilit5 to
destro5 all human(ind
=oardC Asso$iate 6rofessor of Reli0ionC AriBona StateC 1993
CAames@ Ima/inin/ <u"lear +eaponsG ;iroshima@ Arma/eddon@ and the Annihilation of the Students of I"hi#o
S"hool@) Aournal of the Ameri"an A"adem4 of Reli/ion@ httpG$$#aar.o8ford#ournals.or/$"/i$reprint$BqE$1$1.pdfD
>his am'ivalen"e a'out ;iroshima has 'een partiall4 ameliorated '4 displa"in/ it (ith Arma/eddon in our ima/ination of nu"lear (eapons In
Amen"a the ima/es of the atomi" 'om'@ parti"ularl4 after the Soviet ?nionFs su""essful test in 19.9 C%o4er.-.1D@ (ere pressed into the servi"e of
apo"al4pti" spe"ulations@ 'oth s"ientifi" and other(ise@ a pro"ess (hi"h has until re"entl4 assi/ned the horror that ;iroshima represented to a
superpo(er (ar in an ima/ined future C"f. 5easeF01*D. Spe"ifi"all4@ ima/es of a nu$lear Arma0eddon have helped us perform
t*o sorts of $ultural tas(s fundamental for ima/inin/ nu"lear (eaponsG those involvin/ differen"e and those involvin/ representation. %4
Kdifferen"eK I mean 'oth the arti$ulation of *hat ma(es nu$lear *eapons different from other *eapons and the
$onseGuent refle$tion on the different human situation en0endered )5 them. %4 KrepresentationK I mean the
e8pressions *hi$h see( to des$ri)e the use of nu$lear *eapons and in"orporate that des"ription into stru"tures of meanin/
Arma/eddon permits us to define the differen$e of nu$lear *eapons )5 their $apa$it5 to destro5 the human
spe$ies in a *ar that no one *ill *in.
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A-to Kato K
@ A >he end of the Cold ,ar ma(es ima0inin0 nu$lear *ars even more important to dispel
the )elief that a nu$lear *ar is *inna)le
,ith the end of the Cold ,ar@ ho(everC apo$al5pti$ ima0er5 itself appears doomedC as our 0eo-politi$al
situation no lon0er sustains its plausi)ilit5 ur ima0es of the nu$lear threat are no* as o)solete as our
strate0ies. ,ithout su$h ima0er5C thou0hC *e are left *ith little to thin( *ith in $ontemplatin0 the
meanin0 of these *eaponsC a situation that $ould *ell prove dan0erous. Sin$e nu$lear *eapons no* appear
to threaten $ities more than the human spe$ies as a *holeC *e mi0ht do *ell to return to ;iroshima to
dis$over their differen$e and the possi)ilities for their representation. At the ver4 least@ doin0 so *ill e8pose
the Arma0eddon ima0er5 as a $ultural $onstru$t rather than a self evident fa$t
@ A #ven if ima0inedC representin0 nu$lear *ar $reates $olle$tive memor5 for resistan$e
7espite their deep suspi"ion of the adeJua"4 of an4 e8pressions@ the survivors relate their narratives in formal ritual and pil/rima/e settin/s
in (hi"h their repetition and redundan"4 seem appropriate. C>hese are@ of "ourse@ the pu'li" rather than the traditional settin/s D >he4 #ustif4
their attention to stor4 and pla"e in terms of preservin/ memor4@ not 'e"ause their stories "an ever 'e full4 understood@ 'ut Kto 'rin/ pea"e K
+ithout an4 "lear understandin/ of (hat politi"al me"hanisms mi/ht 'e reJuired@ the4 "laim that the tellin/ of stories itself "an@ in fa"t@ help
do this >he e8perien"e of the I"hi#o people@ then@ su//ests that nu"lear tal& "an neither 'e full4 denied nor full4 a""ommodated into our sense
of "ommunit4 over time. >he onl5 representation possi)leC thenC strives not to domesti$ate the e8perien$e of the
)om) into human memor5C )ut to use the memor5 of its realit5 for apotropai$ purposes >he realit5 of the
)om) is asserted:indeed must )e asserted:onl5 so that it $an )e refused a permanent pla$e in human
histor5.
@ A Ima0inin0 nu$lear *ar demonstrates it is un*inna)le A<D su$h refle$tions do not *or(
to e8$lusion of envisionin0 past nu$lear *ars
Sin"e the onset of the superpo(er "onfli"t@ nu$lear refle$tion has 5o(ed itself to the Cold ,ar and indul0ed itself in
opposin0 human e8tin$tion As a "onseJuen"e@ the end of the Cold ,ar has meant the o)soles$en$e of not onl5 our
strate0ies to*ard )ut also our ima0es of the nu$lear threat Althou/h e8"luded from our apo"al4pti" o'session@ harder moral
issues have 'een (ith us sin"e 19.0@ moral issues that are as pressin/ no( as the4 (ere thenG Is the instantaneous e8tin"tion of "ities different
from other (ar deathL If usin0 a nu$lear *eapon @or t*oA does not endan0er the human spe$iesC is it permissi)le
under $ertain $onditionsI If soC ho* do *e represent su$h death in our reli0ious and $ultural s5stems of H%ust
*arH and other meanin0s. Su"h Juestions are 'e4ond the ran/e of this historian of reli/ions +hat is "lear is that the efforts of ;iroshima
survivors su//est measurin/ the differen"e of nu"lear death '4 the impossi'ilit4 of theodi"4@ of (hi"h the apo"al4pti" ima/ination is 'ut one
"ulturall4 spe"ifi" and histori"all4 'ound e8pression =ollo(in/ su"h a measurement of differen"e "an help us see that *e have not
a$hieved freedom from nu$lear dan0er in the past fe* 5ears solel5 )e$ause the apo$al5pti$ s$enario seems
less plausi)le and that *e need ne* theolo0i$al and philosophi$al refle$tions. =urthermore@ the survivorsF insisten"e on
the realit4 of referen"es for nu"lear lan/ua/e@ in "ontrast to our o(n "riti"sF insisten"e on the opposite@ affirms that the use of nu$lear
*eapons is indeed possi)le )e$ause it has alread5 happened.
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Spea(in0 a)out nu$lear *ars is ne$essar5 to out the se$re$5 that surround the nu$lear
esta)lishment
SamesC Do$toral student in #n0lish Fiterature at the ?niversit5 of Io*aC 199/
CClair@ %oo& Revie(s@) Con#igurations@ *.*@ -12--21D
Chaloup&a first anal4Ies the politi"s of the antinu"lear movement@ ar/uin/ that it has failed to have a lar/er impa"t 'e"ause it shares (ith
pronu"lear for"es 'oth a K"onfiden"e in a (orld that passes naturall4 into spee"h and (ritin/K and@ more tellin/l4@ Kthe identifi"ation of a
FvaluesF realm--limited 'ut availa'le for politi"al de'ateK Cp. 8iiiD. >(o of the antinu"lear positions that he "riti"iIes are the a""eptan"e of
survival as a universal value and the idea that nu"lear (ar is unspea&a'le. %e"ause the pronu"lear "amp ar/ues that nu"lear (eapons are
ne"essar4 for survival in the fa"e of international threat@ antinu"lear rhetori" 'ased on the need for human survival "an either lead to a
stalemate position or a"tuall4 stren/then the other side. In order to emphasiIe the horrors of nu"lear (ar and there'4 dis"oura/e people from
supportin/ pronu"lear poli"ies@ some people (ould "laim that nu"lear (eapons are Kunspea&a'leKG the horrors of nu"lear (ar /o 'e4ond the
human "apa"it4 for des"ription and su"h a (ar (ould leave no survivors to des"ri'e it. %ut Chaloup&a ar/ues that the idea of
unspea(a)ilit5C instead of en$oura0in0 opposition to nu$lear *eaponsC has silen$ed the voi$es of protest
and a)etted the se$re$5 surroundin0 nu$lear *eapons mana0ement. A lar/e portion of the 'oo& is devoted to
demonstratin/ ho( thorou/hl4 and "overtl4 nu"lear (eapons influen"e our lives. In one "hapter Chaloup&a uses Aa"Jues Ba"anFs anal4sis of
meton4m4@ (hi"h Ba"an "alls the rhetori"al trope of a'sen"e and desire@ in order to ar/ue that Kthe "omputer and the ro'ot are the
meton4mi" pro"esses (e use to deal (ith the nu&eK Cp. 11D. In other (ords@ Kin the no( out-dated metaphor of rationalism@ the "omputer is
the 'rains of this operation@ the 'om' the mus"le. In its ph4si"alit4@ the ro'ot is the en"oded si/n of nu"learismK Cp. .0D. At the same time
that industrial ro)ots are repla$in0 humans in fa$toriesC fi$tional humanoid ro)ots have )e$ome the model
for the ideal humanC e8hi)itin0 a)solute effi$ien$5 and self-$ontrol--e8a$tl5 the Gualities ne$essar5 to
operate *ell a nu$lear arsenal. 5erhaps the most o'vious manifestation of this desire for (idespread ro'ot mentalit4 (as the
popular KAust Sa4 <oK "ampai/n@ (hi"h refused to anal4Ie the "ultural "onditions that ma&e dru/ use an attra"tive alternative to man4 and
instead as&ed us all@ 'ut espe"iall4 "hildren@ to 'e"ome automati" messa/e ma"hines.
Ima0inin0 future nu$lear *ars prevents them
-artinC 6rofessor of So$ial S$ien$es in the S$hool of So$ial S$ien$esC -edia and
Communi$ation at the ?niversit5 of ,ollon0on0C 1942
C'rianC ;o( the 5ea"e ,ovement Should 'e 5reparin/ for <u"lear +arC+ "ulletin of #eace #roposalsC
Mol. 1.C <o. 2C 1942C pp. 1/9-119A
%ut these possi'ilities provide relativel4 little "onsolation for the human disaster of nu"lear (ar@ and "ertainl4 (ould not #ustif4 an4 poli"4 (hi"h
si/nifi"antl4 in"reased the ris& of nu"lear (ar. It is in their impli$ations for the present that pea$e movement a$tivities
relatin0 to nu$lear *ar must )e assessed. It is m4 'elief that preparation for nu$lear *ar '4 the pea"e movement *ould
redu$e the $han$e of nu$lear *ar )5 providin0 a visi)le threat to the other*ise un$hallen0ed $ontinuan$e of
e8istin0 politi$al institutions. <ational de"ision-ma&ers ma4 (ish to avoid nu"lear (ar to save their o(n lives@ 'ut the4 have
demonstrated a "ontinued (illin/ness to ris& nu"lear (ar@ 'oth in "rises and "onfrontations and throu/h the ver4 e8isten"e of nu"lear arsenals@
throu/h the poli"ies the4 have promoted and the institutions the4 have "onstru"ted and supported. >his institutionalised ris( of
nu$lear *ar *ill seem less a$$epta)le if one $onseGuen$e of $ontinued preparations for *ar *ere a ma%or
$hallen0e to the $omplete s5stem of politi$al and e$onomi$ po*er and privile0e. <u"lear (eapons states have refrained
from nu"lear (ar thus far not primaril4 'e"ause of their per"eption of the human disaster of nu"lear (ar 'ut 'e"ause of the possi'le politi"al
"onseJuen"es. A prepared pea"e movement (ould ensure that su"h politi"al "onseJuen"es are as serious as possi'le.
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@ A <u$lear *ar $auses an authoritarian $ra$(do*n on $ivil li)erties and derails lon0-term
efforts at disarmament
Mol. 1.C <o. 2C 1942C pp. 1/9-119A
In addition to the important ph4si"al effe"ts of nu"lear (ar there (ould 'e important indire"t politi"al effe"ts. It seems ver4 li&el4 that there
*ould )e stron0 moves to maintain or esta)lish authoritarian rule as a response to $rises pre$edin0 or
follo*in0 nu$lear *ar. !ver sin"e ;iroshima@ the threat of nu$lear destru$tion has )een used to prop up repressive
institutionsC under the prete8t of defendin0 a0ainst the Eenem5E. >he a$tualit5 of nu$lear *ar $ould easil5
result in the $ulmination of this trend. Bar/e se/ments of the population "ould 'e manipulated to support a repressive re/ime under
the ne"essit4 to defend a/ainst further threats or to o'tain reven/e. A limited nu"lear (ar mi/ht &ill some hundreds of thousands or tens of
millions of people@ surel4 a ma#or tra/ed4. %ut another tra0ed5 $ould also resultJ the esta)lishmentC possi)l5 for de$adesC
of repressive $ivilian or militar5 rule in "ountries su"h as Ital4@ Australia and the ?S@ even if the4 (ere not dire"tl4 involved in the
(ar. >he possi)ilit5 of 0rassroots mo)ilisation for disarmament and pea$e *ould )e 0reatl5 redu$ed even from
its present levels. =or su"h developments the people and the pea"e movements of the (orld are lar/el4 unprepared.
@ A 6reparin0 for nu$lear *ar in$rease the su$$ess of stru00les for so$ial %usti$e A<D a
nu$lear *ar *ould )olster 0lo)al statism and i0noran$e of mar0inal populations
Mol. 1.C <o. 2C 1942C pp. 1/9-119A
>he primar5 o)%e$tive of national se$urit5 )ureau$ra$ies in the event of nu$lear *ar is survival of the state
apparatus. >his has t(o "omponentsG "ontinued defen"e a/ainst the outside enem4@ and defen"e a/ainst "hallen/es raised '4 the native
population. >he health and *elfare of the 0eneral population is a se$ondar5 $onsiderationC mainl4 important in its
effe"ts on the t(o primar4 /oals. >his emphasis is refle"ted in preparations for the survival of &e4 offi"ials@ for "ontinuit4 of offi"ial de"ision-
ma&in/ apparatuses and "ommuni"ations@ and for Juellin/ F"ivil distur'an"esF. In the a'sen"e of an4 si/nifi"ant "ountervailin/ for"e@ a nu$lear
*ar *ill not )e the end of *ar )ut the )e0innin0 of the a0e of man5 nu$lear *ars. Althou/h nu"lear (ar ma4 lead to
mass revulsion@ there (ill also 'e stron/ /overnment and "itiIen pressures for retaliation@ reven/e@ efforts to Fdo 'etter ne8t timeF and not to 'e
"au/ht unprepared. >he rise of <aIism after +orld +ar I should point to the dan/er. S"enarios for +orld +ars IE@ E@ EI and so forth ma4 'e
repulsive@ 'ut "annot 'e dis"ounted solel4 for that reason. 7urin/ +orld +ar II@ several &e4 /roups in the ?S developed plans for the post-(ar
(orld.M0N ,ore /enerall4@ post-(ar politi"al and e"onomi" "onsiderations pla4ed a lar/e role in man4 de"isions@ militar4 and other(ise@ durin/
the (ar. >he same pattern is 'ein/ and (ill 'e repla4ed prior to and durin/ a nu"lear (ar. It is not for la"& of an4thin/ 'etter to do that nu"lear
strate/ists have ela'orated numerous s"enarios for nu"lear (ar@ re"over4 and future (ars. 7urin/ and after a nu"lear "risis or (ar@ po*erful
interest 0roups *ill attempt to s*a5 developments throu0h mana/ement of the ne(s@ mo'ilisation of s4mpatheti" /roups@
$reatin0 s$ape0oatsC suppressin0 dissentC and usin/ man4 other me"hanisms familiar to us toda4. If these developments are to 'e
opposed@ pea$e a$tivists need to )e prepared to a$t durin0 nu$lear $risis and nu$lear *ar and after*ards.
6reparation for nu$lear *ar )5 the pea$e movement $ould in$rease the $han$es of su$$ess in stru00les for
so$ial %usti$eC espe$iall5 in the poor $ountriesC durin0 a period of $haos in the ri$h $ountries resultin0 from
nu$lear *ar or nu$lear $risis.
9-
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A-to Kovel
@ A Kovel7s !te$hno$ra$5+ thesis is *ron0 and offers no es$ape
CaffentBis )evie* o#: 3gainst the State o# 1uclear 8error by 9oel Aovel B 1944
C. 9eor/e CaffentIis is a professor of philosoph4 at the ?niversit4 of Southern ,aine and the author of Clipped
Coins@ A'used +ords and Civil 9overnment So"ial >e8t@ <o. 19$*0 CAutumn@ 1933D@ pp. -00--1. Sta'le ?RBG
httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$.1119*
KovelFs position is s4mptomati" of the /eneral thin&in/ of the ?S antinu"lear (ar movement. >hese people seem not
to understand the reasons 'ehind the nu"lear 'uildup and star (ars s"enarios of the 1930s. It doesnFt arise from some
irrational KparanoiaK of insane te"hno"rats. Capitalist planners and strate/ists are sensin/ that the (orld is in"reasin/l4 /ettin/ out of
their "ontrol. 7esirin/ to &eep their po(er@ their privile/es and their profits Cnot an irrational demand at thatD@ the leadin/ "apitalist po(er
developed nu"lear (eapons as it 'e"ame "lear that lar/e-s"ale K"onventional armiesK "ould not 'e &ept in the field permanentl4 after ++II and
this (as espe"iall4 true after Eietnam ... ?S (a/es are still too hi/h. >hese (eapons undou'tedl4 Ksta'iliIedK the situation in "ertain parts of the
planet C!urope espe"iall4D 'ut in the meantime man4 other "ru"ial areas in Asia@ Afri"a and South Ameri"a "apitalist rule 'e"ame fra/ile. >hese
insta'ilities have in"reased so that even after the enormous pressure e8erted '4 the (orld depression of the earl4 1930s@ in effe"t@ a mass of
"oups@ insurre"tions@ "ounter-"oups@ "ounter-revolutions@ et".@ are riddlin/ the field of "ontrol to su"h a point that an4 fl4in/ sau"er o'server
(ould "laim that a ne( (orld (ar is under (a4. >hese stru//les indi"ate that man4 millions on the planet have /iven "onsideration to the 'alan"e
of violen"e and de"ided that their lives are so horri'le (ith prospe"ts /ettin/ (orse@ that the threat of nu"lear (eapons is no pro'lem and (onFt
hinder them. >his is the nu"lear "risis of the da4@ nu"lear (eapons are o'solete. CapitalFs rea"tion@ aside from the ta"ti"s of starvation@ has 'een a
/i/anti" in"rease in the level of a"tual and potential violen"e in sto"&. %ut there is a despair in the 'lusterH there is a fear that the ver4 (eapons
'ein/ produ"ed and pur"hased (ill not do the K#o'.K Kovel@ on the "ontrar4@ (ith mu"h of the present antinu"lear (ar movement still "lin/s
to the fair4 tale of Kte"hno"ra"4K and to a fetishism of Kfetishism.K A""ordin/ to Kovel@ the stru"ture of the Knu"lear stateK "an 'e
redu"ed to a fa"e-off of three attitudes or modes of "ons"iousnessG CaD the te"hno"rati"@ C'D the terroriIed masses and C"D the hopers. %ut is
"apitalism and the "lass stru//le a matter of attitudesL Kovel is not the first to redu"e "apitalism to the te"hno"rati" attitudeH this has a lon/
herita/e that has as its prede"essors +e'erFs and SimmelFs "on"ept of "apital as a Juantif4in/@ "al"ulatin/ attitude to the (orld@ in the Bu&a"s of
;istor4 and Class Cons"iousness (ho identifies "apitalism (ith a reif4in/ attitude to(ards the (orld@ and in the later ;eide//er (ho eJuates
te"hnolo/4 (ith a parti"ular Kframin/K of realit4. %ut "apitalism is a histori"al s4stem of so"ial relations that has thro(n up man4 different
attitudes in the "ourse of its histor4G the Kromanti" rea"tionK is as mu"h a "apitalist attitude as the K,r. S"roo/eK one@ ;itler is as mu"h a "apitalist
politi"ian as Sir Anthon4 !den@ ;eisen'er/ as mu"h a "apitalist s"ientist as <e(ton. +hen 4ou /rasp for a t4pi"all4 "apitalist KattitudeK 4ou
"lut"h at stra(s@ man4@ man4 stra(s. >he politi"al "onseJuen"e of KovelFs t4pe of anal4sis is the ta"ti"s of evasion. 5osin/ te"hnolo/4 as
the pro'lem instead of "apitalism "reates an eas4 (a4 not to "onfront the state. >he ,a"hine is /uilt4@ (e are /uilt4@ not
+ein'er/er@ not Ro"&efeller@ not the I,= nor the %an& of Ameri"a. All the "on"rete for"es of ?S "apitalism@ of (hi"h the militar4-industrial
"omple8 represents the hi/hest e8pres- sion@ appear to 'e irrelevant from KovelFs perspe"tives. All our pro'lems emanate from our
"ons"iousness@ from these attitudes. Inevita'l4 su"h a politi"s de/enerates into moral e8hortation and Juasi-reli/ious
rantin/.
9.
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Aff K Core
A-to Kovel
@ A Kovel7s !sufferin0 and terroriBation+ thesis is methodolo0i$all5 fla*ed and illo0i$al
Consider the K"ase histor4K that Kovel /ives to illustrate nu"lear terroriIation. It is that of a 4oun/ (oman@ apparentl4
'rou/ht up in KEolvo "ountr4K Ci.e.@ middle "lass su'ur'sD@ (ho /oes into the =reeIe "ampai/n as her first Kpoliti"al involvement.K She
then plans to /et involved (ith a "ivil diso'edien"e C".d.D a"tion C(hi"h@ from the details /iven@ I surmise to 'e outside the /ates of a Conne"ti"ut
su'marine 4ard laun"hin/ the >rident nu"lear su'D. Kovel (rites@ KSomeho(@ despite all the politi"al sense the a"tion had to her@
despite the trainin/ she had re"eived in nonviolen"e to ensure her safet4@ despite ever4thin/ F'etterF or Fhi/herF in her that "alled out to ma&e this
seemin/l4 lo/i"al step@ she found herself 'e"omin/ paral4Ied.K Cp. 01@ our itali"sD She eventuall4 drops out of the a"tion and /oes 'a"&
to the =reeIe "ampai/n. +h4L Could it 'e that sin"e she (as 'rou/ht up in a Conne"ti"ut su'ur' she &ne( that man4 of the "ops around 9roton@
Conn.@ the site of the a"tion@ are &no(n K.K.K. mem'ers or supportersL Could it 'e that she surmised that the >rident is a hi/h priorit4 item in the
?S arsenal and that its laun"hin/ (ill attra"t man4 =.%.I. operatives (ho mi/ht investi/ate and later intimidate the protesters- ma&in/ /ettin/ a
#o' even harder for a 4oun/ (omanL Could it 'e@ perhaps@ that this 4oun/ (oman KdespairedK of this t4pe of a"tion 'e"ause
it didnFt appear that ".d. (ill do an4thin/ to stop the >ridentL <o@ sa4s Kovel. It must 'e that she (as nu"lear
terroriIed. ?hat evidence does he giveC 3 dream she has many days later a dream man4 4oun/ people have had@ of 'om'ers
"omin/ over her to(n to drop the %om' on her. >his dream is supposed to reveal theKterroriIationK that someho( /oes a'ove and 'e4ond the
KrealK "ir"umstan"es of politi"al "hoi"e@ 'e"ause the dream (as one she had (hen she (as a "hild e8pressin/ the Ke8treme de/ree of fear that had
'een instilled into her as a little /irl.K %ut (hat is "ause and (hat is effe"t hereL Is the "hildhood fantas4 the "ause of her a"tion Cor
nona"tionD or are the "ir"umstan"es surroundin/ the de"ision evo"ative of the dreamL =or e8ample@ there is real dan/er in demonstratin/
in front of a militar4 'ase and perhaps the 4oun/ (oman (as not so /ulli'le as to 'elieve (hat Kovel tells us@ viI.@
nonviolen"e trainin/ (ould ensure her safet4.
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A-to Kovel
@ A Kovel7s !te$hno$ra$5+ thesis rests on fla*ed ps5$hoanal5sis
In the ?S@ (here ideolo/i"al hand-me-do(ns from !urope are forever popular@ the essa4 of Aonathan S"hell@ >he =ate of the !arth@ that opened
up the 30s mi/ht 'e a fittin/ e8ample of these tenden"ies. %ut a 'oo& '4 Aoel Kovel@ A/ainst the State of <u"lear >error@ is 'oth more KleftishK
and more Ksophisti"ated@K so it (ill perhaps /ive the flavor of the Ameri"an Kde'ateK in a more unadulterated dose. In this revie( I (ill /ive a
short s4nopsis of KovelFs ar/ument and ma&e some "omments upon it. Aust for the re"ord@ Kovel is a ps4"hotherapist 'ased in <C
and has 'een a (or&er in field of =reudo-,ar8 theor4 for some time. >he prime anal4ti" notion that Kovel posits is te"hno"ra"4
for Kthe nu"lear state ... is the ultimate development of te"hno"ra"4 in the politi"al sphere.K %ut (hat is
Kte"hno"ra"4KL K>e"hno"ra"4 ma4 'e defined as s"ien"e in the servi"e of domination.K Continuin/ this ta8onom4 further@
"apitalism is su'suma'le under te"hno"ra"4 for it is@ a""ordin/ to Kovel@ a KmanifestationK if it@ ;o( soL Kove` ans(ers (ith a Juestions@ K=or is
not "apital te"hno"rati" at heart- dominatin/ the (orld throu/h the for"i'le "onversion of realit4 into num'er@ i.e.@ mone4LK ;e "ontinuesG
Capitalism arose throu/h a universaliIation of the "al"ulatin/ attitudeH and as it rose further and further@ it in"reasin/l4 identified its fortunes (ith
those of the ma"hine. ,odern "apitalist produ"tion has as a result 'e"ome "ompletel4 a'sor'ed '4 te"hno"ra"4 Cin"ludin/ the me"haniIation of
(or& and its "ontrol '4 Ks"ientifi" mana/ementKD. =urtherG KCapitalism involves the te"hnolo/i"al domination of t(o entitiesG human a"tivities
transformed into la'or po(er@ (a/es@ surplus-value@ and "apital itselfH and nature@ (hi"h is transformed into ra( materials and pure Juantit4
Msi"N.K Sin"e@ a""ordin/ to Kovel@ human a"tivit4 is an Ke8pression of human nature@K he "on"ludes that te"hnolo/4 is domination of nature tout
"ourt. %ut (h4 should an4one (ant to Kdominate natureKL Kovel finds the ans(er in a &ind of ori/inal sin sproutin/ in the
universal "radle of man&ind. As a foetus and an infant (e all apparentl4 had an e8perien"e that Kovel@ amon/ others@ des"ri'es as an e8perien"e
of Kun"onditional omnipoten"eK--sin"e all oneFs needs are immediatel4 satisfied (ithout effort-'ut (ith the end of infan"4 this K!deni"K
state ends. %efore I /o on to des"ri'e KovelFs anal4sis of the "onseJuen"es of this !8pulsion from !den somethin/ should 'e said of this
"on"eption of the first e8perien"es of a human. >hat su"h a pe"uliar m4th of a universal un"onditional omnipoten"e "an 'e
ta&en seriousl4 '4 an adult in the late t(entieth "entur4 is hard for me to "omprehend. =irst@ even if Kall our immediate needs (ere
satisfied (ithout effort@K it seems farfet"hed and self-in"riminatin/ to "all this a per"eption of Komnipoten"e.K %ut more
importantl4@ prior to this per"eption@ (hat (e &no( a'out the effe"ts of the environment on the foetus@ from 'rain dama/e
"aused '4 poor nutrition or starvation to ph4si"al traumas due to 'eatin/s and rapes@ either marital or other(ise@ of the mother@ must $onvin$e
us that the *om) is hardl5 the automated pleasure dome that ps5$hoanal5sts ima0ine. =urther@ (hen (e e8amine the
a"tual life of infants around the planet one "an hardl4 sa4 that even a fra"tion of their needs are met . . . and the4 &no( it. %ut even /rantin/
Kovel his Komnipoten"eK (hat happens (hen it endsL >he rea"tion is hatred@ paranoia and a sense of perse"ution in the 'reast of the little "hild.
In a de"isive sta/e of this pro"ess@ an attempt to use thou/ht and ma/i" /estures to 'rin/ the (orld 'a"& into the ori/inal state is ventured. It is in
this rea"tion that the root of the KCartesian-te"hno"rati" attitudeK is foundG a K/randiose selfF surrounded '4 a ne"essar4@ 'ut separated@ nature
(hi"h is mastered '4 ma"hines and num'ers reaffirms the Klost omnipoten"eK of the foetus. >he %om' is simpl4 the most spe"ta"ular Cand
insaneD produ"t of this te"hno"rati" attitude@ a""ordin/ to Kovel.
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@ A Kovel7s >e$hno$ra$5 $ritiGue leaves va$uum that empo*ers the *orst aspe$ts of the
far-ri0ht
One last remar&G althou/h Kovel never dire"tl4 mentions him@ the presen"e of ;eide//er "an 'e felt 'ehind mu"h of
A/ainst the State of <u"lear >error. >his is not unusual@ 'e"ause there has 'een a remar&a'le attempt '4 parts of the left in the
1930s to re"uperate ;eide//er under the /uise of the humanist "on"ern (ith su'#e"tive fulfillment and the over"omin/ of
te"hnolo/i"al domination. +hat an o'no8ious and dis/ustin/ operation` 7efeat "an lead to despair@ 'ut must it "ome to this /rovellin/
'efore the <aIi philosopherL ,an4 a < leftish intelle"tual (ho (ould 'e horrified to tou"h a 5BO leaflet Juotes this philosopher of the death
"amps (ith slavish deli/ht. ;istor4 is a ni/htmare@ 'ut must its #o&es 'e forever so "ruelL ;o( man4 times must it 'e said the
;eide//erFs famous "ritiJue of te"hnolo/4 is purel4 propaedeuti" to the (or& of the Beader (ho ;eide//er advises
not to for/et that the +ill is prior to all the te"hnolo/i"al instruments of domination. ;eide//er insists on the
priorit4 of the (ill to po(er over the "onditions of te"hnolo/i"al effi"ien"4. >hat is his humanismG a determined
hand is more important than (hether 4ou &ill 4our vi"tims (ith 'ullets@ "4anide pellets@ flames or nu"lear 'om's. +ith su"h an
opposition@ Rea/an is no surprise.
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A-to Kovel
@ A Refusal *on7t re-invi0orate politi$al a$tion. >he ver5 pro%e$t hopes *ill emer0e rests on
the efforts for those Kovel indi$ts
,oreover@ (e mi/ht as&@ /iven the situation as he des"ri'es it@ (h4 does Kovel have an4 K;opeK for the terroriIed dupes
or@ indeed@ for the mad te"hno"ratsL >he hope lies in lin&in/ the immediate Kspontaneous outra/e of people a/ainst the
%om'K (ith the mediated Kspirit of li'eration.K >his is the "lassi" (a4 that the philosopher-&in/s from 5lato throu/h Benin
have seen their pro#e"t. Kovel spe"ialiIes this lo/i" for the antinu"lear (ar movement. On the one side@ there are
man4 in Kfear and trem'lin/K for their o(n lives@ on the other@ there is a Kuniversal interest@K Ka hi/her la(@K a
Ktrans"endentK patterned on Kthe /reat eman"ipatin/ s4stems ... that is@ Christianit4 and So"ialism 'efore the4 (ere "orrupted '4
Chur"h and state.K >hose (ho are to lin& the Kspontaneous outra/eK and immediate fear (ith these Khi/her prin"iplesK are ones that have the
Jualit4 of Kmoral inte/rit4K in the fa"e of the %om'. >hese people are animated '4 Khope@K '4 a KfaithK in a prefi/urative Kvision.K Indeed@
KovelFs hope lies in the Khopers@K in those (ho Ksee a (orld 'e4ond the nation-state@ 'e4ond te"hno"ra"4@ 'e4ond e"onomi" domination@
'e4ond ra"ism@ 'e4ond se8ismH a utopian vision@ not here and not loomin/@ 'ut not to 'e put off either.K Someho( these seers@ these hopers@
these faithful ones@ these@ 4es@ Kshepherds of %ein/K are to lead the terroriIed d(ellers of the "ave into the sunshine of
postnu"lear realit4. Kovel sees himself as a spo&esperson not for the =reeIe Campai/n-(hi"h he "riti"iIes as havin/ Ka lin/erin/ faith in
'our/eois demo"ra"4K and 'ein/ Kvulnera'le to te"hno"rati" manipulationK-'ut of the Kdire"t a"tionK se"tor of the antinu"lear (eapons
movement. It is in those (ho en/a/e in nonviolent "ivil diso'edien"e C'lo"&a/es@ trespassin/@ et".D that Kovel finds the seeds of hope for a Kso"ial
transformation.K >hus the familiar Kfen"e #umper@K (ho in a "arefull4 rehearsed ritual "lim's over a fen"e of an air'ase or a
nu"lear (eapons depot then #umps into the (aitin/ arms of a militar4 poli"eman (ho arrests him or her on the spot@
'e"omes in this period (hat used to 'e "alled a Krevolutionar4 su'#e"t.K %ut are these people and their a"tion "apa'le
of initiatin/ the &ind of antistate transformation (hose result (ould 'e a Kmode of produ"tionK "hara"teriIed '4 all the K/oodK and
Kde"entK ad#e"tives one "an "on"atenateL CKovelFs list is almost definitiveG Knonviolent@ li'ertarian@ antimilitaristi"@ anti-imperial@ antite"hno"rati"@
feminist@ nonra"ist@ de"entraliIed@ e"olo/i"al . .KD >he 'est (a4 to "onsider KovelFs per"eption is '4 loo&in/ at the presupposi- tions of Kfen"e
#umpin/K and other nonviolent ".d. a"tions. +ell@ even 'efore 4ou "an /et involved in su"h a"tions 4ou must first pass throu/h a ".d. trainin/
"ourse. Su"h a "ourse Csimilar in an un"omforta'le (a4 to the ra/e for KestK or Khuman potentialK trainin/ KsessionsK in the 1920sD is the
appli"ation of an almost >a4loristi" intelli/en"e to politi"al a"tivism. >he instru"tors tell 4ou the e8a"t num'er of in"hes 4ou must 'e (hen
addressin/ a poli"eman-not too far to provo&e a Kdistan"in/ effe"tK not too "lose to impl4 Khostilit4K or KthreatK-the4 e8pand (ith enormous
minutia on the proper (a4s of l4in/ limp and@ most importantl4@ the4 e8pound on the >a4lorism of the mind. I.e.@ ho( the avera/e person must
use the proper mental pro"edures to "ontrol their a//ressiveness and hostilit4 in the fa"e of the arrest or maltreatment of themselves and their
friends. >hese mental te"hniJues and the ph4si"al 'ehavior seJuen"es that are to mat"h them ma&e the ".d. "ourse a trainin/ in voluntar4 self-
repression and the "ontrol of Kinitiative.K !ver4thin/ in the usual ".d. Ka"tionK must 'e preplanned and even delivered to the state 'eforehand.
Sometimes the theorists in the nonviolent Kdire"t a"tionK movement li&e Kovel see in these a"tions a prefi/uration of a future so"iet4. If it is@ the
prefi/ured so"iet4 appears to 'e one that "ontinuall4 advises repression of the self@ an enormous amount of dis"ipline C'oth inner and outerD for a
Khi/her la(K that is so Ktrans"endentK that 4ou mi/ht as (ell "all it K9od.K >here is a rather holier-than-thou@ "hur"h4 odor to the (hole thin/.
Indeed@ the "ontrol of the a"tion is so pre"ise that 4ou (onder if the "ate/or4 of a"tion is appli"a'le at all@ in the same (a4 that the in/estin/ of
the hol4 (afer is hardl4 su'suma'le under the "ate/or4 of eatin/. =or e8ample@ 4ou "an onl4 KdoK ".d. in (ell pres"ri'ed lo"ales and times Ce./.
the entran"es of spe"ifi" /overnmental institutions durin/ the da4D. If 4ou and 4our friends de"ide to 'lo"& the movement of one
of the thousands of tru"&s that "ommonl4 "riss"ross the hi/h(a4s loaded (ith nu"lear-(eapons "arriers or material for nu"lear
'om's (ithout /oin/ throu/h the proper pro"edures@ most pro'a'l4 the a"tions (ould 'e "alled KviolentK '4 our ".d.
friends.
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A-to <ormativit5&6re-=iat&S$hla0-stl5e K7s
!S$hla0-ar0s+ disen0a0es us on an5 politi$al issue. >hat7s dan0erous and anti-politi$al
Col)5 70.
Cet al -- Anne Col'4 is a senior s"holar at the Carne/ie =oundation for the Advan"ement of >ea"hin/. She is the former dire"tor of the ;enr4
,urra4 Resear"h Center at the Rad"liffe Institute@ ;arvard ?niversit4. Chan/e. <ovem'er le8isD
One dimension "on"erns under/raduatesF politi"al en/a/ement@ even (ith Kpoliti"alK defined 'roadl4 to
in"lude all a"tivities intended to influen"e so"ial and politi"al institutions@ 'eliefs@ and pra"ti"es or to affe"t
pro"esses and poli"ies relatin/ to "ommunit4 (elfare. >he other /ap is in assessment of the a"tual effe"ts of the moral and "ivi"
edu"ation pro/rams under (a4. Our resear"h "onvin"ed us that 'oth of these areas need more attention@ and the4 are the fo"us of a ne( three-
4ear 5oliti"al !n/a/ement 5ro#e"t at >he Carne/ie =oundation for the Advan"ement of >ea"hin/. +e have 'e/un a stud4 of the impa"t on
parti"ipatin/ students of *1 pro/rams that have the e8pli"it /oal of edu"atin/ for politi"al understandin/ and en/a/ement. Althou/h the *1
"ourses and pro/rams have a (ide arra4 of /oals and emplo4 man4 different strate/ies@ (e have identified
four /oals and si8 peda/o/ies for spe"ial attention. >he /oals are politi"al identit4@ effi"a"4@ s&ills@ and deli'eration$ de"ision-
ma&in/. >he peda/o/ies are "ommunit4 pla"ements@ interaction *ith political leaders politi"al a"tion pro#e"ts@ politi"al resear"h
pro#e"ts@ politi"al dis"ussion and de'ate@ and "riti"al refle"tion. =OR >;! =?>?R! Our field(or& and the "urrent appli"ations of (hat (e have
learned in man4 institutions have /iven us the sense that interest is /ro(in/ in supportin/ under/raduatesF development as ethi"al@ "ommitted@
and en/a/ed human 'ein/s and "itiIens. +e "ertainl4 hope this is the "ase@ 'e"ause our "ountr4 and (orld are fa"in/ "hallen/es
that reJuire@ perhaps more than ever@ "itiIens (ho edu"ate themselves a'out the issues@ thin& hard a'out (hat is
ri/ht@ spea& up@ and ta&e a"tion as "reativel4 and strate/i"all4 as the4 "an. >he /lo'al turmoil that
preo""upies so man4 of us no( unders"ores the importan"e of the moral and "ivi" life of our nation at ever4 level.
If (e are to meet toda4Fs "hallen/es and those of the future@ (e must do all (e "an to ensure that
su""eedin/ /enerations /ain the understandin/@ motivation@ and s&ills needed to preserve and promote our
hi/hest demo"rati" ideals.
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AndC -ovin0 a*a5 from anti-politi$s X vital to $he$( ever5 da5 pro)lems and ma$ro-issue
that ris( serious atro$it5.
Small P2
CAonathan@ former Ameri"orps EIS>A for the ;uman Servi"es Coalition@ ,ovin/ =or(ard@) 8he 9ournal #or Civic
Commitment@ Sprin/@ httpG$$(((.m".mari"opa.edu$other$en/a/ement$Aournal$Issue2$Small.#spD
+hat (ill 'e the "hallen/es of the ne( millenniumL And ho( should (e eJuip 4oun/ people to fa"e these "hallen/esL +hile (e "annot 'e sure
of the e8a"t nature of the "hallen/es@ (e "an sa4 uneJuivo"all4 that human&ind (ill fa"e them to/ether. If the end of the t(entieth "entur4
mar&ed the triumph of the "apitalists@ individualism@ and personal responsi'ilit4@ the ne( "entur4 (ill present "hallen/es that reJuire "olle"tive a"tion@
unit4@ and enli/htened self-interest. Confrontin/ /lo'al (armin/@ depleted natural resour"es@ /lo'al super viruses@ /lo'al "rime
s4ndi"ates@ and multinational "orporations (ith no "ons"ien"e and no a""ounta'ilit4 (ill reJuire "ooperation@ openness@ honest4@ "ompromise@
and most of all solidarit4 ideals not e8a"tl4 "ultivated in the t(entieth "entur4. +e "an no lon/er suffer to see life throu/h the tin4 lens of our
o(n e8isten"e. <ever in the histor4 of the (orld has our "olle"tive fate 'een so intri"atel4 inter(oven. ur ver5 e8isten$e depends upon
our a'ilit4 to adapt to this ne( paradi/m@ to envision a more "ohesive so"iet4. +ith human&ind6s ne8t /reat "hallen/e "omes also /reat
opportunit4. Ironi"all4@ modern individualism 'a"&ed us into a "orner. +e have t(o "hoi"es@ (or& to/ether in solidarit4 or perish
to0ether in alienation . ?nli&e an4 other "risis 'efore@ the noose is trul4 around the ne"& of the (hole (orld at on"e. 9lo'al super viruses (ill
rava/e ri"h and poor ali&e@ developed and developin/ nations@ (hite and 'la"&@ (oman@ man@ and "hild. 9lo'al (armin/ and dama/e to the
environment (ill affe"t "limate "han/e and destro4 e"os4stems a"ross the /lo'e. Air pollution (ill for"e /as mas&s on our fa"es@ our depleted
atmosphere (ill ma&e a predator of the sun@ and "hemi"als (ill invade and "orrupt our (ater supplies. !ver4 sin/le da4 (e are presented the
opportunit4 to "han/e our "urrent "ourse@ to survive modernit4 in a manner 'efittin/ our 'etter nature. >hrou/h Iealous "ooperation and
radi"al solidarit4 (e "an alter the "ourse of human events. Re/ardin/ the pra"ti"al matter of eJuippin/ 4oun/ people to fa"e the "hallen/es
of a /lo'al@ inter"onne"ted (orld@ (e need to tea"h "ooperation@ "ommunit4@ solidarit4@ 'alan"e and toleran"e in s"hools. +e need to ta&e a holisti"
approa"h to edu"ation. StandardiIed test s"ores alone (ill not 'e/in to prepare 4oun/ people for the (orld the4 (ill inherit. >he three staples of traditional edu"ation
Creadin/@ (ritin/@ and arithmeti"D need to 'e supplemented '4 three "ornerstones of a modern edu"ation@ e8posure@ e8posure@ and more e8posure. ;o( "an (e tea"h
solidarit4L ;o( "an (e tea"h "ommunit4 in the a/e of ru//ed individualismL ;o( "an (e "ounter'alan"e "rass "ommer"ialism and materialismL ;o( "an (e impart
the true meanin/ of po(erL >hese are the edu"ational "hallen/es (e fa"e in the ne( "entur4. It (ill reJuire a radi"al transformation of our "on"eption
of edu"ation. +e6ll need to trust a 'it more@ "ontrol a 'it less@ and put our faith in the potential of 4outh to ma&e sense of their (orld. In addition to a de"laration
of the /auntlet set 'efore edu"ators in the t(ent4-first "entur4@ this paper is a proposal and a "ase stud4 of sorts to(ard a ne( paradi/m of so"ial #usti"e and "ivi"
en/a/ement edu"ation. ?nfortunatel4@ the "urrent peda/o/i"al "limate of pu'li" K-1* edu"ation does not lend itself (ell to an e8plorator4 stud4 and trial of holisti"
edu"ation. ConseJuentl4@ this proposal and "ase stud4 tar/ets a hi/her edu"ation model. Spe"ifi"all4@ (e (ill loo& at some possi'ilities for a lar/e "ommunit4 "olle/e
in an ur'an settin/ (ith a diverse student 'od4. Our /uides throu/h this pro"ess are spe"ifi"all4 identified '4 the #ournal !Juit4 and !8"ellen"e in !du"ation. >he
d4nami" interpla4 'et(een ideas of so"ial #usti"e@ "ivi" en/a/ement@ and servi"e learnin/ in edu"ation *ill )e the lantern in the dar( $ave of
un$ertaint5. As su"h@ a simple and strai/htfor(ard e8planation of the three terms is helpful to dire"t this inJuir4. %efore (e loo& at a proposal and "ase stud4 and
the possi'le "onseJuen"es "ontained therein@ this paper (ill dra( out a "lear understandin/ of ho( (e should "hara"teriIe these u'iJuitous terms and ho( their
relationship to ea"h other affe"ts our stud4. So"ial Austi"e@ Civi" !n/a/ement@ Servi"e Bearnin/ and Other Commie Crap So"ial #usti"e is often as"ri'ed lon/@
"ompli"ated@ and "onvoluted definitions. In fa"t@ one "ould fill a /ood-siIed li'rar4 (ith treatises on this su'#e"t alone. ;ere (e do not (ish to 'ela'or the issue or
ar/ue over fine points. =or our purposes@ it (ill suffi"e to have a /eneral "hara"teriIation of the term@ fo"usin/ instead on the d4nami"s of its intera"tion (ith "ivi"
en/a/ement and servi"e learnin/. So"ial #usti"e refers Juite simpl4 to a "ommunit4 vision and a "ommunit4 "ons"ien"e that values in"lusion@ fairness@ toleran"e@ and
eJualit4. >he idea of so"ial #usti"e in Ameri"a has 'een around sin"e the Revolution and is intimatel4 lin&ed to the idea of a so"ial "ontra"t. >he 7e"laration of
Independen"e is the 'est e8ample of the prominen"e of so"ial "ontra"t theor4 in the ?S. It states Juite emphati"all4 that the /overnment has a "ontra"t (ith its
"itiIens@ from (hi"h (e /et the famous lines a'out life@ li'ert4 and the pursuit of happiness. So"ial "ontra"t theor4 and spe"ifi"all4 the 7e"laration of Independen"e
are "on"rete e8pressions of the spirit of so"ial #usti"e. Similar "lamor has 'een made over the appropriate definitions of "ivi" en/a/ement and servi"e learnin/@
respe"tivel4. On"e a/ain@ let6s not /et 'o//ed do(n on su'tleties. Civi" en/a/ement is a measure or de/ree of the interest and$or involvement an individual and a
"ommunit4 demonstrate around "ommunit4 issues. >here is a lon/standin/ dispute over ho( to properl4 Juantif4 "ivi" en/a/ement. Some (ill sa4 that toda46s 4outh
are less involved politi"all4 and hen"e demonstrate a lo(er de/ree of "ivi" en/a/ement. Others "ite hi/h volunteer rates amon/ the 4outh and "laim it demonstrates a
hi/h e8hi'ition of "ivi" en/a/ement. And there are a'out a hundred other theories put for(ard on the su'#e"t of "ivi" en/a/ement and toda46s 4outh. %ut one thin/ is
for sureH toda46s 4outh no lon/er see /overnment and politi"s as an effe"tive or valua'le tool for affe"tin/ positive "han/e in the
(orld . Instead of "riti"iIin/ this #ud/ment@ perhaps (e should "ome to s4mpathiIe and even admire it. Author Kurt Eonne/ut said@ >here is a tra/i" fla( in our
pre"ious Constitution@ and I don6t &no( (hat "an 'e done to fi8 it. >his is itG onl4 nut "ases (ant to 'e president.) ,a4'e the 4outh6s re#e"tion of Ameri"an politi"s
isn6t a short"omin/ 'ut rather a rational and appropriate response to their e8perien"e. ConseJuentl4@ the term "ivi" en/a/ement ta&es on ne( meanin/ for us toda4. In
order to foster fundamental "han/e on the s4stemi" level@ (hi"h (e have alread4 said is ne"essar4 for our survival in the t(ent4-first "entur4@ (e need to
fundamentall4 "han/e our s4stems. >herefore@ part of our $hallen0e )e$omes $onvin$in0 the 5outh that these s5stemsC and )5 s5stems
*e mean 0overnment and "ommer"e@ have the potential for positive $han0e. Civi" en/a/ement "onseJuentl4 ta&es on a more spe"ifi" and
politi"al meanin/ in this "onte8t. Servi"e learnin/ is a methodolo/4 and a tool for tea"hin/ so"ial #usti"e@ en"oura/in/ "ivi" en/a/ement@ and deepenin/ pra"ti"al
understandin/ of a su'#e"t. Sin"e it is a relativel4 ne( field@ at least in the stru"tured sense@ servi"e learnin/ is onl4 'e/innin/ to define itself. >hrou/h servi"e learnin/
students learn '4 e8perien"in/ thin/s firsthand and '4 e8posin/ themselves to ne( points of vie(. Instead of merel4 readin/ a'out /overnment@ for instan"e@ a student
mi/ht e8perien"e it '4 (or&in/ in a le/islative offi"e. Rather than #ust stud4in/ /lo'al (armin/ out of a te8t'oo&@ a student mi/ht volunteer time at an environmental
/roup. If servi"e learnin/ develops and evolves into a dis"ipline (ith the honest /oal of ma&in/ 'etter "itiIens@ tea"hin/ so"ial #usti"e@ en"oura/in/ "ivi" en/a/ement@
and most importantl4@ e8posin/ students to different and alternative e8perien"es@ it "ould 'e a ma#or feature of a modern edu"ation. Servi"e learnin/ is the natural
"ounter'alan"e to our "urrent overemphasis on standardiIed testin/. So"ial #usti"e@ "ivi" en/a/ement@ and servi"e learnin/ are "au/ht in a s4m'ioti" "4"le. >he more
(e have of one of themH the more (e have of all of them. ;o(ever@ until (e /et momentum 'ehind them@ (e are stalled. Servi"e learnin/ ma4 'e our 'est "han"e to
#umpstart our demo"ra"4. In the rest of this paper@ (e (ill loo& at the 'e/innin/ sta/es of a pro#e"t that see&s to do #ust that.
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@ A !6re-=iat+ $uts )oth *a5s. >he poli$5 teams haven7t $han0ed the *orld ver5 mu$hC )ut
the K teams haven7t $han0ed it *hatsoever. Role-pla5in0 is )etter than the pipe-dream of
their !lo$al alt+
%rian -artin is asso"iate professor of S"ien"e and >e"hnolo/4 Studies at the ?niversit4 of +ollon/on/@5u'lished
in S"ien"e@ >e"hnolo/4@ V ;uman Ealues@ Eol. 13@ <o. *@ Sprin/ 199.@ pp. *.2-*09.
httpG$$(((.uo(.edu.au$O'martin$pu's$9-sthv.html.
>he metaphor of tri"&le-do(n has "ertain attra"tions to theorists. It sa4s@ /o ahead (ith remote theorisin/H the intelle"tual
s4stem (ill ensure that (orth4 /roups 'enefit. ?nfortunatel4@ there is little eviden"e for su"h a pro"ess. >he onl4
o'vious "ase of tri"&le-do(n is the popularit4 of KuhnFs "on"epts of paradi/m and revolution in numerous arenas outside the traditional s"ientifi"
dis"iplines (hi"h Kuhn studied. >his sort of Kvul/ar KuhnK is "asti/ated '4 man4 of toda4Fs e8perts (ho propound a more sophisti"ated -- and
diffi"ult to appl4 -- post-Kuhnian so"iolo/4 of s"ientifi" &no(led/e. %ut the impa"t of tea"hin/ is not dependent on the tri"&le-do(n effe"t.
>ea"hers in s"ien"e studies simpl4 need to deal (ith issues that have meanin/ for students. Ruite a num'er of these students are refu/ees from
s"ien"e@ loo&in/ for some relevan"e and appli"ation for fields that hold mu"h promise 'ut seem to serve onl4 vested interests. S"ien"e studies
/ives hope of somethin/ different. %ut is there some insi/ht for students that the4 "ould not /ain '4 readin/ "ritiJues from the earl4 1920s '4
%o' oun/@ 7avid 7i"&son@ and ;ilar4 and Steven RoseL >he dan/er for advan"ed students is /ettin/ "au/ht in the 'o/ of "urrent theor4.
>heoreti"al 7ead !nds Some so"iall4 "on"erned theorists have the dream of developin/ an anal4sis that@ 'e"ause of its
penetratin/ insi/hts@ is a de"isive "ontri'ution to pro/ressive so"ial "han/e. ,ore a"ademi"all4-minded theorists have
the parallel dream of developin/ an anal4sis that is a de"isive "ontri'ution to so"ial understandin/. In either "ase@ the
/oal is in"redi'l4 elusive@ 'e"ause it mis"on"eives the relation 'et(een theor4 and pra"ti"e. One aspe"t of this Juest is disputes a'out
epistemolo/4 and the role of the resear"her. Steven Rose@ a radi"al in terms of politi"s@ ta&es a traditional epistemolo/i"al line. =or e8ample@ he
"ondemns so"io'iolo/4 as 'ad s"ien"e as (ell as 'ad politi"s. Bi&e orthodo8 s"ientists@ he dra(s on the authorit4 of s"ien"e to atta"& those (hose
politi"s he opposes. >he role of the so"ial resear"her@ from this point of vie(@ is to ali/n oneself (ith those (ho do /ood s"ien"e. It is usuall4
assumed@ or hoped@ that this is also the side of K/oodK politi"s. >he so"iolo/ists of s"ientifi" &no(led/e have re#e"ted this form of anal4sis. >he4
"all for a so"ial anal4sis of all s"ien"e@ (hether it (as K'adK or K/ood.K 7avid %loorFs Kstron/ pro/ramme in the so"iolo/4 of s"ientifi"
&no(led/eK laid out the prin"iples of anal4sisG "ausalit4@ s4mmetr4@ et". It also set the pattern for the role of the anal4st@ (ho (as to 'e a
professional so"ial s"ientist (ritin/ for so"ial s"ien"e #ournals in so"ial s"ien"e #ar/on. Adherents to the stron/ pro/ramme (ere not supposed to
'e"ome passionate partisans in the de'ates the4 studied. >he stron/ pro/ramme (as 'uilt on the assumption that the anal4st (as a'ove the
de'ate@ rather than involved in it. >he (ea& pro/ramme@M.N presented '4 7ar4l Chu'in and Sal Restivo C193-D@ attempted to /o 'e4ond this. It
re"o/nised that anal4sts (ere al(a4s involved in the issues the4 studied. %ut the (ea& pro/ramme (as indeed (ea& (hen it "ame to arti"ulatin/
a role for a so"iall4 "on"erned theorist. +hatever its pra"ti"al (ea&nesses@ the (ea& pro/ramme (as an a'erration. In re"o/nisin/ and
re"ommendin/ involvement '4 anal4sts in the pra"ti"alities of s"ien"e Kpoli"4@K it (as out of step (ith the main line of development. >he
dominant theoreti"al thrusts (ere to(ards anal4sis of the role of the anal4st. K7is"ourse anal4sisK tried to e8pose the authorFs role in (ritin/.
%runo Batour in S"ien"e in A"tion C1932D presented an Ka"tionK frame(or& neatl4 dis"onne"ted from politi"al "ritiJue and politi"al a"tion.M0N
Steve +ool/ar C193-D has demanded attention to Kthe pro'lemK of the relation 'et(een the &no(er and the &no(n@ an issue in epistemolo/4
rather than po(er. >his narro(in/ of theoreti"al fo"us is "on/ruent (ith a shift in "ommitment '4 the anal4sts. !arlier (riters (ith an overt
politi"al "ommitment@ su"h as the Roses@ anal4sed lar/e-s"ale politi"al-e"onomi" interests lin&ed to s"ien"e. So"iolo/4-of-s"ientifi"-&no(led/e
theorists are more li&el4 to "on"eive of KinterestsK as the mi"ro-level interests asso"iated (ith /ames of individual persuasion and advan"ement@
su"h as a s"ientistFs KinterestK in /ettin/ a paper pu'lished. %oth approa"hes are Kpoliti"al.K >he first deals (ith politi"s in the familiar pu'li"
sense. >he se"ond deals (ith the politi"s of individual promotion. >he shift is "ompati'le (ith the "areer s"ien"e studies a"ademi"sF /reater
preo""upation (ith personal interests than so"ial interests. =or students loo&in/ for a "ritiJue that "an provide help for so"ial
a"tion@ re"ent theoreti"al developments "an 'e in"redi'l4 frustratin/. >he frustration is inevita'le@ 'e"ause "reatin/ so"ial
"han/e '4 e8tendin/ the anal4sis is impossi'le. >he fla( in the theoreti"al sear"h is the assumption that a /roundin/
for anal4sis "an 'e founded on ideas alone. Anal5sis ultimatel5 depends on pra$ti$e. >he anal4sis '4 a"ademi"s for the
most part refle"ts a pra"ti"e of professional advan"ement and s"holarl4 theorisin/. An anal4sis relevant to so"ial pro'lems must 'e lin&ed to a
relevant pra"ti"e. All anal4ses are de fa"to -- if not overt -- interventions. >he Juestion is not ho( to intervene@ 'ut (hat sort of intervention@
(hat audien"e@ and (ho 'enefits.
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@ A >he5 have it )a$(*ards- $han0es in the international arena $an $reate $onditions for
radi$al alts - )ut radi$al alts *on7t $han0e IR.
6a5ne P10 Cet al@ 7r. Keith@ 5resident and Co-=ounder of the <ational Institute for 5u'li" 5oli"4@ ;ead of the 9raduate 7epartment of 7efense and Strate/i"
Studies@ ,issouri State ?niversit4 C+ashin/ton CampusD@ and (as a(arded the Ei"ennial ,edal for his 4ears of tea"hin/ at 9eor/eto(n ?niversit4. 7r. 5a4ne served
in the 7epartment of 7efense as the 7eput4 Assistant Se"retar4 of 7efense for =or"es 5oli"4. =ull list of "ontri'utors and revie(ers to this insanel4 Jualified stud4G
7r. Kathleen %aile4 ,r. >om S"he'er ,r. Kurt 9uthe 7r. ,ar& S"hneider 7r. Ro'ert Aoseph 7r. Andrei Shoumi&hin ,s. Stephanie Koeshall ,r. ;enr4 So&ols&i
Senior Revie(ers 7r. Kathleen %aile4 Am'. ,a8 Kampelman 7r. %arr4 %le"hman ,r. !rin ,oore A7, ;enr4 Chiles CretD 7r. 9ordon Oehler ,s. 5aula 7eSutter
,r. ,i"hael Ruumlhle 7r. ,ar& !sper ,a# 9en Ro'ert Smolen@ ?SA= CretD 7r. Aohn =oster ,r. ;enr4 So&ols&i 7r. Aaron =ried'er/ 7r. 5etr Su"h4a"ute 7r. Colin
9ra4 7r. %runo >etrais@ 5lannin/ the =uture ?.S. <u"lear =or"e@ Comparative Strate/4@ Eolume *9@ Issue 1 V * Aanuar4 *010 @ pa/es 1 *11D
It is (holl4 reasona'le to 'e (ar4 of the mountain top vision 'e"ause endurin/ features of international relations in"lude interstate
"onfli"t and the e8isten"e of leaderships (hi"h are a//ressive and untrust(orth4H these t4pi"all4 are the states of "on"ern. >hese
endurin/ "onditions do not mean that the vision of nu"lear disarmament must 'e dismissed out of hand@ 'ut the4 do demand "onsidera'le "aution.
As the former =ren"h Am'assador to <A>O@ =ran""edilois de Rose@ re"entl4 o'served@ It (ill 'e time to thin& a'out /eneral and "omplete
nu"lear disarmament (hen human nature has "han/ed.)21 >here is little or no eviden"e of even the potential for the ne"essar4
restru"turin/ of international relations. >he route to nu"lear disarmament is not a&in to "lim'in/ a mountain@ as some su//est 'e"ause
there is no 'asis for anti"ipatin/ that this parti"ular mountain top) ever (ill e8ist or (hat steps no( mi/ht 'e
helpful in rea"hin/ it. >his mountain top "annot e8ist in "ontemporar4 international relations and@ in the a'sen"e of
dramati" "han/e@ it (ill never e8ist. In addition@ efforts to move to(ard nu"lear disarmament prior to the ne"essar4
transformation of international relations "ould (ea&en the deterren"e of (ar@ undermine the assuran"e of allies@
promote nu"lear proliferation and em'olden a//ressors. It is useful to re"all the ph4si"ianFs /oal of first doin/ no harm:in this "ase
harm to the hard-earned ?.S. nu"lear "apa'ilities that have helped &eep the pea"e. Arms "ontrol steps ta&en in pursuit of nu"lear Iero "ould
undermine deterren"e (hen@ as Aames S"hlesin/er has noted@ +e (ill need a stron/ deterrent a that is measured in de"ades@ in fa"t@ more or less
in perpetuit4. >he notion that (e "an a'olish nu"lear (eapons refle"ts a "om'ination of Ameri"an utopianism and Ameri"an paro"hialism a itFs
not 'ased on an understandin/ of realit4.)2* %ritish 5rime ,inister +inston Chur"hill on"e noted alon/ these lines@ %e "areful a'ove all thin/s
not to let /o of the atomi" (eapon until 4ou are sure and more than sure that other means of preservin/ pea"e are in 4our hands.)2- 5resident
O'ama spo&e of his desire for a fundamental shift in ?.S. nu"lear poli"4 to(ard nu"lear disarmament on April 0@ *009@ in 5ra/ue. As he outlined
the steps ne"essar4 to 'e/in this pro"ess@ <orth Korea laun"hed a multi-sta/e missile as a demonstration of te"hni"al advan"es in its (eapons
pro/ram. >he +all Street Aournal released an editorial on the heels of O'amaFs spee"h entitled >he <u"lear Illusionist) (hi"h "on"luded@ ,r.
O'ama is offerin/ pleasant illusions@ (hile mullahs and other ro/ues plot e8plosive realit4.)2. +ithin (ee&s@ <orth Korea "ondu"ted a nu"lear
test and additional missile laun"hes. ?ltimatel4@ if the ?nited States is to find a pra"ti"a'le strate/4 (hi"h "an help address "ontemporar4 threats@
the vision of nu"lear Iero (ill have to a""ommodate the endurin/ realities of a "ompetitive and often violent
international s4stem of soverei/n states. >hose realities (ill not ad#ust to utopian (ishes for a 'eni/n (orld order@
and pursuin/ poli"ies that def4 realit4 entails ris& (ithout the prospe"t of su""ess.
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@ A Startin0 *ith !the lo$al+ is $onte8tuall5 illo0i$al Bero solven$5 in the nu$lear $onte8t
*ithout the nu$lear elites.
Deudne5 P94
C7aniel 7eudne4@ Ameri"an politi"al s"ientist and Asso"iate 5rofessor of 5oliti"al S"ien"e at Aohns ;op&ins ?niversit4 2olitical Dission: State
Structure Civil Society and 1uclear ?eapons in the United States@ CIAO@ found in On Se"uirt4 '4 Ronnie 7. Bips"hutI@
httpG$$(((."iaonet.or/$'oo&$lips"hutI$lips"hutI1..htmlD
>he third "onseJuen"e of the pu)li$Es relationship to nu$lear *eapons is that it *ill not provide 0ood support for the
emer0en$e of a $riti$al mass of sustained intelle$tual $ritiGue. >he Italian ,ar8ist theorist Antonio 9rams$i@ in anal4Iin/
the formation of "ons"iousness "ondu"ive to revolutionar4 "han/e@ spo(e a)out the formation of Hor0ani$ intelle$tualsH *hose
ideas and theories *ould provide the strate0ies and desi0ns for s4stemi" alternatives. -9 >he relationship )et*een
nu$lear *eapons and $ivil so$iet5 isC in parti"ular@ not espe$iall5 $ondu$ive to the 0eneration of or0ani$
intelle$tuals devoted to $reatin0 and disseminatin0 nu$lear stru$tural alternatives . +hen the pu'li" is Juies"ent@ the
state and its derivative or/ans-- in"ludin/ e8tra-/overnmental Kthin& tan&sK and a"ademi"s "on"erned (ith nu"lear se"urit4--(ill tend to
monopoliIe dis"ourse on nu"lear issues. In this situation@ e8perts in"lined to 'e fundamentall4 "riti"al of the status Juo (ill la"& institutional
support and so (ill 'e relativel4 fe( in num'er "ompared to the le/ions of state-supported and state-supportin/ e8perts. In order to remain
relevant@ e8perts "riti"al of the status Juo (ill 'e for"ed to (or& onl4 on in"remental alternative measures that have "redi'ilit4 (ith statist
representatives. A)sent an a0ent to implement their s$hemesC or0ani$ intelle$tuals offerin0 models of nu$lear
se$urit5 orders $on0ruent *ith pu)li$ safet5C rather than state interestsC *ill )e re0arded as HutopianCH as
*ere so$ialists prior to the emer0en$e of the *or(in0 $lass.
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@ A In nu$lear politi$s the pra0mati$ path is the onl5 road.
65les P9
C<athan@ president of Aohnson ;ealth >e"h Resear"h V 7evelopment@@ <onproliferation Revie(@ ,ar"h@ availa'le
via Informa+orld onlineD
As =le"& points out in his letter@ implementin0 a ne* alternative nu$lear *eapons poli$5 is no* !more a Guestion of
politi$al *ill than anal5sis.+ >herefore@ itEs time for the poli$5 de)ate to e8pand )e5ond the (alls of "onferen"e "enters
and 'e4ond %ournal )indin0s and to )e0in addressin0 the )roader audien$e:the $onstituents *ho $an dire$tl5
influen$e their representativesE poli$5 votes. Improved messa0in0 *ill assist in $learin0 nu$lear poli$5
ma(ersE often self-imposed hurdle of !nu$lear $omple8it5.) All involved 'enefit if proposed ne( nu"lear (eapons poli"ies are
identified '4 more uniJue and distin"tive titles C'randsD@ (ith strai/htfor(ard and su""in"t position statements. I am not alone in the opinion that
there needs to 'e more fo"used messa/in/ on nu"lear poli"4. Sin"e earl4 *003@ there has 'een mu"h pro/ress in this area. >he Campai/n for a
<u"lear +eapons =ree +orld@ (here =le"& is "oordinator@ has 'uilt a "oalition of more than ei/ht4-one different advo"a"4 or/aniIations. >he
voi"es of ei/ht4-one /roups (or&in/ to/ether (ill have an e8ponentiall4 /reater national impa"t than the dis"ordant dis"ourse of these /roups
a"tin/ individuall4. >he more fo"used 'oth the Campai/nFs messa/e and its spe"ifi" initiatives 'e"ome@ the /reater the influen"e all involved (ill
have. %4 the time of this letterFs pu'li"ation@ a ne(@ (ell-'randed@ /lo'al nu"lear-free initiative (ill also have 'een laun"hed. >his ne( /roup
(ill 'rin/ a hi/her level of "ommuni"ation s&ills and tools to the nu"lear (eapons poli"4 issue than ever seen 'efore. All these ne( efforts are
(el"omed@ and reJuired@ if (e are to 'rin/ a'out a ne( nu"lear (eapons poli"4 sooner rather than later. I a/ree (ith %as&in that there is mu"h to
'e said for advo"a"4 initiatives that start at the /ound level. Amon/ nu"lear (eapons advo"a"4 /roups@ there have 'een man4 lo"al su""ess
stories:espe"iall4 from /roups (or&in/ on issues of environmental safet4 in nei/h'orin/ nu"lear (eapons produ"tion fa"ilities. >ri-Ealle4
CAR!s and <u"lear +at"h <e( ,e8i"o are e8amples of lo"al advo"a"4 /roups (hose poli"4 influen"e has e8tended to the national level.
;o(ever@ *hen it $omes to influen$in0 the most si0nifi$ant 0lo)al and national nu$lear poli$5 le0islationC
nu$lear poli$5 advo$a$5 0roups have )een less su$$essful to date. >he proof is in the la$( of results in areas (here
there is (idespread a/reement@ 4et little to no pro/ress:su"h as ?.S. Senate ratifi"ation of the Comprehensive <u"lear->est-%an >reat4 CC>%>D.
Boo&in/ for(ard@ the ne*C more dis$iplined advo$a$5 efforts des$ri)ed a)ove mi0ht *or( $ooperativel5 on near-
term initiatives (here their platforms overlap. >he lo*-han0in0 fruit is at the interse$tion of $onsensus:see@ for e8ample@
the ta'le@ ,a#or Advo"a"4 9roups and >heir 5ositions@) in m4 arti"le in the <ovem'er *003 <onproliferation Revie(@ p. ..0. %4 developin/
methods to "om'ine efforts at the ta"ti"al level@ espe"iall4 (hen le/islative a"tion is reJuired@ ea"h or/aniIation "ould maintain its uniJue identit4
and lar/er purpose:4et amplif4 its impa"t on spe"ifi" initiatives throu/h "ooperation@ shared resour"es@ and the po(er 'ehind lar/er num'ers.
+ith the ne( O'ama administration and a ne( Senate ta&in/ offi"e in Aanuar4 *009@ advo"a"4 or/aniIations "ould "hoose to (or& to/ether on a
fo"used initiative for ratifi"ation of the lon/-lan/uishin/ C>%>. >he ratifi"ation of this treat4 "learl4 meets the "riteria of havin/ (idespread
support amon/ advo"a"4 /roups@ /lo'al and national leaders@ as (ell as (ith the /eneral pu'li".1 >his "ooperative effort (ould also 'e an
opportunit4 to pull the nu"lear (eapons poli"4 issue out of the partisan 'o8 in (hi"h it is has (ron/l4 'een pla"ed. <u$lear poli$5
advo$a$5 from the politi$al $enter must find the motives and the lan0ua0e *ith the )roadest appeal. =ortunatel4@
;enr4 Kissin/er@ 9eor/e ShultI@ Sam <unn@ and +illiam 5err4 have led the (a4 in reframin/ this issue. >he4 have helped redefine a "arefull4
"onstru"ted nu"lear-(eapons-free-(orld poli"4 as the most rational option for improved /lo'al se"urit4.* >he formerl5 dominant
moralit5-)ased ar0uments need to ta(e a )a$(seat to the pra$ti$al. ur ele$ted representatives and our
militar5 leaders $orre$tl5 understand that it is their dut5 to ta(e measures that improveC not diminishC )oth
national and individual se$urit5. >his is a primar4 fun"tion of national /overnments around the /lo'e. 5assa/e and entr4 into for"e of
the C>%> is "riti"al to the se"urit4 /oal of eliminatin/ proliferation of proven nu"lear "apa'ilities. ,ith a series of su$$essive
initiatives:messa/ed for and driven '4 /reater "itiIen parti"ipation:momentum $ould )e )uilt to*ard adoption of a
nu$lear-*eapons-free-*orld poli$5. A (orld (ithout nu"lear (eapons is the safest poli"4 for our "ir"umstan"es@ the safest for our time
:a time (hen our /reatest dan/er is "ontinued nu"lear proliferation and its attendant hei/htened ris&s of nu"lear (ar@ nu"lear terrorism@ and
nu"lear a""ident.
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@ A CritiGuin0 the nu$lear fetish )a$(fires. >he )om) has no actual influen$e as a fetish
the $ritiGue only reifies its importan$e.
7arr4l ,il(insonC Colum'ia ?niversit4 7epartment of Anthropolo/4 and Independent +ritin/ and !ditin/
5rofessional@ >he %om' *003 httpG$$(((."olum'ia.edu$Osf***0$>>*002$(e'-"ontent$5a/es$darr4l1.html
As has 'een often pointed out@ the iron4 of i"ono"lasm is that the i"ono"lasts@ '4 insistin/ on the effa"ement or destru"tion of
the idols ta"itl4 admit that the o'#e"ts reall4 are po(erful@ 'e"ause if it (ere other(ise@ (hat dan/er "ould the4
possi'l4 presentL >hus I (ould not (ish to su//est that it is onl4 the supporters of nu"lear (eapons pro/rammes (ho
appear to treat the 'om' as a fetish. >he rea"tions of the senior levels of the Chur"h of !n/land to the rene(al of >rident are a
"ase in point. Consider the (ords of 5eter 5ri"e@ the %ishop of %ath and +ells (ho alon/ (ith 13 other 'ishops (rote a letter of protest in
*001 atta"&in/ the /overnments poli"4 (ith re/ards to >ridentG ...I personall4 have lo''ied and "ampai/ned for >rident not to "ontinue. >hatFs
'een a lon/-held "onvi"tion... 'orne out of m4 profound 'elief that the /ift of Creation for us '4 9od... means that (e "annot plan the destru"tion
of 9odFs "reation... ...their Mnu"lear (eaponsN end is evil and 'oth possession and use are profoundl4 anti-9od a"ts... : F>he IndependentF. 10
Aul4 *001 =or these prelates@ the nu"lear (eapon is an em'odiment of evil@ for it has "learl4 "eased to 'e a mere tool (hi"h ma4
'e put to /ood or evil purposes dependin/ on the human a"tor (ho (ields it. >he su'#e"tivit4 of the human a/ent has disappeared
sin"e the4 have no a'ilit4 to influen"e the out"ome of the use of nu"lear (eapons@ the (eapon itself has ends@ those ends are
evil@ and their use and possession (ill al(a4s therefore lead to evil. >he 'om' itself has 'e"ome a su'#e"t sin"e its (ill appears to override that of
the ver4 /overnments and s"ientists that "reate them. >he po(er of the nu"lear (arhead is a destru"tive one@ and this is set up in opposition to the
"reative po(er of 9od@ so that the evil in the 'om' is inherent to its threat to 9odFs Creation. ItFs po(er is immoral@ prior to an4 spe"ifi"
appli"ation of that po(er. I hope to have demonstrated that nu"lear (eapons are treated and understood in a (a4 that (ould 'e indistin/uisha'le
from (hat (e (ould "all FfetishismF or Fidolatr4F if instead of tal&in/ a'out nu"lear (eapons (e (ere referrin/ to sa"red "arvin/s from the Con/o
%asin. +hat distin/uishes the non-fetish from the fetish is that the non-fetish is 'elieved onl4 to 'e a s4m'ol of somethin/ else@ unli&e the fetish
(hi"h is Fthe thin/ itselfF. >he nu"lear (eapon therefore (ould appear to 'e a fetish if it "eased to 'e a s4m'ol of mas"ulinit4 or evil@ 'ut a"tuall4
'e"ame and em'odied those thin/s. =or ,ar8@ mone4 (as fetishiIed (ithin "apitalism@ for it had "eased to 'e a mere o'#e"t 'ut had 'e"ome Fthe
thin/ itselfF (ealth@ rather than a mere s4m'ol of (ealth. >hus it is sensi'le (ithin a "apitalist mode of thou/ht to sa4 that mone4 F'reedsF and
that mone4 'e/ets more mone4 C,it"hell 1931G191-19-D. ,oreover@ this tenden"4 is not #ust somethin/ that humans ma4 do (ith mone4 'ut it
'e"omes inherent in its nature. As +e'er C*001D points out in his des"ription of the "apitalist-protestant ethi"@ for mone4 to fail to reprodu"e is
amoral 'e"ause it is unnatural@ a violation of its essen"e. In #ust the same (a4@ nu"lear (eapons FproliferateF@ the4 possess an almost virus-li&e
propert4 to 'reed@ almost 'e4ond the "ontrol of the mere human a"tors and states that "onstru"t and maintain them it is in their nature@ in other
(ords. In his theor4 of the "ommodit4 fetish@ ,ar8 "onsidered that the e8"han/e-value that (ere attri'uted to thin/s (as the ultimate fetish of
the "apitalist mode of produ"tion. !8"han/e-values of "ommodities (ere treated as if the4 (ere a"tual properties of o'#e"ts@ (hen the4 (ere in
fa"t derived from the human la'our that had "reated them@ or/aniIed throu/h the relations of produ"tion. +hat (as in realit4 a "omple8 of
relations 'et(een people@ (as 'elieved to 'e relationships 'et(een o'#e"ts and herein lied the dehumaniIin/ aspe"t of "ommodit4 produ"tion for
,ar8@ ar/uin/ that@ ...no "hemist has ever dis"overed e8"han/e-value in a pearl or diamond... C,ar8 1990 M1310N@ "ited in ,it"hell 1931G19-D
>he po(er of the fetish o'#e"t therefore resides in the net(or& of so"ial relations in (hi"h it resides@ it is the so"ial
milieu (hi"h as"ri'es it a/en"4@ not an4 inherent propert4 of the o'#e"t itself - (hi"h (ould ma&e <&isi fi/ures@ "ommodities
and nu"lear (eapons all fetishes@ apart from the fa"t that (ith the 'om' the po(er is 'elieved to 'e FrealF@ a s"ientifi"all4 verifia'le feature of the
'om' as a 'om'. %ut of "ourse@ ,ar8Fs error (as to see the e8"han/e-values of "ommodities as so"iall4 as"ri'ed@ (hereas their use-values (ere
understood to 'e prior to the so"ial and thus real and inherent (ithin their natures as o'#e"ts. %ut the ph4si"al or "hemi"al properties of an o'#e"t
are no less so"iall4 assi/ned than somethin/ li&e e8"han/e-value. >he s"ientifi" properties of thin/s are /iven to them in la'oratories@ '4
s"ientists@ itself #ust another so"ial settin/. +ithout su//estin/ that there is no lo/i"all4 prior materialit4 Csee Batour 199-D the o'#e"t ultimatel4
has no pre-so"ial e8isten"e. It onl4 "omes into 'ein/ as an o'#e"t (hen it is re"o/niIed as su"h@ in relation to a human su'#e"t and thus it has no
properties that are not so"iall4 as"ri'ed to it. O'#e"ts@ li&e su'#e"ts are desi/nated@ "lassified and "onstru"ted@ 'oth materiall4 and "on"eptuall4
(ithin the so"ial milieu@ outside of (hi"h the4 "annot 'e thou/ht to have an4 pre-e8istin/ "hara"ter. O'#e"ts su"h as the 'om' have an a/en"4
that arises from the 'elief that the4 are a'le to "ommand@ the so"ial relationships in (hi"h the4 are produ"ed and maintained and the net(or&s of
su'#e"t-o'#e"t relations that are formed around them. >here is no real differen"e here 'et(een the a/en"4 (hi"h operates (ithin the 'om'
therefore and that (hi"h operates (ithin the <&isi fi/ure@ or an4 other traditional FfetishF. >he nu"lear (eapon does not have an4 o'#e"tivel4
verifia'le po(er that separates it from its non-+estern "ounterparts. ?ltimatel4 (e "annot point to an4 differen"e 'et(een the <&isi o'#e"t and
>rident other than (e@ as +estern@ s"ientisti" individuals 'elieve in the po(er of the latter@ and not the former. A rather superfi"ial distin"tion.
Our "on"lusion must therefore either 'e that there are no fetishes@ for (e "annot divide the (orld of thin/s into those (hose po(er is FrealF and
those that are mere illusions@ or that all o'#e"ts are fetishes@ in the sense that no sour"es of po(er "an e8ist that are not
so"iall4 "reated. >o set up a di"hotom4 'et(een real and ima/inar4 po(er is meanin/less sin"e no su"h distin"tion
e8ists.
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Aff K Core
A-to <u$lear =etish K $ont7
@ A "our fetish ar0uments are )a$(*ards. '5 runnin0 impa$ts that spea( to the dan0ers of
nu$lear *eaponsC *e are the '#S> remed5 for the nu$lear fetish. >his out*ei0hs 5our
reifi$ation lin(
Anne ;arrin/ton de Santana is a do"toral "andidate in the 7epartment of 5oliti"al S"ien"e at the ?niversit4 of
Chi"a/o. %efore #oinin/ the 5h7 pro/ram@ Anne earned an ,A from the Committee on International Relations@ an
A% from 7artmouth Colle/e@ and spent t(o 4ears (or&in/ in the non-profit se"tor-- first in %oston@ ,assa"husetts
as an AmeriCorps EIS>A volunteer@ and then in ?daipur@ Ra#asthan@ India as a Bom'ard =ello( at S!EA ,andir
>he <onproliferation Revie(@ 11G -@ -*0--.0 *009 availa'le via Informa(orld data'ase
=inall4@ a theor4 of nu"lear fetishism su//ests that the pro#e"ts of re"overin/ information on nu"lear "osts 'oth
human and finan"ial that (ere lar/el4 o's"ured for reasons of national se"urit4 durin/ the Cold +ar ma5 )e the )est means of
defetishiBin0 nu$lear *eapons. %4 this lo/i"@ nu"lear Iero is 'est a"hieved throu/h an a//ressive edu"ation "ampai/n
emphasiIin/ that "reatin/ and maintainin/ nu"lear arsenals is e8pensive and has hi/h human "osts asso"iated (ith it@ and
that it is possi)le to $onstru$t international institutions that $an redu$e the ris( of a *orst-$ase nu$lear
)rea(out s$enario. In other (ords@ "reate a sense of ur/en"4 a'out the "osts that are 'ein/ in"urred no(@ rather than emphasiIe the
possi'ilit4 of apo"al4pti" "osts that ma4 or ma4 not 'e in"urred at some point in the future. 5erhaps some da4@ the dea"tivated nu"lear (eapons
on displa4 in museums a"ross the ?nited States (ill 'e nothin/ more than a reminder of ho( po(erful nu"lear (eapons used to 'e.02 >his is a
vision of the future in (hi"h nu"lear (eapons seem mu"h li&e an4 other sa"red o'#e"t that (as revered (ith fear and
a(e in the distant past. Eisitors (ill (onder at ho( irrational it (as to have a"tuall4 threatened a lar/e-s"ale nu"lear
atta"& and lau/h at the ridi"ulous notion that nu"lear (eapons made us more rather than less se"ure.
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A-to <u$lear >e8tualism
@ A <u$lear te8tualism ar0s $ede politi$s to the Ri0ht.
,a0ar 749
C+. +arren@ 7istin/uished >ea"hin/ 5rof. ;istor4 S?< %in/hamton@ Ameri"an Biterar4 ;istor4@ >ruth and =i"tion@ !Juall4 Stran/eG
+ritin/ a'out the %om')@ 1G*@ Summer@ AS>ORD
et I leave 'oth 'oo&s (ith a sense of unease. Is there an5thin0 else that $riti$s of te8ts $an do a)out the 'om)I Is the
su'#e"t e8hausted '4 anal4Iin/ stories and novels@ even if one mana/ed to hunt them all do(n@ and all the relevant film s"ripts for /ood measureL
Confinin0 our interest to nu$lear fi$tionC *e run the ris( of 0ro*in0 too $omforta)le *ith the 'om). It is not #ust
another usa'le theme for (riters and their "riti"s. >he 'om) reall5 e8ists. It stands read5 and *aitin0 to terminate
$iviliBation. It is the te8t to end all te8ts. .0* Summer 1939 on their studies of nu"lear (ar fi"tion@ "riti"s of a more theoreti"al turn
of mind 'e/an loo&in/ at the %om' in a 'roader settin/. >he Summer 193. issue of 7ia"riti"s introdu"ed us to the notion of Knu"lear "riti"ism@K
defined 'oth as the interpretation of standard (or&s of literature in the li/ht of the %om' and as the appli"ation of "riti"al theor4 to the rhetori"
of nu"lear (ar@ on the assumption that dis"ourse is itself violen"e. As >o'in Sie'ers "omplains in >he !thi"s of Criti"ism@ the t(o approa"hes
"ontradi"t one another@ sin"e Knu$lear *ar $annot )e )oth intrinsi$ and e8trinsi$ to literature at the same timeK C**2D.
So 'e it. %ut "an nu"lear "riti"ism de"onstru"t nu"lear dis"ourseL Can literar5 $riti$s ma(e themselves useful to hu- manit4 )5
unravelin0 the *ords not onl5 of novelists )ut also of presidentsC defense ministersC "ommanders of nu"lear for"es@
strate/i" planners@ arms ne/otiators@ (eapons "ontra"tors@ and all those *ho haveC to/ether@ $reated (hat Aa"Jues 7errida "alls the
KphantasmK of nu$lear *arI A. =isher SolomonFs a/enda in 7is"ourse and Referen"e in the <u"lear A/e is to ans(er su"h Juestions in terms
that (ill "at"h the attention of literar4 theorists and@ at the same time@ provo&e their en/a/ement in the stru//le to prevent nu"lear (ar. ;is
startin0 points are the movement of Ameri"an poststru"turalist "riti"ism in the earl4 and middle 1930s to(ard a ne* histori$ism and
a ne( politi"al "ons"iousness@ as e8hi'ited in the (or& of =redri" Aameson@ !d(ard Said@ and ,i"hael R4an@ and in the in/enious "hallen/e to
their initiatives delivered '4 7errida in his paper in 7ia"riti"s@ K<o Apo"al4pse@ <ot <o(.H Solomon 0ives the devil his due in a
"areful anal4sis of 7erridaFs paper@ )ut he $on$ludes-I thin( $orre$tl5-that the Derridean de$onstru$tion of nu$lear
$riti$ism leads potentiall5 to its destru$tion as *ell. Derrida does not for)id us to interpret the *orld and
even foresee possi)le futuresC H)ut he does de- $onstru$t the 0round )5 *hi$h *e mi0ht evaluate our interpre-
tationsC suspendin0 our )eliefs in a universal epo$heH @.0A. If *e den5 the availa)ilit5 of e8ternal $riteria )5
*hi$h to ma(e rational $hoi$es )et*een alternative %ud0ments and a$tionsC if *e de$ide that nothin0 is
de$ida)leC then *e have made a $ommitment in spite of ourselvesJ a $ommitment to the status Guo. >he *a5
out of our dilemmaC a""ordin/ to SolomonC is to adopt a "on#e"tural@ nondo0mati$C and $riti$al realism@ alon/ the lines of Karl
5opperFs revision of Aristotle@ (ith a little help from the semioti"s of C. S. 5eir"e. Su"h a philosoph4 (eaves its (a4 adroitl4 throu/h the
'ram'les of ;eide//erian elitist irration- alism@ ,ar8ian do/mati"s@ and 7erridean nihilism@ to emer/e Ameri"an Biterar4 ;istor4 at the other
end of the o'sta"le "ourse (ith a theor4 that /irds us for hard thou/ht and a"tion in the ever4da4 (orld of empiri"al realit4. At one point
Solomon admits@ almost sheepishl4@ that 'e- lievin/ in the realit4 of an e8ternal (orld and the rational o'- #e"tivit4 of s"ientifi" &no(led/e ma4
sound to an outsider li&e simple "ommon sense. %ut for a "riti" in this de"ade to spea& of Ke8trate8tual referentsK Csu"h as the %om'D or to
propose that s"ien"e is not #ust another form of literature@ ta&es "oura/e. >he drift of re$ent philosoph5 of s$ien$e as *ell as
poststru$- turalist $riti$ism is all in the dire$tion of a $orrosive and radi$al su)%e$tivit5 that *ouldC if it $ouldC
leave nothin0 standin0. =or his "oura/e@ and for his determination to /ain the ear of "riti"s '4 masterin/ the ar"ane lan/ua/e of hi/h
theor4@ Solomon deserves mu"h "redit.
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A-to <u$lear >e8tualism
@ A <u$lear te8tualism and Simulation $ritiGues reif5 the ver5 s5stems the5 see( to $riti$iBe
;u/h 9usterson is Asso"iate 5rofessor of Anthropolo/4 and S"ien"e Studies at ,assa"husetts Institute of
>e"hnolo/4 Sour"eG Ameri"an !thnolo/ist@ Eol. *3@ <o. * C,a4@ *001D@ pp. .12-.-2 A-Stor
A se"ond s"enario is that of a Kvirtual arms ra"e.K In this s"enario@ the nu"lear po(ers@ ea"h nervous of fallin/ 'ehind the others@
"ould 'e/in to "ompete in sto"&pil- in/ super"omputer fa"ilities@ lasers@ pulsed po(er e8periments@ and h4drod4nami" tests in an effort to si/nal
national (ill and "redi'ilit4. >he old ra"e to a""umulate ever more "apa'le and versatile nu"lear (eapons (ould then 'e su'limated into a ne(
ra"e to a""umulate 'etter and 'etter simulation te"hnolo/ies@ either for their o(n sa&e or in "ase the test 'an treat4 "ollapsed. In a sense@ this
(ould 'e a se"ond-order su'limation@ sin"e the arms ra"e of the Cold +ar period (as itself@ at least partl4@ a "ontest that su'limated and
su'stituted for the a"tual "lash of armies@ displa"in/ this "lash into the simulated spa"e &no(n as deterren"e@ (here (ar endlessl4 /amed
and rehearsed 'ut never finall4 (a/ed. It .*3 is this that has led 7errida C193.D to refer to nu"lear (ar as Kfa'ulousl4
te8tualK and %audrillard to de"lareG +ar has 'e"ome a "eli'ate ma"hine.... Aust as (ealth is no lon/er measured '4 the ostentation
of (ealth 'ut '4 the se"ret "ir"ulation of spe"ulative "apital@ so (ar is not measured '4 'ein/ (a/ed 'ut '4 its spe"ulative unfoldin/ in an
a'stra"t@ ele"troni"@ and informational spa"e@ the same spa"e in (hi"h "apital moves. M1991G-1@ 01N I profoundl4 disa/ree (ith
%audrillardFs totaliIin/ insisten"e that nu"lear deterren"e Ke8"ludes the real atomi" "lash-e8"ludes it 'eforehand li&e the eventualit4 of
the real in a s4stem of si/nsK C%audrillard 193-G09-10D. ;is understatement of the /ross ph4si"al mena"e of nu"lear (eapons
'a"&handedl4 le/itimates the s4stem of deterren"e he "laims to oppose. <evertheless@ there is an important evolutionar4 in-
si/ht in his (ritin/s on (ar@ namel4 that@ in an international s4stem partl4 or/aniIed around (hat >imoth4 Bu&e C1939D "alls Kpost(arrin/@K the
use value of nu"lear (eapons has 'een superseded '4 their e8"han/e value su"h that Strate/i" nu"lear for"es "an 'e seen as elements of a "ode@
te8ts ens"ri'ed (ith meanin/s.... <u"lear (eapons have not 'een@ and are not@ "alled upon for use as (eapons. Instead@ the4 are made
operational to 'e "ontinuall4 e8"han/ed ... in Ksho(s of for"e@K Kdispla4s of "apa'ilit4@K Kproofs of "redi'ilit4@K or Kdispla4s of determination.K
MBu&e 1939G*19@ **-N Of "ourse@ Kpost(arrin/K is a lu8ur4 not ever4one "an afford.F1 A/ainst %audril- lardFs tenden"4 to spea& of the h4perreal
as a 'lan&et "ondition that has fallen uni- forml4 on the (orld@ I (ould "ounterpose the insi/ht of 7er 7erian C199.D and Kro&er C199.D that
virtual spa"es are spa"es of po(er not a""essi'le to all ali&e. Aust as (ithin nations@ some spa"es at the side of the road-to use Kathleen Ste(artFs
C1991D evo"a- tive phrase-are left 'ehind '4 the information superhi/h(a4@ so (ithin the international s4stem@ some nations "annot afford the
massive simula"ra of death the nu"lear po(ers have used to su'limate their "ontests for pre"eden"e. And no(@ #ust at the moment (hen ro/ue
states threaten to upset the stratifi"ation of the international s4s- tem '4 a"Juirin/ nu"lear (eapons Cthe ultimate s4m'ols of up(ard mo'ilit4 in
/lo'al so"iet4D@ a ne( Ione of stratifi"ation has 'een added. +hether one sees sto"&pile ste(ardship as a (a4 to develop ne( nu"lear (eapons or
#ust as a (a4 to &eep the old ones in /ood order@ this ne( development in the international nu"lear potlat"h opens a spa"e (here India@ 5a&istan@
IraJ@ Iran@ and <orth Korea "annot easil4 follo(. A privile/ed fe( (ill have e8pensivel4 maintained@ hi/hl4 simulated advan"ed nu"lear (eapons
supported '4 a massive infrastru"ture of (eapons s"ientists &ept in top shape '4 their nu"lear e8er"ise ma"hines@ (hile the rest (ill-unless
(illin/ to ris& the oppro'rium of their 'etters '4 en/a/in/ in the vul/ar pra"ti"e of nu"lear testin/- 'e left to "o''le to/ether "rude devi"es too
lar/e and "lums4 to fit on missiles.
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A-to 6an K
>he 6an K doesn7t li)erate and reifies $onventional IR the57ve )ou0ht-into the s5stem )5
identif5in0 us as the !)ad ones+
+illiam A. Callahan is professor of international politi"s and China studies at the ?niversit4 of ,an"hester and
"odire"tor of the %ritish Inter-universit4 China Center@ Revie( of International Studies C*001D@ -1@ 20121.
doiG10.1012$S0*10*10000001211
Indeed@ anal4sts in"reasin/l4 "riti"ise the politi"al "onseJuen"es of an !uro-Ameri"an mode of representin/ China as a threatH 10
sin"e Chinese se"urit4 dis"ourse is rarel4 anal4sed it is no( ne"essar4 to e8plore the politi"al "onseJuen"es of China6s modes of self-
representation and ho( TChina threat theor46 is produ"ed in the 5RC. Indeed@ this e8ample (ill add to the "riti"al e8amination of t(o of the main
resear"h themes of se"urit4 studiesG strate/i" "ulture and threat per"eption. >o put it another (a4@ the emer/en"e of China is not simpl4 an issue
of international diploma"4 and national se"urit4. It has important interte8tual overlaps (ith other dis"ourses that frame Juestions a'out China and
the (orld@ su"h as the d4nami" 'et(een domesti" and international politi"s@ e"onomi"s and politi"s@ dan/ers and opportunities as the4 produ"e
+estern and Chinese identit4. A re"ent arti"le in the popular Chinese ne(s ma/aIine@ Biao(an/@ e8plains ho( China6s Tpea"eful rise6 is
intimatel4 lin&ed (ith TChina threat6 in an overlap of domesti" and international politi"sG11 >he (orld &no(s a'out the a"hievements of China6s
reform and openin/. %ut sin"e the 'e/innin/ of the 1990s@ TChina threat theor46 has 'een "hurned out from some "orners of the (orld . . . to
smear China6s ima/e and to "ontain China6s rise. +ith the appearan"e of Tpea"eful rise theor46 international opinion suddenl4 realises the
(ea&nesses of TChina threat theor46. . . . 5ea"eful rise is the formula that sums up the essen"e of domesti" poli"4 and forei/n relations in reform
China. Indeed@ the arti"les in this =orum li&e(ise spea& of dan/ers (hen the4 dis"uss China6s opportunities. >his su//ests that as in the popular
Chinese phrase T(ei#i"risis6@ dan/er C(eiD and opportunit4 C#iD are not separate@ 'ut are intimatel4 lin&ed. >o understand the opportunities of
China@ it is ne"essar4 to see ho( the mirror-ima/e of pea"eful rise the China threat shapes the ima/e of risin/ China not #ust a'road@ 'ut
(ithin China itself. ,an4 (riters ta&e the meanin/ of TChina threat6 as self-evident@ and then pro"eed to either a/ree or
disa/ree (ith it. >his introdu"tion (ill e8amine the produ"tion of TChina threat theor46 in order to provide a "riti"al 'a"&/round for the
dis"ussion of China6s pla"e in the (orld e8amined in the remainin/ arti"les. =irst@ it (ill e8amine +estern (arnin/s of a China threat@ and
Chinese responses to them. Some "ommentators frame this as a /eopoliti"al de'ate in Sino-?S pu'li" diploma"4@ and (arn that it ris&s spinnin/
out of "ontrol in a se"urit4 dilemma. +hile I do not disa/ree (ith this "on"ern@ the essa4 (ill sho( that 'e"ause the Chinese rea"tion is mu"h
stron/er than the Ameri"an a"tion@ somethin/ else is /oin/ on. >he main purpose for these Chinese lan/ua/e te8ts is not to "orre"t forei/n
misunderstandin/sH the &e4 audien"e for TChina threat theor46 is domesti"@ for identit4 "onstru"tion in the 5RC. I (ill ar/ue that Chinese te8ts
/ather to/ether a diverse and "ontradi"tor4 set of "riti"isms of the 5RC and use TChina threat theor46 dis"ourse to "olle"tivel4 la'el them as
forei/n. %4 then refutin/ the TChina threat theor46 "riti"isms as falla"ies spread '4 ill-intentioned forei/ners@ the te8ts assert Tpea"eful rise6 as the
proper (a4 to understand China6s emer/en"e on the (orld sta/e. >hus in a "urious (a4@ the ne/ative ima/es of the 5RC that are "ontinuall4
"ir"ulated in Chinese te8ts serve to "onstru"t Chinese identit4 throu/h a lo/i" of estran/ement that separates the domesti" self from the forei/n
other. Althou/h Chinese dis"ussions of TChina threat theor46 are su""essful in /eneratin/ national feelin/ (ithin China@ the dis"ourse
a"tuall4 tends to reprodu"e China as a threatenin/ po(er a'road 'e"ause refutations of TChina threat theor46 end up
/eneratin/ a ne( set of forei/n threats. ;en"e rather than en/a/in/ in "riti"al se"urit4 studies to Juestion the
international order@ these refutations of TChina threat theor46 a"tuall4 'uttress the e8istin/ /eopoliti"al frame(or& of
international relations. In the "on"lusion@ I ar/ue that (e need to Juestion ho( Realism has "olonised the Trise of China6 de'ate '4
deli'eratel4 usin/ theor4 to open up "riti"al spa"e for the issues dis"ussed in this =orum6s "onsideration of China6s rise.
3 Aohnston@ TIs China a Status Ruo 5o(erL6@ p. 1.
9 7avid Camp'ell@ +ritin/ Se"urit4G ?nited States =orei/n 5oli"4 and the 5oliti"s of Identit4@ revised
edn. C,inneapolis@ ,<G ?niversit4 of ,innesota 5ress@ 1993D@ p. 0.
10 See Aohnston@ TIs China a Status Ruo 5o(erL6H !mma %roomfield@ T5er"eptions of 7an/erG >he
China >hreat >heor46@ Aournal of Contemporar4 China@ 1*G-0 C*00-D@ pp. *103.H Chen08in 6anC
P>he PPChina >hreat77 in Ameri$an Self-Ima0inationJ >he Dis$ursive Constru$tion of
ther as 6o*er 6oliti$s7C AlternativesC 29J. @200/AC pp. -00-1.
11 Bin/ 7eJuan@ TTT;epin/ #ueJi66 /an/#u muIhan/6 M!8plainin/ T5ea"eful rise6N@ Biao(an/@
0 C* =e'ruar4 *00.D@ p. 1.
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ur ar0ument is not that China is a threat it7s that *e should avoid either simplisti$C
reif5in0 e8treme. ,e instead point to $onte8t.
doiG10.1012$S0*10*10000001211
>he ar/ument of this essa4 is not that China is a threat. Rather@ it has e8amined the produ"tive lin&a/es that &nit to/ether the ima/e of
China as a pea"efull4 risin/ po(er and the dis"ourse of China as a threat to the e"onomi" and militar4 sta'ilit4 of !ast Asia. It (ould 'e eas4
to #oin the "horus of those (ho denoun"e TChina threat theor46 as the mis/uided produ"t of the %lue >eam@ as do man4 in
China and the +est. %ut that (ould 'e a mista&e@ 'e"ause dependin/ on "ir"umstan"es an4thin/ from risin/ po(ers to
"ivilian air"raft "an 'e interpreted as a threat. >he purpose is not to ar/ue that interpretations are false in relation to
some realit4 Csu"h as that China is fundamentall4 pea"eful rather than (ar-li&eD@ 'ut that it is ne"essar4 to unpa"& the politi"al and
histori"al "onte8t of ea"h per"eption of threat. Indeed@ TChina threat6 has never des"ri'ed a unified Ameri"an understandin/ of the 5RCG
it has al(a4s 'een one position amon/ man4 in de'ates amon/ a"ademi"s@ pu'li" intelle"tuals and poli"4ma&ers. Rather than inflate
e8tremist positions Cin 'oth the +est and ChinaD into irrefuta'le truth@ it is more interestin/ to e8amine the de'ates that
produ"ed the threat$opportunit4 d4nami". >his essa4 has e8amined ho( TChina threat theor46 is enthusiasti"all4 reprodu"ed and "ir"ulated
'e4ond the %elt(a4 in Chinese te8ts to sho( ho( Chinese elites en/a/e in their o(n threat interpretations and national identit4 produ"tions.
>hus it underlines ho( TChina threat6 and TChina opportunit46 are not diametri"all4 opposed as sites of total truth or falsit4H
threat and opportunit4 are intimatel4 related as "omplementar4 opposites that entail ea"h other.
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A-to 6an K
>he K of !China threats+ reifies )5 identif5in0 the fla*s in ?S posture and paintin0
China as vi$timiBedC the IR s5stem repli$ates itself
doiG10.1012$S0*10*10000001211
;en"e '4 turnin/ China threat into a theor4@ the dis"ourse moves from merel4 respondin/ to "riti"ism in a ne/ative
(a4@ a"tivel4 produ"in/ positive meanin/. Rather than simpl4 Tputtin/ an end to TTChina threat theor466 6 as the first
arti"le on the topi" advised in 199*@-2 the dis"ourse "ontinuall4 reprodu"es and "ir"ulates this set of ima/es of a pea"efull4 risin/
China that is the vi"tim of "riti"ism that onl4 "omes from a'road. Althou/h >ai(an is a site of mu"h dis"ussion of a TChina threat6@
>ai(anese people are rarel4 "riti"ised in the mainland6s TChina threat theor46 te8ts. >his underlines ho( the "ate/or4 TChina threat theor46 is
used to sort out the domesti" from the forei/nG >ai(anese are seen '4 %ei#in/ as Chinese "ompatriots. %e"ause %ei#in/ frames TChina threat
theor46 as a Tforei/n falla"46 and Cross-Straits relations as an issue of domesti" politi"s@ the lar/e and vo"iferous "a"he of TChina threat6 te8ts
from >ai(an are erased '4 TChina threat theor46 dis"ourse. Althou/h Chinese premier Zhu Ron/#i sou/ht to "han/e the su'#e"t from China threat
to China opportunit4@ man4 TChina threat theor46 arti"les en/a/e in a proliferation of forei/n threats. As a former 7eput4 Chief of Staff of the
5BA reasonsG TIf (e follo( the lo/i" of TTChina threat theor466@ (ho 'enefits from it@ and (ho thus "an 'e a threat to other "ountries6 se"urit4L6-3
>he "ommon response to China threat theor4 thus is that Ameri"a is the real threat.-9 et it is not #ust the sole superpo(er that is seen as a threat.
TChina threat theor46 arti"les also /enerate a TAapan threat theor46 and an TIndia threat theor46. ,an4 arti"les tell us that real reason for Aapanese
s"holars@ politi"ians and offi"ials (arnin/ of a potential China threat is to #ustif4 rearmin/ Aapan and revivin/ the imperial Aapanese militarism of
the earl4 *0th "entur4..0 >his "on"ern provided the 'a"&-stor4 that motivated the mass anti-Aapanese demonstrations that ro"&ed China in April
*000. As Shih "on"ludes a'out Sino-Aapanese diploma"4 more /enerall4@ Tthe per"eption of a threatenin/ Aapan serves to differentiate China from
Aapan and "onsolidate an other(ise sha&4 national identit4 in China6..1 Bi&e(ise@ (hen India6s leaders stated that their reason for 'e"omin/ a
nu"lear po(er in 1993 (as not the threat from 5a&istan so mu"h as the threat from China@ a Chinese response (as to "reate an TIndia threat
theor46. An anon4mous author "on"ludes that if India "ontinues to 'e unfriendl4@ the 5RC (ill have to "ontain India. >his poli"4 (ould en"ir"le
India (ith a net(or& of hostile allian"es and foment Islami" fundamentalism in Kashmir and 'e4ond..* >he messa/e is "learH if a "ountr4 re#e"ts
China6s Tpea"eful overtures6@ then China (ill fi/ht diplomati"all4@ militaril4@ and rhetori"all4@ in"ludin/ spreadin/ an TIndia threat theor46 in
South Asia and 'e4ond. Althou/h TChina threat theor46 is as"ri'ed to the Cold +ar thin&in/ of forei/ners (ho suffer from an enem4 deprivation
s4ndrome@ the use of "ontainment as a response to threats in Chinese te8ts su//ests that Chinese strate/ists are also see&in/ to fill the s4m'oli"
/ap left '4 the "ollapse of the Soviet ?nion@ (hi"h (as the &e4 threat to the 5RC after 1910. Refutations of TChina threat theor46 do
not see& to de"onstru"t the dis"ourse of Tthreat6 as part of "riti"al se"urit4 studies. Rather the4 are e8pressions of a
/eopoliti"al identit4 politi"s 'e"ause the4 refute TChinese6 threats as a (a4 of fa"ilitatin/ the produ"tion of an
Ameri"a threat@ a Aapan threat@ an India threat@ and so on. ?nitin/ to fi/ht these forei/n threats affirms China6s national identit4.
?nfortunatel4@ '4 refutin/ China threat in this 'elli"ose (a4 that is '4 /eneratin/ a ne( series of threats the
China threat theor4 te8ts end up "onfirmin/ the threat that the4 see& to den4G Aapan@ India and Southeast Asia are in"reasin/l4
threatened '4 China6s protests of pea"e..-
111
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 6an K
>he K of !China >hreats+ $reates ne* )oundaries that reif5 s5stems of domination
doiG10.1012$S0*10*10000001211
Bastl4@ some China threat theor4 arti"les /o 'e4ond "riti"isin/ the i/noran"e and 'ad intentions of the offendin/ te8ts to
"on"lude that those (ho promote China threat must 'e "raI4G T>here is a "onsensus (ithin mainland a"ademi" "ir"les that there is
hardl4 an4 reasona'le lo/i" to e8plain the vie(s and pra"ti"es of the ?nited States to(ard China in the past fe( 4ears. It
"an onl4 'e summed up in a (ordG TT,adness66 6..2 Indians li&e(ise are said to suffer from a TChina threat theor4 s4ndrome6..3 >his 'rin/s
us 'a"& to =ou"ault6s lo/i" of Trationalit46 'ein/ "onstru"ted throu/h the e8"lusion of a ran/e of a"tivities that are la'elled as
Tmadness6. >he rationalit4 of the rise of China depends upon distin/uishin/ it from the madness of those (ho Juestion
it. Bi&e Aoseph <4e6s "on"ern that (arnin/s of a China threat "ould 'e"ome a self-fulfillin/ prophes4@ China threat
theor4 te8ts vi/orousl4 reprodu"e the dan/ers of the ver4 threat the4 see& to den4. Rather than addin/ to the de'ate@
the4 end up poli"in/ (hat Chinese and forei/ners "an rationall4 sa4.
11*
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 6an K
>he K of !China >hreat+ reifies identit5. >his also proves their attempt to paint this as a
lar0er indi$t on ?S poli$5 is part of a pro$ess of ID $onstru$tion.
doiG10.1012$S0*10*10000001211
?sin/ a data'ase that /ives a""ess to arti"les in a 'road ran/e of Chinese a"ademi" and professional #ournals@ this introdu"tion has e8amined
China6s slipper4 relation to the (orld throu/h the lo/i" of ho( TChina threat6 emer/ed as a theor4 in the 5RC. Rather than referrin/ to a "lear set
of data or poli"ies@ the essa4 has sho(n ho( TChina threat theor46 serves to dis"ursivel4 unif4 a diverse and "ontradi"tor4 set of
te8ts that are #ud/ed to 'e anti-China@ re/ardless of (hether the4 posit a risin/ China@ an insi/nifi"ant China@ or a "ollapsin/
China. Refutin/ these te8ts is not #ust an atta"& on the pessimists in the ?S@ Aapan@ India@ and Southeast Asia@ 'ut is an a"tive
performan"e of identit4 in China as spe"ifi"all4 national Crather than lo"al@ "lass@ ethni"@ or /enderedD. Rather than su//est that
"ommentators "han/e from TChina threat6 to TChina opportunit46@ I have ar/ued that neither China threat nor China opportunit4 is autonomous or
"oherent. Bi&e in the oft-Juoted Chinese phrase for "risis@ (ei#i@ threat and opportunit4 "onstru"t ea"h other in the events Cthat is@ "risesD of
domesti" and international politi"s. ,ost of the Chinese arti"les that assert a China threat theor4 are a"tuall4 dire"t responses to eventsG the sale of
fi/hter #ets to >ai(an C199*D@ the pu'li"ation of alarmist 'oo&s and arti"les in the ?S C1992@ *000D@ Aapan6s <ational 7efen"e +hite 5apers
C*000@ *001@ *00.D@ "riti"al offi"ial ?S reports C*00*@ *00.D@ and so on. %4 transformin/ TChina threat6 from a response to these
spe"ifi" events into a /eneral theor4@ I ar/ued that Chinese te8ts are en/a/ed in a dis"ussion of ho( to understand China
throu/h a ne/ative lo/i" of estran/ement. >here are man4 (a4s to "onstru"t national identit4. 5raisin/ the e"onomi"
development of reform China and pea"eful "ivilisation of Chinese tradition is one (a4. Refutin/ forei/n "riti"isms throu/h TChina
threat theor46 is another. >he lar/e Juantit4 and sharp Jualit4 of TChina threat theor46 dis"ourse su//ests that denoun"in/ "riti"s as
Tforei/n6 in this (a4 is an important means of assertin/ the ima/e of China as a pea"eful risin/ po(er. Rather than the main tar/et
of the Chinese arti"les 'ein/ (orld opinion for international politi"s@ the main audien"e for the TChina threat theor46 arti"les is domesti"@ for
identit4 politi"s in China. >his ne/ative dis"ourse mirrors the /lories of China@ and serves to differentiate and estran/e China as a uniJue entit4 in
an in"reasin/l4 /lo'alised (orld.
11-
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 6redi$tions K nu$lear spe$ifi$
@ A 6redi$tions K *ron0 in the nu$lear $onte8tJ I0nores the distin$tion )et*een pre$ise and
suffi$ientl5 a$$urate predi$tions
Steven Fee is the ;.B.A. ;art Eisitin/ Resear"h =ello( at the Center for !thi"s and 5hilosoph4 of Ba( and
?niversit4 Colle/e for ,i"haelmas@ as (ell as Eisitin/ Resear"h =ello( at the Chan/in/ Chara"ter of +ar
5ro/ramme. ;e is a 5rofessor in the ;umanities and 5rofessor of 5hilosoph4 at ;o'art and +illiam Smith Colle/es@
Revie(ed (or&CsDG <u"lear 7eterren"e@ ,oralit4 and Realism. '4 Aohn =innis H Aoseph ,. %o4le@ Ar. H
9ermain 9riseI H Aefferson ,",ahan Sour"eG 5hilosoph4 and 5u'li" Affairs@ Eol. 19@ <o. 1 C+inter@ 1990D@ pp. 9--
101 5u'lished '4G %la"&(ell 5u'lishin/ Sta'le ?RBG httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$**10-1.
In their "riti"ism of "onseJuentialism@ the authors ar/ue@ first@ that the various attempts that have 'een made to assess
nu"lear deterren"e in "onseJuentialist terms all fail@ and se"ond@ that this failure is inevita- 'le@ sin"e "onseJuentialism is an
una""epta'le moral theor4. >he4 e8- amine the prodeterren"e "onseJuentialist ar/uments of ,i"hael +alIer and 9re/or4 Kav&a@ amon/ others@
and the antideterren"e "onseJuen- tialist ar/uments of 7ou/las Ba"&e4@ Aefferson ,",ahan@ and Ro'ert 9oodin.1 >he fa"t that these (riters
rea"h opposin/ "on"lusions@ the authors su//est@ illustrates the pro'lems (ith the "onseJuentialist method. >here are t(o reasons (h4 a
"onseJuentialist "omparison of nu"lear deterren"e and unilateral nu"lear disarmament is impossi'le. =irst@ the main ne/ative out"omes possi'le
under these poli"ies@ nu"lear devastation and Soviet domination@ "annot 'e "ompared in "onseJuentialist terms. Se"ond@ the e8tent to (hi"h
these poli"ies (ould in"rease or de- "rease the li&elihoods of these out"omes "annot 'e determined. >he "laim that nu"lear devastation and Soviet
domination "annot 'e "ompared in "onseJuentialist terms rests lar/el4 on the "laim that the &inds of harm or evil involved in these out"omes are
in"ommensura'le. =or@ Kthe values of life@ li'ert4@ fairness@ and so on@ are diverse. ;o( man4 peopleFs lives are eJuivalent to the li'ert4 of ho(
man4-(hether the same or other-personsL <o one "an sa4K Cp. *.1D. +hen one "onsiders the t(o out"omes@ KMeNa"h seems the more repu/nant
(hile one is fo"usin/ upon itK Cp. *.0D. %ut this in"ommensura'ilit4 "laim is not plausi'le. Bife and politi"al li'ert4 are diverse /oods@ 'ut havin/
li'ert4 is onl4 part of (hat ma&es life (orth livin/. Certainl4 most people (ould prefer loss of li'ert4 to loss of life@ and even if "onseJuential
value is not a fun"tion solel4 of preferen"es@ the preferen"es in this "ase refle"t a real differen"e in value. !ven (here li'ert4 is la"&in/@ a life has
mu"h potential for value. Of "ourse@ it is unli&el4 that ever4one (ould die in a nu- "lear (ar@ 'ut it is li&el4 that man4 of the livin/ (ould env4
the dead. As the authors point out@ ho(ever@ (e do not &no( ho( destru"tive the nu- "lear (ar mi/ht 'e@ nor ho( repressive the Soviet
domination. A ver4 limited nu"lear (ar mi/ht 'e prefera'le to a ver4 repressive Soviet-imposed re/ime. %ut these are unli&el4 e8tremes. In
terms of e8pe"ted util- ities@ domination is prefera'le to (ar. In this sense@ Red is 'etter than dead@ and the "onseJuentialist "omparison "an 'e
made. It is not@ of "ourse@ as simple as /ivin/ an ordinal ran&in/ of Red and dead. <either poli"4 ma&es either out"ome "ertain or impossi'le. >he
li&elihoods that the out"omes (ould o""ur under ea"h of the poli"ies is also relevant to the "onseJuentialist "omparison. 5resuma'l4@ nu"lear
deterren"e ma&es Soviet domination less li&el4@ 'ut nu"lear devastation more li&el4@ (hile unilateral nu"lear disarmament ma&es nu"lear dev-
astation less li&el4@ 'ut Soviet domination more li&el4. >he authors maintain that these li&elihoods "annot 'e determined. %ut
this o'#e"tion trades on a "onfusion 'et(een pre"ise predi"ta'ilit4 and suffi"ientl4 a"- "urate predi"ta'ilit4. >he
li&elihoods ma4 not 'e determina'le (ith /reat pre"ision@ 'ut the4 ma4 'e determina'le (ith a""ura"4 suffi"ient for
the "onseJuentialist "omparison. Of "ourse@ un"ertaint4 a'out the "omparative li&elihoods of the out"omes (ill "ompound the pro'lem
posed '4 un"ertaint4 a'out the "omparative values of the out"omes C"reatin/ a situation of t(o-dimensional un"ertaint4@ to use Kav&aFs phraseD.2
Ordi- nal ran&in/s ma4 not then 'e suffi"ient. =or e8ample@ a "onseJuentialist "omparison 'ased on merel4 ordinal ran&in/s "annot 'e made if
nu"lear deterren"e ma&es the (orse out"ome Cnu"lear devastationD less li&el4 than unilateral nu"lear disarmament ma&es the 'etter out"ome
CSoviet dominationD. >his pro'lem is re"o/niIed '4 ,",ahan@ (ho su//ests that (e "an determine the values of the out"omes and their
li&elihoods under the alternative poli"ies (ith an a""ura"4 /reater than that reJuired for merel4 ordinal ran&in/s.3 ;e
ar/ues@ in part@ that (e "an ma&e a "onse- Juentialist "omparison of the t(o poli"ies 'e"ause (e "an determine that nu"lear
devastation is a si/nifi"antl4 (orse out"ome than Soviet domination and that unilateral nu"lear disarmament does not ma&e Soviet domination
si/nifi"antl4 more li&el4 than nu"lear deterren"e ma&es nu- "lear devastation. >he authors respond that (e "annot #ud/e that one
li&elihood is si/nifi"antl4 /reater than another (ithout 'ein/ a'le to "ompute the li&elihoods Cp. *.2D. %ut this is the "onfusion
'et(een pre- "ise and suffi"ientl4 a""urate predi"ta'ilit4. I "an@ for e8ample@ #ustifi- a'l4 "laim that one student is
si/nifi"antl4 more li&el4 to /et her paper in on time than another@ (ithout 'ein/ a'le to "ompute the relevant li&e-
lihoods.
11.
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 6redi$tions K
@ A 6redi$tions are methodolo0i$all5 soundC refle8iveC and in$reasin0l5 a$$urate.
Ruud van der ;elm is a 7ut"h poli"4 offi"er on instrument development in the Aid !ffe"tiveness and 5oli"4
7epartment. =utures Eolume .1@ Issue *@ 5a/es 12-111 C,ar"h *009D o'tained via S"ien"e 7ire"t
=uturists 'uild and dis"uss statements on future states of affairs. +hen their (or& is "hallen/ed@ the4 "annot defend TT(hat ma4
"ome to 'e66 (ith ro'ust forms of proof. >he4 have no dire"t o'servation@ "an desi/n no e8periments@ and "annot a""umulate data sets. All the
(or&@ all the dis"ussions of validit4@ have to rel4 on indire"t reasonin/ 'ased on "urrent and past o'servations@
e8periments and data. Su"h reasonin/ is fra/ile and su'#e"t to "onsidera'le un"ertaint4. !ver sin"e the field emer/ed in the 1900s and
1910s@ futurists have 'een a"utel4 a(are of the spe"ial "hallen/e this implies@ in"ludin/ t(o most o'vious "onseJuen"es. =irst@ even the most
serious (or& is vulnera'le to potentiall4 devastatin/ "riti"ism. >his has tri//ered an on-/oin/ effort of theoreti"al #ustifi"ation that has
a""ompanied the development of the =utures field. Se"ond@ in relation to this@ sound methodolo/4 is "ru"iall4 important to provide support (hen
e8plorin/ su"h inse"ure /round as professional and a"ademi" spe"ulation on possi'le futures. It is not surprisin/ that methodolo/4 has "onstantl4
'een one and often the "entral "on"ern of the field@ sometimes to a point of e8"ess. As earl4 as 1930@ 7er"oufler "ould (arn "ompanion
futurists a/ainst the ur/e TTto #ump steps in the lon/ and diffi"ult pro/ression to(ards the still h4potheti"al s"ientifi"it4 of "on#e"tural (or& '4
displa4in/ inappropriate "ompla"en"4 for issues of method66. +hether or not some futurists do T#ump steps6@ the =utures field has
"onsistentl4 sho(n mu"h refle8ivit4 on its theoreti"al foundations and its methodolo/i"al pro"edures. ;o(ever@ the
nature of the theoreti"al and methodolo/i"al "hallen/es to 'e addressed '4 su"h refle8ivit4 "han/es over time. >he do"trines@ the methodolo/i"al
resour"es@ the &no(led/e-'ase@ the or/anisation of dis"ussion in the field@ that on"e provided the 'asis for su""essfull4 meetin/ the "hallen/es of
a /iven era ma4 'e"ome inadeJuate or irrelevant if the "onte8t "omes to "han/e in a ma#or (a4. Our ar/ument in this spe"ial issue is that su"h a
ma#or "han/e in the "hallen/es that have to 'e met '4 our field is no( (ell under (a4@ "allin/ for a ma#or re-e8amination and rene(al of the
theoreti"al underpinnin/s of futures (or&.1 7eepenin/ and refinin/ the dia/nosis of the "han/in/ "onte8t of =S is of "ourse one part of the tas&
ahead of us. %ut to laun"h the effort@ and sho( its ne"essit4@ let us #ust s&et"h a rou/h pi"ture of the situation@ '4 revie(in/ three important
aspe"ts of the development of the =utures fieldG C1D pra"ti"al ne"essit4 and finalisation@ C*D pe"uliarit4 and separation@ and C-D methodolo/4-'ased
development. Confronted (ith strident "riti"ism on the possi'ilit4 and le/itima"4 of an4 serious stud4 of future
situations@ the stron/est ar/ument put for(ard '4 man4 pioneers of the =utures field (as that stud4in/ possi'le futures (as
ne"essar4 for a"tion and de"ision-ma&in/. As e8pressed '4 %ertrand de Aouvenel C191.DG TTOne al(a4s foresees@ (ithout ri"hness
of data@ (ithout a(areness of method@ (ithout "ritiJue nor "ooperation. It is no( ur/ent and important to /ive this individual and
natural a"tivit4 a "ooperative@ or/anised "hara"ter@ and su'mit it to /ro(in/ demands of intelle"tual ri/or66. >his has proved a de"isive
'asis for the development of the field@ fromthe1910s to thep resent da4. It has led to a situation (here most (or&s on futures are
le/itimised throu/h their "onne"tion to 'usiness mana/ement@ to pu'li" de"ision-ma&in/@ or 'oth. >he su""ess of foresi/ht in the re"ent
4ears is an illustration of the stren/th of this "ovenant 'et(een futures methodolo/4 and the needs of lon/-term@
strate/i"@ mana/ement and poli"4. >he do(nside of thus usin/ the "ontri'ution to de"ision-ma&in/ as the main theoreti"al #ustifi"ation and as
the 'a"&'one of methodolo/i"al desi/n in futures (or& has 'een@ and is no(@ a "onstant (ea&enin/ of the effort to e8plore and develop other
'ases for theoreti"al foundation and methodolo/i"al development. Althou/h man4 su"h avenues have 'een opened@ the4 have not 'een e8plored
ver4 far@ 'e"ause the evaluation of ne( methods has 'een 'ased on their adeJua"4 in servin/ studies desi/ned for the preparation of de"ision-
ma&in/@ or of "olle"tive a"tion.
110
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 6redi$tions K
@ A >he K of predi$tion is utterl5 de)ilitatin0J >heir K leaves us immo)iliBed in the fa$e of
an5 forth$omin0 diffi$ult5
7r. Ri"hard Slau0hter is the president of =oresi/ht International@ in %ris'ane@ Australia. ;e is a futurist of
international standin/ (ith a 5h7 in =utures Studies. ;e is the author and$or editor of 11 'oo&s and has (ritten
numerous arti"les and papers on futures themes and methodolo/ies. ;e has lon/-standin/ professional lin&s (ith
prominent international institutions@ or/aniIations and resear"h 'odies. =utures Eolume .0@ Issue 10@ 5a/es 30--
9*1 C7e"em'er *004D o'tained via S"ien"e 7ire"t
I ta&e the vie( that the futures field is at an advan"ed sta/e of development internall4 (ith a 'road suite of tools@
methods@ pra"titioners and an impressive literature. %ut its appli"ations are ver4 uneven@ the 'ul& of its (or& remains do//edl4
"onventional and its most advan"ed e8pressions have 4et to ma&e their mar&. Apart from the pressin/ need for /reater so"ial le/itimation@ one of
the most si/nifi"ant stum'lin/ 'lo"&s pro'a'l4 has more to do (ith human nature than (ith futures and foresi/ht per se. It "an 'e seen in the (a4
that the differen"es that e8ist 'et(een pra"titioners of different persuasions often seem to 'e"ome more important and divisive than the pressin/
"on"erns for humanit46s future that supposedl4 underlie them. 5erhaps this is inevita'le in an4 field@ the /ames and traps of the human e/o 'ein/
(hat the4 are. et@ at the same time@ the "hallen/e has never 'een /reater to trans"end "onfli"ts@ disputes and divisions and to re-fo"us on the
d4nami"s of the transitions ahead. >(o (or&s that a"hieve this (ith distin"tion are And4 ;ines and 5eter %ishop6s 'oo& on >hin&in/ A'out the
=utureG 9uidelines for Strate/i" =oresi/ht@ (hi"h should 'e read '4 ever4one@ and +ill Steffan6s 'oo& 9lo'al Chan/e and the !arth S4stemG A
5lanet ?nder 5ressure M10N. +hat is "ertain is that a su""ession of non-ne/otia'le fa"tors (ill test humanit4 as never
'efore. It is headed for a perfe"t storm "omprised /lo'al (armin/ and sea level rise@ pea& oil and its aftermath@ re/ional
environmental "ollapse@ e"onomi" and finan"ial insta'ilit4@ and so"ial upheavals and mi/rations on a s"ale never seen 'efore. In this "onte8t
(hat the (orld needs is not inter-tri'al rivalr4 'ut a "oherent@ "onvin"in/ and "apa'le futures$foresi/ht "ommunit4 to
assist (ith t(o &e4 tas&s. >he first tas& is the need to T(a&e up6 to humanit46s predi"amentH the se"ond is to more
"ons"iousl4 and effe"tivel4 mana/e the multiple transitions from /ro(th C(hi"h further ins"ri'es the Tovershoot and "ollapse6 tra#e"tor4D
to sustaina'ilit4 C(hi"h reJuires ver4 different values@ assumptions and pra"ti"es a"ross the 'oardD. Ruite possi'l4 the most a""urate and
su""in"t statement a'out these prospe"ts (ere penned a fe( 4ears a/o '4 'iolo/ist !.O. +ilson (ho (roteG +e have entered the Centur4 of the
!nvironment@ in (hi"h the immediate future is usefull4 "on"eived as a 'ottlene"&. S"ien"e and te"hnolo/4@ "om'ined (ith a la"& of self-
understandin/ and a 5aleolithi" o'stina"4@ 'rou/ht us to (here (e are toda4. <o( s"ien"e and te"hnolo/4@ "om'ined (ith foresi/ht and moral
"oura/e@ must see us throu/h the 'ottlene"& and out M11N. >he futures$foresi/ht profession@ vo"ation or field stands at these ver4
"rossroads. +hatever the future a"tuall4 holds@ the #ournal =utures@ and others li&e it@ have a ma#or hand in resour"in/ us for this
e8"eptionall4 "hallen/in/ #ourne4 into ne( territor4.
111
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to 6redi$tions K
@ A >heir predi$tions K is simpl5 dated predi$tions resear$h has improved and is vital.
Ruud van der ;elm is a 7ut"h poli"4 offi"er on instrument development in the Aid !ffe"tiveness and 5oli"4
7epartment. =utures Eolume .1@ Issue *@ 5a/es 12-111 C,ar"h *009D o'tained via S"ien"e 7ire"t
>hese ma#or traits of the =utures field are 'oth the result of@ and an adaptation to@ a situation (here a"ademi" dis"iplines "arr4 epistemolo/i"al
'eliefs that lead them to es"he( 'oth the stud4 of futures and spe"ifi" "olla'oration 'et(een resear"her and pra"titioner. In the last *0 4ears
ho(ever@ this "onte8t has 'een under/oin/ an important /radual transformation@ the "onseJuen"es of (hi"h are no( startin/ to affe"t the =utures
field in a ma#or (a4. >he field of environment and sustaina'le development provides /ood e8amples. On issues su"h as "limate "han/e or the
evolution of land use@ the produ"tion and dis"ussion of simulations and s"enarios has 'e"ome a lar/e-s"ale industr4 (ith heav4 involvement of
a"ademi" "ommunities. 5u'lishin/ on possi'le futures has moved from an e""entri" t4pe of resear"h to a mainstream a"tivit4 in some se"tors of
a"ademia and resear"h institutes. Of "ourse@ '4 no means all a"ademi" dis"iplines or fields of interest have 4et follo(ed this dire"tion. %ut the
movement is startin/H it must@ and pro'a'l4 (ill@ "ontinue. It is alread4 advan"ed enou/h to "onfront the =utures field (ith ma#or "hallen/es to its
stron/points as (e revie(ed them 'riefl4 a'ove. CaD >here is little serious "hallen/e left toda4 as to the ne"essit4 and the
possi'ilit4 of resear"hin/ the future. A"ademi" institutions and dis"iplines in"reasin/l4 en/a/e in (or&s on future
issues. !ven if the evolution is not ver4 fast@ due to numerous stum'lin/ 'lo"&s in most dis"iplines@ the trend should "ontinue:and
should 'e en"oura/ed to do so. >his evolution has a hi/h potential to desta'ilise the "urrent impli"it "ompa"t under
(hi"h the =utures field en#o4s a "omparative e8"lusivit4. Indeed@ in "omple8 de"ision-ma&in/ arenas futures (or& (ith stron/
a"ademi" roots and "redentials tends to 'e seen not as less@ 'ut as more relevant and po(erful than efforts "entered dire"tl4 on de"isionma&in/
Ce./. trend anal4sis and s"enariosD. =urthermore@ the a"ademi" (orld "an mo'ilise resour"es Cintelle"tual@ human@ institutionalD
in"ompara'le to those of the "omparativel4 mar/inal =utures field@ for the produ"tion of a (ide ran/e of theories@ methods@ and
ela'orated "on#e"tures on the futures. C'D >he relation 'et(een a"ademia and "ivil so"iet4@ in"ludin/ the pu'li"@ has evolved dramati"all4@ 'oth
in pra"ti"e Ca/ain@ man4 e8amples "an 'e found in the field of sustaina'le developmentD and@ most importantl4 here@ in the (a4 the4 are vie(ed.
>hree de"ades of intense a"tivit4 in the so"iolo/4 of s"ien"e and of innovation has opened (ide 'rea"hes in the Clar/el4 ima/inar4D (alls 'et(een
a"ademia and the (orld of a"tion@ '4 sho(in/ that resear"h has al(a4s 'een Cand is no( more than everD supported '4 h4'rid net(or&s of
resear"h and so"ietal a"tion. ?nder su"h influen"es@ pra"ti"e is evolvin/ so fast that the pra"titioner$theoreti"ian "olla'oration as it prevails in the
=utures field is no lon/er ori/inal and auda"ious@ 'ut Juaint (hen "ompared (ith the "omple8@ lar/e s"ale pro"edures "urrentl4 developed for
involvin/ pra"titioners in the stud4 of /lo'al futures pro'lems. C"D >he in"reasin/ involvement of a"ademia in the produ"tion and dis"ussion of
(or& on futures in"reases the demand for and possi'ilities of in-depth dis"ussion of results and of theories the (or& is 'ased on. >his is promisin/
for the evolution of Jualit4 in futures (or&. %ut approa"hes 'ased mostl4 on sharin/ the &no(-ho( of e8perien"ed pra"titioners and on
standardised methodolo/ies that leave little room for innovation or for dis"ipline- or field situation-spe"ifi"it4@ (hen put to the test are li&el4 to
'e found (antin/.
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@ A 6s5$ho-anal5sis is <> the root of nu$lear violen$e also proves the alt has no effe$t on
nu$lear elites.
+hat needs to 'e noti"ed first and appre"iated a'out these formulations of Os/ood and S"hellin/ is ho( utterl4 in"ommensura'le the4 are (ith
respe"t to the determinants of ris& of nu"lear (ar. ?sin/ a method one mi/ht "all fear assessment@ Os/ood attri'uted the risin/ ris& of (ar to deep
fear and tension "aused '4 "ontinued parti"ipation in the arms ra"e. >o S"hellin/@ ho(ever@ ris( of *ar has little to do *ith an5
h5potheti$al ps5$holo0i$al strain and ever5thin0 to do *ith "omin/ off se"ond 'est in a net threat assessment. >o
"hara"teriIe the "on"eptual /ulf'et(e/n them in its star&est form@ Os/ood Cand most ps4"holo/istsD 'elieve that an4 nu"lear (ar (ill li&el4 'e
"aused '4 threats@ (hereas S"hellin/ Cand most poli"4ma&ers and anal4stsD 'elieve it (ill 'e prevented '4 them. <o (onder that 9RI>@ a pillar of
re"eived (isdom amon/ ps5$holo0ists@ is re/arded as a "uriosit4 amon/ poli"4ma&ers. It is important to noti"e@ finall4@ (h4 9RI> and its
des"endants are so *ide of the mar( of poli$5 relevan$e. It is 'e"ause the5 represent a KdepthK ps4"holo/4@ an attempt at
ps4"holo/i"al unveilin/ of pro$esses that are deeper than the $ons$ious e8perien$e of nu$lear poli$5ma(ers . >he
impli"it "laim is that efforts to deter nu"lear (ar '4 the maintenan"e of strate/i" sta'ilit4@ (hi"h seems to poli"4ma&ers to 'e the "ornerstone of
(ar prevention@ are Kreall4K the ver4 opposite--the4 are the li&el4 "ause of nu"lear (ar. 5s4"holo/ists tend to see this as a tale of t(o Ieit/eists@
one superfi"ial and false Cthe poli"4ma&ersFD and one deep and true Cthe ps4"holo/istsFD. O'viousl4 poli"4ma&ers have had none of this. >he4 are
in fa"t mu"h more li&el4 to e"ho the remar& of the Eiennese #ournalist Karl Kraus@ (ho des"ri'ed the ori/inal depth ps4"holo/4 this (a4G
H6s5$hoanal5sis is that spiritual disease of *hi$h it $onsiders itself to )e the $ureH C"ited in Aani& V >oulmin@ 192-@ p.
20D. >he la$( of seriousness *ith *hi$h nu$lear poli$5ma(ers have vie*ed s$hemes li&e 9RI> seems to prove the
point rather $on$lusivel5. >his point "annot 'e emphasiIed too mu"hH its unravellin/ represents the "riti"al thrust of this arti"leG
<u$lear depth ps5$holo05 does not lead to poli$5-relevant $on$lusions. It is a $on$eptual $ul-de-sa$ *ithin
*hi$h ps5$holo0ists are li(el5 to remain endlessl5 trappedC *ithout a reasona)le hope of $ontri)utin0 to the
redu$tion of nu$lear ris(sC the fear of (hi"h drove them into the nu"lear arena in the first pla"e. If ps5$holo0ists see( a realisti$
hope of influen$in0 nu$lear poli$5C the5 mustC as I ar/ue in the last t(o se"tions@ 'e/in a/ain after the4 have divested
themselves of their spurious nu$lear depth ps5$holo05. >he nu' of their "entral error (as "aptured man4 4ears a/o '4 +illiam
Aames. ;e "alled it@ on one o""asion@ Kthe ps4"holo/istsF falla"4 par e8"ellen"e@K (hi"h "onfi.Ots in K"onfusion of his o(n standpoint (ith that of
the mental fa"t a'out (hi"h he is ma&in/ his reportK CAames@ 1390@ Eol. 1@ p. 191D. K+e must@K "autioned Aames@ K'e ver4 "areful@ therefore@ in
dis"ussin/ a state of mind from the ps4"holo/istsF point of vie(@ to avoid foistin/ into its o(n &en matters that are onl4 there for oursK CAames@
1390@ Eol. 1@ p. 192D. %ut this is pre"isel4 (hat nu"lear depth ps4"holo/ists have not done. In Aamesian terms CAames@ 1390@ Eol. 1@ pp. **1-**-D@
our nu"lear poli"4ma&ers are (ell a"Juainted (ith the fear of "rises leadin/ potentiall4 to nu"lear (ar@ and thus the4 spend mu"h of their time
thin&in/ a'out the determinants of strate/i" sta'ilit4 in su"h a (a4 as to tr4 to drive do(n(ard the pro'a'ilit4 that deterren"e (ill fail. >his@
s"hemati"all4@ is the ps5$holo0i$al realit5 of the nu$lear poli$5ma(ers. It )ears no resem)lan$e *hatever to the
Hrealit5H that nu$lear depth ps5$holo0ists see( to attri)ute to themG A"Juaintan"e (ith patholo/i"al suspi"ion and attention
to arms Kra"in/@K ea"h of (hi"h is ultimatel4 attri'uta'le to superpo(er ps4"hopatholo/4. >his@ finall4@ is responsi'le for the poli"4 irrelevan"e of
the (hole approa"hG Its premises are totall5 alienC ps5$holo0i$all5 $ompletel5 unrealC to those *ho a$tuall5 mana0e
the nu$lear ris(s.
C<oteG the a"ron4m 9.R.I.>. internall4 referen"ed stands for K9raduated and Re"ipro"ated Initiatives in >ension Redu"tion)D
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@ A 6s5$ho-anal5sis does not e8plain trends in nu$lear poli$5 or IR
Sour"eG 5oliti"al 5s4"holo/4@ Eol. 2@ <o. . C7e".@ 1942D@ pp. 112-110 5u'lished '4G International So"iet4 of
5oliti"al 5s4"holo/4 Sta'le ?RBG httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$-291*01
Several re"ent attempts are surve4ed in (hi"h ps4"holo/ists have tried to appl4 their professional insi/hts to the
pro'lem of redu"in/ the ris& of nu"lear (ar. >hese in"lude those dire"ted at deep "auses Cthe ?.S.-Soviet relationshipD@
intermediate "auses Cimperfe"t rationalit4 of de"ision-ma&ersD and@ 'riefl4@ pre"ipitatin/ "auses Ceffe"ts of stressD. In ea"h "ase@
little or no influen$e on the nu$lear poli$5-ma(in0 pro$ess $an )e dis$ernedH ?.S. forei/n poli"4- ma&ers
"har/ed (ith mana/in/ the ris& of nu"lear (ar operate virtuall4 in- dependentl4 of ps4"holo/4. In order to 'rin/ nu"lear
poli"4-ma&in/ and ps4"holo/i"al insi/hts to/ether@ a phenomenolo/i"al approa"h to nu"lear "risis mana/ement is des"ri'ed@ the "entral tas& of
(hi"h is a s4stemati" des"ription of the evolution durin/ "rises of 'eliefs held '4 de"ision-ma&ers a'out ris& of nu"lear (ar. !ver sin"e
ps4"holo/4 (as or/aniIed into a separate dis"ipline@ intelle"- tuals "on"erned (ith redu"in/ the ris& of (ar have loo&ed to its
methods and findin/s for insi/hts (hi"h mi/ht 'e applied to international politi"s. Shortl4 after the Spanish-Ameri"an +ar@ for
e8ample@ +illiam Aames C1922'D (rote an essa4 espousin/ (hat he "alled K>he ,oral !Juivalent of +ar.K Aames@ a 7ar(inian@ ar/ued that
institutions must 'e "reated (hi"h help to "hannel our a//ressive instin"ts into useful@ rather than destru"tive dire"tions. Bater@ durin/ the rise of
fas"ism and the drift to(ard +orld +ar in the 19-0s@ ph4si"ist Al'ert !instein 'e"ame "onvin"ed that ps4"holo/i"al varia'les-our Kmanner of
thin&in/@K as he "alled it-la4 at the ver4 "ore of the "ausation of (ar amon/ nations. !instein 'elieved that if onl4 a (a4 "ould 'e found to Kthin&K
in /lo'al@ rather than nationalisti" terms@ (ar "ould 'e avoided@ perhaps permanentl4. In an e8"han/e pu'lished as K+h4 +arK C!instein and
=reud@ 1911D@ he (rote to =reud@ the most eminent ps4"holo/ist of his time@ for assistan"e in provo&in/ a ps4"holo/i"al revolution (hi"h (ould
usher in /lo'al thin&in/. =reud C!instein and =reud@ 1911D responded politel4 'ut firml4 that he "ould provide no su"h assistan"eH he &ne( of
no (a4 ps4"holo/4 "ould ma&e an4 dire"t "ontri'ution to redu"in/ the ris& of (ar. In the past several 4ears@ there has
'een an emphati" revival of interest amon/ ps4"holo/ists and others in appl4in/ ps4"holo/i"al insi/hts to the pro- 'lem of
redu"in/ the ris& of (ar@ espe"iall4 nu"lear (ar. In the follo(in/ se"tions@ I have surve4ed some of the most influential
re"ent attempts to lin& ps4"holo/i"al &no(led/e (ith redu"in/ the ris& of nu"lear (ar. ,4 "on"lusion re/ardin/ this enterprise is
not unli&e =reudFs in response to !insteinFs inJuir4G >he results so far indi"ate that the revival of !insteinian enthusiasm is
un(arranted. In sum@ the "riti"al "on"lusions are theseG 1. >here has 'een little or no influen"e on the poli"4-ma&in/ pro"ess@ at
the level of deep@ intermediate@ or pre"ipitatin/ ps4"holo/i"al "auses of a potential nu"lear (ar. *. >here is reason to 'elieve that su"h
influen"e (ill "ontinue to 'e minimal and also@ in fa"t@ that it pro'a'l4 should 'e minimal@ (hen vie(ed from the poli"4-
ma&erFs perspe"tive. >he most "ompellin/ reason poli"4-ma&ers have for i/norin/ ps4"hiatrists and ps4"holo/ists is thisG the
assumptions and modus operandi at ea"h level are utopian - in the "ase of the KdepthK ps4"holo/ists Csee se"tion *D 'e"ause the4
'elieve the4 "an "han/e the mental stru"tures of virtuall4 all important (orld leaders@ and for the KintermediateK 'ehavioral
s"ientists Csee se"tion -D 'e"ause the4 'elieve the4 "an "onvin"e forei/n poli"4 ma&ers that it is in their 'est interest to permit the transformation
of nu"lear poli"4 into a virtual applied 'ehavioral s"ien"e. I 'elieve that ea"h of these pursuits has 'een and (ill remain fruitless. >hus@
sin"e I re/ard influen"e on the poli"4 pro- "ess as the sine Jua non of su""essful nu"lear ris& redu"tion@ I 'elieve ps4"holo/ists are li&el4 to
remain out in the "old@ as it (ere@ (ithout influen"e@ despite all their /ood intentions.
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@ A 6s5$holo-anal5sis does not e8plain nu$lear ris(s. AndC if it did$ even an effe$tive pro%e$t
$ould not solve.
%ut nu"lear depth ps4"holo/4 is distin/uished prin"ipall4 '4 the emphasis its advo"ates pla"e upon deep ps4"holo/i"al pro"esses@ the patholo/4
of (hi"h is 'elieved to e8plain an arms ra"e the4 re/ard as patentl4 irrational -in the sense that the end to(ard (hi"h the4 'elieve it is ta&in/ us@
nu"lear (ar@ is the ver4 inverse of the /oal sou/ht '4 advo"ates of a vi/orous nu"lear (eapons "ompetition 'et(een the superpo(ers. In short@
nu"lear depth ps4"holo/ists 'elieve that (hat the4 ta&e to 'e our present and es"alatin/ nu"lear dan/er "an 'e tra"ed
to pro'lems in our "olle"tive thin&- in/ a'out nu"lear (ar and nu"lear deterren"e and that these pro'lems are deep and
usuall4 outside the a(areness of those (ho ma&e and e8e"ute nu"lear poli"4. >he4 thus "on"eptualiIe ris& of nu"lear
(ar as mainl4 a ps4"holo/i"al pro'lemG If (e "ould alter the (a4 (e thin& in fundamental (a4s@ "hiefl4 '4 shiftin/ to a
less paro"hial@ more /lo'al perspe"tive@ the deep ps4"hopatholo/4 (ould 'e "ured@ the arms ra"e (ould 'e terminated@ and the ris&
of nu"lear (ar "ould 'e /reatl4 redu"ed@ perhaps ultimatel4 even to Iero. >(o s"hools of thou/ht dominate nu"lear depth ps4"holo/4. I
(ill "hara"teriIe them (ithin the terminolo/4 su//ested '4 ;olt C193.@ pp. *11-*1*D. On the one hand@ there are the "o/nitivists@ those (ho
'elieve that the deep ps4"hopatholo/4 drivin/ the arms ra"e is a patholo/4 of personal "o/nition@ al'eit one involvin/ the "o/nitions of a /reat
man4 leaders in the ?nited States and the Soviet ?nion. >o put the point some(hat "olloJuial- l4@ 'ut pointedl4G Co/nitivists 'elieve the arms
ra"e is "raI4 'e"ause "raI4 people are runnin/ it. As (e shall see presentl4@ this approa"h to the pro- 'lem of nu"lear ris& has led man4 people
strai/hta(a4 to the vie( that the "ure for superpo(er ps4"hopatholo/4 is not fundamentall4 different in &ind from the ps4"hotherapeuti" pro"ess
reJuired to "ure an4 sort of ps4"holo/i"al illness involvin/ thou/ht disorder. =or most "o/nitivists@ not onl4 ma4 the pro'lem of nu"lear ris& 'e
"on"eptualiIed ps4"holo/i"all4@ 'ut so also ma4 the "ure@ (hi"h is some pro"ess a&in to ps4"hotherap4. >he other prin"ipal s"hool of nu"lear
depth ps4"holo/4 is that of the intera"tionists. Advo"ates of this vie( tend to 'elieve that there is no eviden"e su//estin/ the presen"e of
(idespread patholo/4 in the "o/nitions of the individual leaders of either superpo(er. Rather@ the4 ar/ue that the deep ps4"hopatholo/4 is more
a'stra"t@ em'odied in (hat the4 ta&e to 'e a patholo/i"al relationship 'et(een the t(o "ountries. +ithin (hat nu"lear depth ps4"holo/ists ta&e to
'e "raI4 patterns of intera"tion 'et(een the superpo(ers@ espe"iall4 institutionaliIed mistrust and assumptions of u'iJuitous hostile intent@ the
leaders are seen as fun"tionin/ Juite rationall4@ as a rule@ and one of the forms ta&en '4 their rational adaptation to a "raI4 s4stem is parti"ipation
in the nu"lear arms ra"e. >hus@ a""ordin/ to the intera"tionists@ if ris& of nu"lear (ar is to 'e redu"ed si/nifi"antl4@ the Jualit4 of the superpo(er
relationship must 'e "han/ed fundamentall4@ and this implies a mainl4 politi"al@ rather than ps4"hotherapeuti"@ "ure for superpo(er
ps4"hopatholo/4. >he most famous "o/nitivist amon/ nu"lear depth ps4"holo/ists is ;elen Caldi"ott. Cate/ori"al and self-
ri/hteous in her assertions@ shrill in her (ritin/ and spea&in/@ Caldi"ott mi/ht easil4 'e i/nored '4 serious students of nu"lear ps4"holo/4 if it
(erenFt for her astonishin/ popularit4. She is a 'est-sellin/ author@ a spea&er (ho is mu"h in demand@ a foundin/ mem'er of the reesta'lished
5h4si"ians for So"ial Responsi'ilit4 C5SRD and@ more re"ent- l4@ a drivin/ for"e 'ehind +omenFs A"tion for <u"lear 7isarmament C+A<7D.
>hus one must assume that a /reat man4 people have@ in Caldi"ott@ found a voi"e "ommensurate in "ontent and tone (ith their o(n deep fears
and 'eliefs a'out ris& of nu"lear (ar C'ut see Coles@ 193.D. Caldi"ottFs (ritin/ is filled (ith ad hominem ps4"holo/i"al asaults li&e the follo(in/G
>he definition of a paranoid patient is someone (ho ima/ines a "ertain s"enario in his or her o(n mind@ de"ides C(ith no o'#e"tive eviden"eD that
this is e8a"tl4 (hat someone else is thin&in/@ and then de"ides to a"t on that notion. >he paranoid delu- sions pro#e"ted onto the Russian leaders
"ome strai/ht from the minds of Ameri"an strate/ists and leaders@ and these ideas pro'a'l4 refle"t e8a"tl4 (hat the Ameri"ans are plannin/ to do
themselves and 'ear little relationship to Soviet strate/4 or reali- t4. C193.@ pp. 12.-120D. Beadin/ "andidates for this dia/nosis of paranoia are@
a""ordin/ to Caldi"ott@ Kso-"alled 'road-minded intelle"tuals (ho sat on Rea/anFs ,q CommissionK C>he S"o("roft CommissionD. ,oreover@
she asserts@ Ksu"h fantas4 thin&- in/ is still pra"ti"ed at the hi/hest levels of /overnment@ in"ludin/ 5resident Rea/an and 7efense Se"retar4
+ein'er/er@ and is overt paranoiaK C193.@ p. 12.D. One ma4 find similar dia/noses in Kovel CKparanoid madnessKH 193-@ p. 3.D and
,ennin/er CKe8hi'itionisti" drun&en /esturin/ of t(o sui"idal /iantsKH 193-@ p. -00D. ?nfortunatel4 for Caldi"ott and her "o/nitivist
"ollea/ues@ ho(ever@ her dia/noses are simpl4@ demonstra'l4 (ron/. >he Soviets have a vast nu"lear arsenalH their missiles and
'om'ers reall4 are aimed at usH the4 reall4 do have rather pre"ise plans for usin/ them to destro4 us in a nu"lear (ar
Csee@ e./.@ ;ollo(a4@ 1930H ,e4er@ 1930D. ;o(ever this state of affairs ma4 have "ome a'out@ our leaders do not simpl4 ima/ine the
Soviet nu"lear threat. It is real@ as an4one (ho e8amines the eviden"e ma4 see. In movin/ from her anal4sis of the pro'lem
of nu"lear ris&-"raI4 leaders-to her therapeuti" pres"riptions for a "ure@ Caldi"ottFs irrelevan"e to the (orld of nu"lear
poli"4-ma&in/ 'e"omes total. %e"ause she 'elieves that deepl4 si"& people are drivin/ the ris& of nu"lear (ar up(ard@ she must "hoose
'et(een t(o 'road pres"riptive alternativesG somethin/ a&in to politi"al revolution@ '4 (hi"h our leaders@ at an4 rate@ (ould 'e for"i'l4 repla"edH
or therap4@ '4 (hi"h the4 (ould 'e healed. Kovel C193-D leans to(ard the former alternativeH Caldi"ott@ ho(ever@ favors some novel forms of
therap4@ su"h as a &ind of marria/e "ounselin/@ in (hi"h ea"h superpo(er (ould 'e reJuired to Kpled/eK its KtrothK to the other C193.@ p. *9*D@
monthl4 (restlin/ mat"hes 'et(een Kthe men (ho "ontrol the superpo(ers...to alleviate the 'uilt-up a//ressionsK Cp. -00D@ and parental advi"e
to K/ro( up and 'e"ome responsi'le nationsK Cp. --2D. One ma4 at first (onder (hether Caldi"ott puts for(ard su"h su//estions as these
seriousl4 'ut@ notin/ the unrelentin/l4 humorless tone of her (ritin/@ one suspe"ts that she does. %ut 'e"ause her "o/nitivist dia/noses
are patentl4 false@ and 'e"ause the realiIa- tion of her pres"ription is so (ildl4 impro'a'le@ the li&elihood that the
"ourse she advo"ates (ill a"tuall4 lead to a redu"tion in the ris& of nu"lear (ar ou/ht to 'e rated at ver4 nearl4 Iero.
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@ A 6s5$holo05 is not the root $ause it7s <> the independent varia)le for the people
ma(in0 de$isions
>he "entral@ salient assumption of all nu"lear depth ps4"holo/ists is that our Kthin&in/K ma4 'e re/arded as a &ind of
independent varia'le Cor "auseD@ (hereas ris& of nu"lear (ar@ eviden"ed in a spiralin/ arms ra"e@ is the dependent varia'le Cor
effe"tD. >his formulation@ "onsistent (ith@ and in man4 instan"es derived from@ !insteinFs manifesto@ is radi"all4 different from the (a4 nu"lear
poli"4ma&ers tend to approa"h the pro'lem. >he poli"4ma&er is in"lined to re/ard ris& of nu"lear (ar as 'oth a "ause and an
effe"tG a "ause of the manner of pie"emeal@ "autious thin&in/ reJuired to mana/e international affairs@ and an effe"t of deepl4 rooted@ hardl4
understood fa"tors that operate to maintain the Juasi-anar"hi" nationstate s4stem. >he fun"tional result of this dis"repan"4 is that the
main "ausal arro( for ea"h /roup is nearl4 the reverse of (hat the other ta&es it to 'e. <u"lear depth ps4"holo/ists
see& to alter our thin&in/@ thus alterin/ a parti"ular international relationship and lo(erin/ nu"lear ris&s. 5oli"4ma&ers@ on the other
hand@ see their main tas& as mana/in/ nu"lear ris&s (ithin the "onte8t of an essentiall4 unaltera'le international
situation that determines the form@ if not all of the "ontent@ of our manner of thin&in/. An o'vious@ if superfi"ial@ "on"lusion to 'e dra(n from
these "onsiderations is that nu"lear depth ps4"holo/ists and nu"lear poli"4ma&ers see the pro'lem of nu"lear ris& ver4
differentl4@ in fa"t almost inversel4. >his is no dou't (h4 mem'ers of the poli"4 "ommunit4 have@ '4 and lar/e@ "on"luded that
the ar/uments of the depth ps4"holo/ists are irrelevant to the mana/ement of nu"lear ris&s CKline'erO 193.@ p. 1*.3D. %ut
a "loser e8amination of the ps4"holo/i"al assumptions underl4in/ ea"h approa"h reveals the reasons not onl4 (h4 the formulations and
pres"riptions of nu"lear depth ps4"holo/4 seem stran/e and irrelevant to poli"4 ma&ers 'ut also (h4 the4 reall4 are irrelevant and are li&el4 to
remain so. In ta&in/ su"h a "loser loo& (e ma4 /et a "learer pi"ture of (h4 the poli"4ma&ersF formulation a""ounts for the histori"al re"ord
(hereas the "lini"al dia/nosis and pres"riptions of the depth ps4"holo/ists do not.
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@ A Kero solven$5 6s5$ho-anal5ti$ $ritiGue $an7t a$tualiBe $han0e to nu$lear poli$5
>he intera"tionists amon/ nu"lear depth ps4"holo/ists hold a mu"h more sophisti"ated vie( of the relevan"e of ps4"holo/4 to alterations
the4 'elieve ma4 su'stantiall4 redu"e the ris& of nu"lear (ar. >o intera"tionists@ ps4"holo/i"al insi/hts are relevant to nu"lear ris&
redu"tion mainl4 in indire"t@ su//estive (a4s (hi"h depend on the validit4 of an analo/4G 'et(een Ks4stemsK of intera"tion 'et(een people
(hi"h ma4 'e "hara"teriIed as K"ertifia'l4 patholo/i"alK C;olt@ 193.@ p. *11D@ and the defe"tive relationship 'et(een the superpo(ers@ (hi"h is
e8hi'ited in an arms ra"e (hi"h@ in turn@ is 'elieved to drive ris& of nu"lear (ar "ontinuousl4 up(ard. In other (ords@ (hereas "o/nitivists li&e
Caldi"ott dia/nose the arms ra"e ps4"holo/i"all4 in order to pres"ri'e ps4"holo/i"all4@ intera"tionists dia/nose ps4"holo/i"all4 in order to
pres"ri'e politi"all4. Intera"tionists thus see& poli"ies@ not therapies@ (ith (hi"h to heal (hat the4 vie( as a deepl4 patholo/i"al superpo(er
relationship. >he roster of intera"tionists "ontains man4 of the most eminent Ameri"an ps4"hiatrists and ps4"holo/ists@ in"ludin/
,orton 7euts"h C193-D@ !ri& !ri&son C193.D@ Ro'ert ;olt C193.D@ Ro'ert Aa4 Bifton CBifton and =al&@ 193*D@ Aohn ,a"& C1930a@'D@ Carl
Ro/ers C193*D@ and Ralph K. +hite C193.D. ;ere are "hara"teristi" statements from ps4"hiatrist Aohn ,a"& and ps4"holo/ist ,orton 7euts"h on
(hat the4 re/ard as the deep ps4"holo/i"al pro'lem underl4in/ ris& of nu"lear (arG ...the nu"lear (eapons "ompetition a"tuall4 is insane@ or@ to
use the more modern term@ ps4"hoti"@ in some deep@ formal or literal sense...In the "ase of the nu"lear arms ra"e@ it is not individuals (ho are
ps4"hoti". Rather@ the madness resides in "olle"tive patterns of thin&in/ and relationships that are poorl4 adapted to the re- Juirements of
planetar4 survival in the nu"lear a/e M,a"&@ 1930'@ p. 0-H see also@ 1930aN....the ?nited States and the Soviet ?nion are trapped in a mali/nant
so"ial pro"ess /ivin/ rise to a (e' of intera"tions and defensive maneuvers@ (hi"h@ instead of improvin/ their situations@ ma&e them 'oth feel less
se"ure@ more vulnera'le@ and 'urdened and a threat to one another and to the (orld at lar/e. C7euts"h@ 193-@ p. *1D Intera"tionists 'elieve
the4 have en"ountered similarl4 "raI4 pro"esses 'efore@ in (or& (ith families and lar/er "ommunities@ and that is (h4
the4 feel "om- petent to spea& out on (hat the4 re/ard as the ps4"hopatholo/4 underl4in/ the arms ra"e. >he sort of
pres"riptions offered '4 intera"tionists seem@ at first /lan"e@ mu"h less redu"tionisti" than those of the "o/nitivists. Intera"tionists impli"itl4 tr4 to
a"t on a prin"iple laid do(n '4 Stanle4 ;offmann in his re"ent presiden- tial address to the International So"iet4 of 5oliti"al 5s4"holo/4.
A""ordin/ to ;offmann@ Keven if one a""epts the metaphors of "olle"tive disease or patholo/4@ one must understand that the F"ureF "an onl4 'e
provided '4 politi"sK C;offmann@ 1931D. >hus ,a"& loo&s for(ard to Ka pro"ess of politi"al maturationK C1930'@ p. 0-D@ (hile 7euts"h favors
measures '4 (hi"h Kmutual se"urit4K (ill repla"e our present@ nearl4 total dependen"e upon Kna- tional se"urit4K C193-@ p. *.D. !a"h see&s to
arti"ulate politi"al means to transform intera"tive superpo(er patholo/4@ end the arms ra"e and eliminate the ris& of "atastrophi" nu"lear (ar. In
this (a4@ via the politi"al transformation of the superpo(er relationship@ the intera"tionists amon/ nu"lear depth ps4"holo/ists see& to alter our
manner of thin&in/ in line (ith !ins- teinFs reJuirements. +hile one must a"&no(led/e the primafa"ie plausi'ilit4 of the intera"- tionist
vie(point@ it is still impossi'le to 'e optimisti" a'out the pro'a'ilit4 that intera"tionistsF /oals "an a"tuall4 '4 a""omplished. =or as ;offmann
C1931D has pointed out@ all nu"lear depth ps4"holo/ists are radi"als. All 'elieve that ris& of nu"lear (ar is primaril4 a fun"tion
of a superpo(er arms ra"e driven '4 deep@ re"al"itrant ps4"hopatholo/4. >he fun"tional si/nifi"an"e of this fa"t is that
an4 important redu"tion in the ris& of nu"lear (ar is "ontin/ent upon a""omplishin/ a fundamental alteration in the
(a4 the /overnments of the ?nited States and the Soviet ?nion relate to ea"h other@ and (hile su"h an ima/ined transformation
need not ne"essaril4 happen im- mediatel4@ or even Jui"&l4@ an4 rational evaluation of the prospe"ts for nu"lear
depth ps4"holo/4 depends de"isivel4 upon oneFs estimate of the pro- 'a'ilit4 of dis"overin/ a plausi'le pro"ess of /oal-
dire"ted@ radi"al ps4"holo/i"al "han/e on an international s"ale. =or intera"tionists@ this re- Guires a politi$al pro$ess
(hi"h "an plausi'l4 'e predi"ted to 4ield a ps4"holo/i"al "han/e "ommensurate (ith intera"tionist reJuirements. Eie(ed s"hemati"all4@ there are
t(o possi'le sour"es of politi"al movement to(ard radi"al ps4"holo/i"al transformation sou/ht '4 the intera"- tionists. ,ovement mi/ht
o""ur from the 'ottom-up@ in (hi"h radi"al populist episodes in re"ent +estern histor4 (ould 'e emulated in the ne( nu"lear "on- te8t.
>he vie(s of ordinar4 people@ sensin/ the need for a ne( (a4 of thin&- in/ a'out nu"lear (ar and superpo(er relations@ (ould@ in this
ima/ined instan"e@ /raduall4 'ut "ompletel4 infiltrate +estern politi"al and militar4 esta'lishments. +hen this o""urs@
+estern politi"al leaders (ould as& their Soviet "ounterparts to #oin them in haltin/ the arms ra"e. >he Soviets@ reliev- ed@ (ould re"ipro"ate.
Alternativel4@ one "an ima/ine intera"tionist /oals 'ein/ a""omplished from the top-do(n. In this s"enario@ a leader of a
superpo(er seiIes a moment ripe for drasti" "han/e in superpo(er relations and ta&es measures (hi"h are unpre"edentedl4 'old@ perhaps
in"ludin/ unilateral "uts in the nu"lear arsenal@ or a freeIe on the deplo4ment of (eapons deemed '4 the adversar4 to 'e parti"ularl4 useful for a
first-stri&e. >he leaderFs "ounterpart then re"ipro"ates. Of "ourse@ one "an ima/ine the 'ottom-up and top-do(n approa"hes "om'inin/ in man4
(a4s and in different proportions. et these must 'e the 'road "onstituents of an4 pro"ess of "han/e eJual to the re- Juirements of the
intera"tionists. >he &e4 issue@ ho(ever@ is (hether (e should reasona'l4 e8pe"t su"h pro"esses a"tuall4 to lead to the
desired resultsG the end of the arms ra"e and massive redu"tion in the ris& of nu"lear (ar. >he ans*er is that *e should not@ and in
arrivin/ at this ans(er (e ma4 noti"e that the first-'lush plausi'ili- t4 of the intera"tionistsF pro/ram 'e/ins to "ollapse. =irst@
on the prospe"ts for movement from the 'ottom-upG >here is a'- solutel4 no eviden"e that /rass-roots
N Continues n <e8t 6a0e O
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movements in the nu"lear a/e have had the sli/htest impa"t on the dire"tion and intensit4 of the nu"lear arms "om-
petition C%etts@ 193.D. Ruite the "ontrar4@ in fa"t. In re"ent 4ears@ for e8am- pie@ the =reeIe ,ovement@ 'e/un (ith hi/h hopes and mu"h fanfare
in the earl4 1930s@ appears alread4 to 'e passin/ into a rapid demise (ithout an4thin/ resem'lin/ even a partial freeIe an4(here in si/ht CKlare@
1930D. It is simpl4 a fa"t that@ as ori"& %lumenfeld@ a (riter ver4 s4mpatheti" to radi"al nu"lear politi"s@ (rote re"entl4@ K>he pea"e movement
has had no visi'le impa"t on the s"ale or speed of the arms ra"eK C1930@ p. ..D. >his has 'een true of all su"h movements in the
nu"lear a/e and@ unless intera"- tionists "an find a (a4 plausi'l4 to ar/ue that the future of 'ottom-up transformation (ill 'e the inverse of the
past@ there is no reason for optimism. >he same holds true for the top-do(n approa"h. >here is simpl4 no pre"edent for
(hat the intera"tionists must tr4 to envision and no reason to suppose a ne( pre"edent (ill 'e set. ,orton 7euts"h@ for e8ample@
ar/ues that the superpo(er ps4"hopatholo/4 "ould eventuall4 'e eliminated if onl4 Ka 'old and "oura/eous Ameri"an
leadership (ould ta&e a ris& for pea"e...MandN announ"e its determination to end the "raI4 arms ra"eK C193-@ p. *-D. %ut "onsider the
limitin/ "ase so far of top-do(n initiativesG 5resi- dent Kenned4Fs announ"ement on Aune 10@ 191-@ that the ?nited States (ould thereafter fore/o
atmospheri" testin/ of nu"lear (eapons so lon/ as the other nu"lear po(ers Cthe Soviet ?nion and 9reat %ritainD did li&e(ise. 5s4"holo/ist Carl
Ro/ers has ar/ued that this 'old move@ "om'ined (ith the Bimited >est %an >reat4 (hi"h follo(ed@ is the protot4pe of the sort of pro"ess needed
to 'e/in to "ure the patholo/i"al superpo(er relationship CRo/ers@ 193*@ pp. 1*-1-D. et nothin/ remotel4 resem'lin/ an4 su"h
radi"al transformation a"- tuall4 o""urred. In fa"t@ the event (hi"h pro'a'l4 "ontri'uted most to "reatin/ a need for a Ktha(K in the "old
(ar-the terrif4in/ Cu'an missile "risis of O"to'er@ 191*-(as also@ parado8i"all4@ a si/nifi"ant point of ori/in for the nu"lear arms "ompetition
no( so /reatl4 feared '4 nu"lear depth ps4"holo/ists. =or (hile one Soviet rea"tion to that near miss (as a "ertain amount of in"reased
re"eptivit4 to 5resident Kenned4Fs proposal for an atmospheri" test 'an@ 4et another (as pro'a'l4 the initiation Cor at least the a""elerationD of a
massive Soviet nu"lear arms 'uildup that@ a /eneration later@ "ontinues una'ated C>ra"hten'er/@ 1930D. >hus@ vie(ed in their full "onte8t@ the
events of 191- (ere@ in relation to the /oals of the intera"tionists@ utterl4 eJuivo"al and "annot plausi'l4 'e re/arded "olle"tivel4 as a potential
point of departure for endin/ the arms ra"e. >he4 ma4 in fa"t have "ontri'uted more to the "ause of it than to some ima/ined "ure.
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Bimitations of spa"e do not permit an anal4sis of (h4 the superpo(er relationship has proven so resistant to "han/e and (h4 it pro'a'l4 (ill "on-
tinue to frustrate an4one see&in/ to transform it in fundamental (a4s. %ut some thin/s are o'viousG >he t(o so"ieties in Juestion have drasti"all4
"onfli"tin/ valuesH their politi"al s4stems and the "onstraints /overnin/ their respe"tive de"ision-ma&in/ pro"esses are so different as to 'e
rendered almost mutuall4 in"omprehensi'leH there is even eviden"e (hi"h su//ests that t(o hu/e and po(erful he/emoni" po(ers li&e the
?nited States and the Soviet ?nion are 'ound to 'e ver4 "ompetitive C,"<eill@ 193*D. >hese must all 'e in"luded in an4 plausi'le e8planation of
the lon/standin/ and "ontinuous enmit4 'et(een the superpo(ers. >he point for the nu"lear depth ps4"holo/ists is that@ "ontra !instein@ none of
this has "han/ed or is li&el4 to "han/e-in short@ ever4thin/ has not "han/ed e8"ept our thin&in/. In fa"t@ the t(o most si/nifi"ant determinants of
our thin&in/ -our so"ial stru"ture Cin the present "ase@ the anar"hi"al nation-state s4stemD and our 'iolo/i"al drives- have hardl4 "han/ed at all.
!insteinFs 'asi" premise is simpl4 (ron/ and that is (h4 the pro/ram of nu"lear depth ps4"holo/4@ (hi"h is (holl4 "onsistent (ith this
premise@ is implausi'le. >he Juestion arises@ finall4@ as to (hether an approa"h to redu"in/ the deep ps4"holo/i"al "auses of the ris& of
nu"lear (ar is "on"eiva'le (hose prospe"ts are 'ri/hter than those of nu"lear depth ps4"holo/4. In m4 vie(@ the most responsi'l4 optimisti"
ans(er is that it remains an open Juestion. et those politi"al ps4"holo/ists see&in/ to operate at the level of deep "auses of
nu"lear ris& (ill need to fa"e sJuarel4 an immense pro'lem that has not 'een adeJuatel4 dealt (ith@ or s"ar"el4 even
a"&no(led/ed@ '4 nu"lear depth ps4"holo/ists. It is thisG >he deeper into the "ausal "hain of international relations one
(ishes to loo& for means of redu"in/ the ris& of nu"lear (ar@ the further into the future one must loo& in anti"ipation
of positive results. And the further into the future (e loo&@ the fuIIier our vision 'e"omes@ 'e"ause the present state
of our &no(led/e 'e"omes less relevant to future (orlds@ 'e"ause those (orlds 'e"ome pro/ressivel4 harder to ima/ine "orre"tl4.
<ot that one should ne"essaril4 avoid tr4in/ to loo& 'oth deepl4 and far@ for fe( people 'elieve nu"lear deterren"e (ill last forever and thus (e
must sear"h for plausi'le@ less ris&4 alternatives to the present realit4 Csee Allison et al.@ pp. *..-*.1D. %ut the dou'le moral for ps4"holo/ists
see&in/ to "ontri'ute to redu"in/ the ris& of nu"lear (ar (ould seem to 'e thisG >he level of deep "auses is pro'a'l4 not the pla"e to
'e/inH and nu"lear depth ps4"holo/4 is inadeJuate for the tas&@ in an4 "ase.
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Bet us 'e/in (ith the poli"4-relevant JuestionG +hat is to 'e done a'out the pro'lem thus formulated '4 nu"lear
depth ps4"holo/ists deepl4 patholo/i"al superpo(er relationship@ (hi"h drives an arms ra"e@ (hi"h@ in turn@ drives the ris& of
nu"lear (ar ever hi/her L >here has 'een no shorta/e of solutions. Indeed@ the re"ent /reat and /eneral a(a&enin/ amon/
ps4"holo/ists to the prospe"t of a ma#or nu"lear (ar has spar&ed an unpre"edented@ "reative e8plosion of Ksolutions.K et man4 of these are
diffi"ult to ta&e seriousl4@ 'e"ause the4 are either impossi'l4 am'itious or pitifull4 in"onseJuential. Amon/ those
least li&el4 to su""eed are a "all for (hat amounts to a (orld(ide politi"al revolution CAovel@ 193-D@ a (orld(ide
transformation in our patterns of 'ehavior CS&inner@ 193*D@ or the initiatin/ of meetin/s 'et(een Ameri"an and Soviet ps4"holo/ists
CKline'er/@ 193.D. It is not that su"h proposals are ne"essaril4 or intrinsi"all4 'ad. >he point is that either the pro'a'ilit4 of their
o""urren"e is so lo( or the pro'a'ilit4 of their havin/ an4 noti"ea'le effe"t on ?.S.-Soviet nu"lear poli"4 is so vanishin/l4
small@ that the4 "annot 'e/in to satisf4 the mem'ers of a /roup li&e the nu"lear depth ps4"holo/ists@ (ho seem universall4 to 'elieve
that ris& of nu"lear (ar is mu"h too hi/h at present and is risin/ fast. >he point has 'een made poi/nantl4 '4 +a/ner C1930D. In a useful@ "riti"al
revie( of ps4"holo/i"al approa"hes to redu"in/ the ris& of nu"lear (ar@ he admired that the solutions put for(ard are too often
Kover(helmin/ and paral4Iin/K Cp. 0--D. K+here (e /o@K he said@ K . . . is un"learK Cp. 0--D. And so it is.
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>here are t(o "on"eiva'le sorts of ta"ti"s that mi/ht 'e used to tr4 to implement the strate/4 of deep ps4"holo/i"al transformation of the
superpo(er relationship. A""ordin/ to the 'ottom-up approa"h@ one (ould first "on"entrate on revolutioniIin/ the
thin&in/ of ordinar4 people in the +estern demo"ra"ies@ espe"iall4 the ?nited States. >he (ished-for s"enario mi/ht unfold as follo(sG
As in"reasin/@ and in"reasin/l4 vo"al@ num'ers of "itiIens are made a(are of the lemmin/-li&e tra#e"tor4 of the nu"lear arms ra"e@
their "on"erns (ill eventuall4 'e heard and appre"iated '4 ele"ted offi"ials@ (ho (ill also then"eforth 'e/in to thin&
in the ne( manner. =ollo(in/ this@ the nu"lear (ar planners in the 5enta/on and else(here (ill /raduall4 'e for"ed
into the ne( mold. >he transformative pro"ess (ould then "on"lude (hen the de"larator4 nu"lear poli"ies of the
?nited States 'e/in to refle"t this ne( (a4 of thin&in/--for e8ample@ in a de"laration of a freeIe--and this@ in turn@ (ould 'e/in to
shape the nu"lear poli"ies and 'ehavior of the Soviet leadership. >hose (ho (ould favor a 'ottom-up K"ureK for superpo(er ps4"hopatholo/4
'elieve@ therefore@ that (hat the4 ta&e to 'e sui"idal inertia at the hi/hest levels of the ?.S. /overnment "an eventuall4 'e undermined '4 "itiIens
(ho have 'e"ome mo'iliIed '4 their terror in the fa"e of (hat seems to them to 'e an in"reasin/l4 pro'a'le nu"lear holo"aust Ce./.@ 9itlinH 193.H
Bifton V =al&@ 193*D. ?nfortunatel4 for advo"ates of the 'ottom-up approa"h@ there is no eviden"e that periodi"
ups(in/s in pu'li" interest in nu"lear issues are at all related to developments in ?.S.-soviet nu"lear arms "ompetition.
One "an tra"e a stead4 line of evolution in Ameri"an strate/i" thin&in/--from massive retaliation@ to fle8i'le response@ to limited options@ to
"ountervailin/@ to Kprevailin/K in a limited nu"lear (ar. >here is no Juestion that this evolution is related to te"hnolo/i"al innovation and to the
reJuirements of militar4 do"trine. %ut it appears "ompletel4 unrelated to the vi"issitudes of pu'li" opinion on nu"lear matters C%etts@ 193.D.
Indeed@ (e seem presentl4 to 'e (itnessin/ the pre"ipitous demise of the =reeIe movement@ 'e/un onl4 a fe( 4ears a/o@ (ithout an4thin/ li&e a
partial freeIe an4(here in si/ht CKlare@ 1930D. Of "ourse@ the past and present are not ne"essaril4 prolo/ue. Some sort of 'ottom-up
ps4"holo/i"al transformation thus al(a4s remains possi'le. %ut 'ased on its past failures@ one ou/ht to re/ard the
pro'a'ilit4 of some su"h transformation as e8tremel4 lo(.
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@ A It is ra$ist not to $onsider $onseGuen$es the only moral stan$e is to $onsider lin( turns
and lon0-term effe$ts.
,ar" >ra$hten)er0 is professor in the department of histor4 at the ?niversit4 of 5enns4lvania. ;e also tea"hes
politi"al s"ien"e "ourses. Sour"eG !thi"s@ Eol. 90@ <o. -@ Spe"ial IssueG S4mposium on !thi"s and <u"lear
7eterren"e CApr.@ 1941D@ pp. 2*3-2-9 Sta'le ?RBG httpG$$(((.#stor.or/$sta'le$*-310.2
<o one toda4 (ould defend slaver4@ of "ourseH 'ut the more I thou/ht a'out it@ the "learer it seemed that 'efore the
Civil +ar one should have indeed tried to 'alan"e all the relevant "onsiderationsG that the institution of slaver4 (as
not so a'solute an evil that it (as morall4 imperative to do (hatever (as ne"essar4 to eradi"ate it immediatel4@
(ithout re/ard to an4 other "onsideration. In fa"t@ if it (as o'vious that it (ould ta&e a (ar-as it turned out@ a lon/ and
/ruesome (ar-to a'olish slaver4@ the sufferin/ and an/uish that that (ar (ould produ"e should "ertainl4 have 'een
ta&en into a""ount. And one should have /iven some thou/ht to (hat (ould happen to the e8-slaves@ even in the
event that the <orth (ere to (inG if one "ould predi"t that there (as a /ood "han"e that slaver4 (ould 'e repla"ed '4
another 'rutal and repressive s4stem-'4 in fa"t the &ind of s4stem that too& root in the South after Re"onstru"tion-
then this too should have 'een entered into the 'alan"e. And it also (ould have made sense to loo& at #ust ho( 'rutal the slave
s4stem (asG there are different de/rees of loathsomeness@ and this "ould have made a differen"e in oneFs assessments. CRuestions of de/ree are of
"ourse "ru"ial if (e are interested in stri&in/ a 'alan"e.D =inall4@ ar/uments a'out pea"eful alternatives -the 'iddin/ up of the pri"e of slaves '4
the federal /overnment@ for instan"e@ to ma&e the institution e"onomi"all4 irrational in "omparison (ith free la'or-(ould "ertainl4 have had a
pla"eH histori"al e8perien"e-an anal4sis of the pea"eful (a4 slaver4 had in fa"t 'een ended in the %ritish !mpire is the most o'vious "ase-mi/ht
also have pla4ed a "entral role. +h4 shouldnFt these thin/s all 'e ta&en into a""ountL Are (e so "onvin"ed of the ri/htness of our
personal moral values that (e "an turn a 'lind e4e to the &inds of "onsiderations that mi/ht moderate the for"e of our "ommitmentL ne
*onders even *hether it $an ever )e trul5 moral to simpl5 refuse to *ei0h these sorts of fa$tors seriousl5. One
"an ta&e the ar/ument a step further '4 means of a h4potheti"al e8ample. Suppose@ in this "ase@ that the Southerners had told the a'o-
litionists that@ if the <orth did "ome do(n to free the slaves@ 'efore the4 arrived the slaves (ould all 'e &illed.
Certainl4 at this point "onsiderations other than the moral impermissi'ilit4 of slaver4 (ould have to 'e ta&en into a""ount. In su"h a "ase@ an
a)solutist position -that the institution of slaver4 (as so /reat an evil that it had to 'e rooted out *ithout re0ard to
$onseGuen$e-reveals itself as inhuman andC indeedC as morall5 pre- posterous . >here has to 'e some point (here
issues of 'alan"e 'e"ome morall4 salientH and thus in /eneral these 'asi" moral issues have to 'e approa"hed in
nona'solutist-and '4 that I mean more than #ust non- deontolo/i"al-terms.
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@ A Reps K7s that disavo* the tie itself to fiated poli$5 $reate poor $urri$ulum de$reases
edu$ation
Aa"Jueline Stef(ovi$h is a 5rofessor in the 7epartment of !du"ation 5oli"4 Studies at >he 5enns4lvania State
?niversit4@ et al@ !thi"al leadership and de"ision ma&in/ in edu"ation *001 pa/e 1.
=or 9irou8 C1991D@ +el"h C1991D and other "riti"al edu"ators@ the lan/ua/e of "ritiJue is "entral@ )ut dis$ourse alone *ill
not suffi$e. >hese s"holars are also a"tivists (ho 'elieve dis"ourse should also 'e a 'e/innin/ leadin/ to some &ind of a"tion
prefera)l5 politi$al . =or e8ample Shapiro and 5urpel C199-D emphasiIed empo(erin/ people throu/h a dis"ussion of
options. Su"h dialo/ue hopefull4 (ould provide (hat 9irou8 and Arono(itI C1930D "alled a lan/ua/e of possi'ilit4) that@ (hen
applied to edu"ational institutions@ mi/ht ena'le them to avoid reprodu"in/ isms) in so"iet4 Ci.e. "lassism@ ra"ism@ se8ism@ and
hetereose8ismD
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A-to Se$urit5 K <ot root $ause of $ase
@ A StateC IR and se$urit5 not the root $ause -- aren7t inevita)l5 pre-disposed to violen$eJ
>a(es out 5our s*eepin0 $laimsC )ut leaves room for our nuan$ed and spe$ifi$ $laimsJ
7r. Inis Claude is a 5rofessor of 9overnment and =orei/n Affairs@ !meritus@ at the ?niversit4 of Eir/inia. 7urin/
his tea"hin/ "areer@ 5rofessor Claude held positions at the ?niversit4 of ,i"hi/an@ ;arvard ?niversit4@ Colum'ia
?niversit4@ ?niversit4 of +ales@ and the ;e're( ?niversit4 of Aerusalem@ and the Institute of So"ial Studies at the
;a/ue. States and the 9lo'al S4stem 1944
ur tenden$5 to e8a00erate the po(er of states o*es a 0reat deal to our dread of *ar. Althou/h (e overestimate the "ompeten"e of states in
all respe"ts@ it is their po(er to ma&e (ar that most "on"erns us. >he notion that the state has vast militar5 potential leads
dire"tl4 to the proposition that the state is in$orri0i)l5 *arli(eH the m5th of the almi0ht5 state has as its $orrelate
the m5th of the )loodthirst5 state. !ver4 sophisti"ated student of international politi"s must 'e/in (ith >hu"4dides@ ,a"hiavelli and
;o''es. ;e "an hardl4 avoid emer/in/ from all that (ith the shre(d "onvi"tion that the international arena is the s"ene of the (ar of all a/ainst
all. States have a lust for dominan"e@ a ruthless disre/ard for an4 value e8"ept su""ess in the endless stru//le for po(er@ and an ineradi"a'le
'elli"osit4. A s4stem of states is a (ar s4stemH it "an 'e nothin/ else. >hus@ (e develop a pi"ture of the state as a militar4 ma"hine@ strainin/ for
a"tion@ it"hin/ for a fi/ht@ (at"hin/ for an opportunit4 to demolish its rivals. One ma4 asso"iate this ima/e espe"iall4 (ith Realists@ those
inveterate and dedi"ated pessimists (ho "an 'ear to "onfront a fa"t or a "ir"umstan"e onl4 if it is /rim and fore'odin/. Indeed@ Realists have
deli/hted in assurin/ us that the stru//le for po(er is the name of the onl4 possi'le /ame in a multistate s4stem@ and man4 a 4oun/ person has
rested a pretension of intelle"tual superiorit4 on his pre"o"ious understandin/ that domesti" life is a rat-ra"e and international life is a do/-fi/ht.
<aive "4ni"ism of this sort@ ho(ever@ is no more t4pi"al of Realists than of Idealists. In underta(in0 to #ustif4 and to spread to others
their Beal for reformin/ or for effe"tin/ the revolutionar5 transformation of the multistate s4stem@ Idealists vie (ith Realists in
assertin/ the )elli0erent propensities of states in the e8istin0 s5stem. >he t(o /roups have different vie(s as to (hat "an and
should 'e done a'out the situation@ 'ut their depi"tions of the (or&in/ of the international s4stem as a (ar s4stem are often indistin/uisha'le.
,ost of us@ in fa"t@ (hatever our la'els@ operate on the supposition that states are fundamentall4 (arli&e entities. <ote the /eneral a""eptan"e of
deterren"e theor4@ (ith its underl4in/ presumption that states are li&el4 to atta"& ea"h other unless stron/ in"entives for restraint are "reated and
"onspi"uousl4 displa4ed. Fet me su00est that the state as Roarin/ >i/er is freJuentl4 less in eviden"e than the state as 5uss4 Cat. >ri//er-
happiness shares the international sta0e *ith 0un-sh5ness. 'elli$osit5 is mat$hed )5 various shades of
pa$ifism. Clearl4@ these Jualities var4 from state to state@ from time to time and from "ir"umstan"e to "ir"umstan"e.
Some (ars seem almost inevita'le and (ill o""ur unless effe"tive means are adopted to prevent them. Other (ars are almost in"on"eiva'le and
(ill not o""ur unless some e8traordinar4 "ause intrudes. -a(e no mista(e a)out itJ *arli(e tenden$ies are suffi$ientl5
*idespread and stron0 to ma(e the pro)lem of maintainin0 *orld order a $ru$ial one for us all@ )ut *e *ill
not promote the solution of that pro)lem )5 misstatin0 the $hara$ter of the states that "onstitute the /lo'al s4stem.
1*9
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to State K7s
@ A TTT#ven if the State is imperfe$t of academically o)solete C *e $an7t underestimate its
$entralit5. <ormative refusal to dis$uss or *or( *ith it is naLve and $ounter-produ$tive
=inall4@ let us ta&e note of the vie( that the state is o'solete@ or is rapidl4 'e"omin/ so. >his is the vie( of the dis"oura/ed
student of international relations@ (ho finds states al(a4s too small@ too 'i/@ too (ea& and too po(erful@ (ho fears for the
future of a (orld so divided. It is@ ho(ever it ma4 'e put@ primaril4 a pres"riptive or normative position@ an assertion that the
state ought to 'e superseded @ a plea for the a'andonment of international relations. It does not $orrespond *ith *hat is
a$tuall5 0oin0 on in the *orldC namel4 the proliferation and the flourishin/ of states. >he state has its diffi"ulties@
'ut it "learl4 has not 4et /one@ or 'e/un to /o@ out of fashion. >he state is a dan/erous and trou'lesome institutionH it is
also a valua)le and indispensa)le one. >here is no su)stitute in si0ht. =or the foreseea'le future@ man (ill live in a (orld of
states. +e ver4 mu"h need to (or& at developin/ a 'alan"ed vie( of states@ one that is not distorted '4 a tenden"4
to(ard either un"riti"al adoration or "4ni"al denun"iation. +e (ill do (ell to "on"entrate on learnin/ to understand
and to mana/e the pro'lems of a multistate s4stem@ rather than to rail a/ainst the s4stem and to dream of a'olishin/
it.
Referen"es and notes
1. On %enthamFs "oina/e of this term see ;idemi Su/anami@ A <ote on the Ori/in of the +ord KInter
nationalK s %ritish Aournal of International Studies@ iv C1923D@ pp. **1-*-*.
*. ;edle4 %ull@ >he Anar"hi"al So"iet4G A Stud4 of Order in +orld 5oliti"s CBondon@ 1922D.
-. >his is the assumption underl4in/ Eernon Ean 74&eFs F>he Individual@ the State@ and !thni" Com munities
in 5oliti"al >heor4F@ +orld 5oliti"s@ 88i8 C1922D@ pp. -.---19.
@6lease note that this is the conclusion of Claude7s pie$e the footnotes are provided to demonstrate that. -an5
teams @misAGuote Claude to sa5 he is opposed to the State solel5 )&$ he $ites imperfe$tions in the StateA
1-0
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to State K7s
@ A Claims that the State is $ate0ori$all5 immoral or self-interested are *ron0 too
s*eepin0
>he state has a (idespread reputation@ at least amon/ a"ademi" people@ as 'ein/ in its international dealin/s utterl4 selfish and
irresponsi'le. Its selfishness is epitomiIed in its putative devotion to the national interest. Its irresponsi'ilit4 is e8pressed in
its "laim of soverei/nt4. >his adds up to the notion that the state is@ at 'est@ amoral. It is a self-see&in/ entit4 that a"&no(led/es no
value hi/her than its o(n advanta/e and no o'li/ation trans"endin/ its "ommitment to its o(n (elfare. +e students of international politi"s have
'een in"lined to thin& that Reinhold <ie'uhr /ot it #ust ri/ht (hen he entitled one of his earl4 'oo&s@ ,oral ,an and Immoral So"iet4@ in order to
hi/hli/ht his thesis that Fa sharp distin"tion must 'e dra(n 'et(een the moral and so"ial 'ehaviour of individuals and of so"ial /roups@ national@
ra"ial and e"onomi"F .0 >here is "ertainl4 no (arrant for s(it"hin/ to the m4th of the state as virtue in"arnate@ 'ut this
ima/e of the state as selfish and irresponsi'le deserves "riti"al appraisal. I see no lo/i"al reason to e8pe"t that
individuals (ould retain their virtues (hile transposin/ their vi"es to the national level@ nor do I see "onvin"in/
eviden"e that this o""urs. >he t(entieth "entur4 has 'rou/ht the "olle"tiviIation of "harit4 and "ompassion@ and this has
spread to the international s"eneH states have 'e"ome in man4 respe"ts the su""essors to the reli/ious and other "harita'le a/en"ies that formerl4
(ere dominant in "arr4in/ out missions of mer"4 throu/hout the (orld. 9overnmental en/a/ement in su"h a"tivit4 is sometimes "learl4
motivated '4 national self-interest@ and is almost al(a4s #ustified domesti"all4 '4 referen"e to that interest@ 'ut "laims of selfishness ma4
deserve Juite as s"epti"al a re"eption as "laims of altruism. It is not in"on"eiva'le that a /enerous and "ompassionate /overnment@ a"tin/
on 'ehalf of an entire people@ ma4 fei/n self-interestedness for the 'enefit of stin/4 ta8pa4ers (ho are not disposed to ma&e sa"rifi"es to aid
forei/ners. >he national interest is a "onvenientl4 elasti" term@ and those (ho 'elieve that their state has a moral o'li/ation to promote the
(elfare of other peoples are Juite li&el4 to ma&e the happ4 dis"over4@ and the deli/hted pronoun"ement@ that this serves the national interest as
(ell. All doin/ of /ood tends to derive from mi8ed motives@ (hether the doer is an individual or a "olle"tivit4.
1-1
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to State K7s
@ A "our 0eneraliBations of the State are )ased on a fault5 s$holarship too s*eepin0
>his notion of the state derives@ I thin&@ from t(o sour"es. =irst@ it is a produ"t of the a$ademi$ theor5 of the state@ the
"onventional in"lination to lard the definition of the state (ith su"h phrases as Fsupreme "oer"ive po(erF@ Fmonopol4 of
ph4si"al for"eF and Fmonopol4 of the le/itimate use of violen"eF. In truthC theorists displa5 a 0ood deal of am)i0uit5
a)out all thisC never Guite seemin0 to ma(e up their mindsC (hether the state has a monopol4 of "oer"ive "apa'ilit4 or merel4
a mar/in of superiorit4@ and va"illatin/ 'et(een tal& of po(er and of authorit4@ 'et(een referen"es to usin/ for"e and to 'ein/ entitled to use
for"e. >he upshot of this &ind of definitional dis"ussion is that (e tend to emer/e (ith the vie(@ muddled 'ut ostensi'l4 profound@ that
the state is '4 definition all-po(erful (ithin its domainH %uali#ications of the assertion of monopol4 fall '4 the (a4side@ and the
"laim of authorit4 to "oer"e "omes to 'e translated as the possession of po(er to "oer"e. Su"h a definition of the state inevita'l4 "olours
our des"ription of a"tual states@ i.e. the real-(orld manifestations of the state idea. ne mi0ht thin( it more sensi)le to
arrive indu"tivel4 at a $hara$teriBation of statesC rel5in0 not on the impli"ations of a definition 'ut on o)servations of
a$tual states. ?nfortunatel4@ this route has also led us astra4. >he se"ond sour"e of the m4th of the almi/ht4 state is our
tenden"4 to /aIe o'sessivel4 at the more formida'le states at their moments of /reatest effe"tiveness. It ma4 'e that
(e in the +est are still transfi8ed '4 the spe"ta"le of <aIi 9erman4@ (hi"h (e sa( as the epitome of the totalitarian
state@ the monstrous po(er that "rushed all opposition and stifled all freedom in 9erman4 and (herever else it ruled@ the #u//ernaut that ran
rou/hshod over numerous other states and threatened to smash (estern "iviliIation. +e &no(@ of "ourse@ that the <aIi re/ime (as not as
effe"tive as (e on"e 'elieved@ and (e re#oi"e that it "ollapsed@ ultimatel4@ in defeat. +e &no(@ as (ell@ that it (as not t4pi"al of statesLthat
totalitarianism@ even in its real-(orld@ non-a'solute version@ is a rarit4. et@ our /eneral tenden"4 to pa4 attention primaril4 to /reat po(ers and
our parti"ular e8perien"e of havin/ had to deal (ith enemies (hose "laim to a'solute po(er seemed all too plausi'le for our "omfort have
persuaded us all too often to indul/e in a'surdl4 s(eepin/ /eneraliIations a'out the impressive po(er of states. +hether (e ar/ue from a
definition of the state as a literall4 soverei/n entit4 or impute to states-in-/eneral the formida'le Jualit4 that (e have seen in the e8"eptional "ase@
(e tend to thin& of states as 'ein/ alto/ether too po(erful for the freedom of their people@ the safet4 of their nei/h'ours@ and the order of the
(orld. =or ever4 state that approa"hes totalitarianism@ there must 'e half a doIen that approa"h anar"h4. >4rann4@
oppression and re/imentation do e8ist in the (orld of states@ 'ut so do "haos@ disorder and "ivil (ar. >he map is spotted (ith states that "an
'arel4 hold their peoples to/ether@ states that "an hardl4 ma&e a de"ent preten"e of "ontrollin/ their territories@ states that ma4 'e (illin/ 'ut are
in no sense a'le to fulfil their o'li/ations as mem'ers of the international s4stem@ states (hose "apa"it4 to fend off either e8ternal atta"& or
internal "ollapse is in dou't. %ut in"ompeten"e is not limited to a spe"ial "ate/or4 of (ea& and un"ertainl4 via'le states. >he Llite of the s4stemL
the esta'lished@ developed and advan"ed statesLhave their o(n versions of the pro'lem of "apa'ilit4. >he ?nited States@ superpo(er that it is@ has
no sure tou"h in su"h matters as "ontrollin/ the importation of ille/al dru/s and people@ safe /uardin/ its "itiIens a/ainst violent "rime@ or
enfor"in/ respe"t for Ameri"an diplomati" premises and personnel. +e are not alone in our in"ompeten"e. Can one 'e sure that 5oland@ alone or
(ith Soviet assistan"e@ is a'le to avoid or "ontain an e8plosion of popular dis"ontentL ;as the ?nited Kin/dom su'dued the IRAL +hat state has
proved itself master of the pro'lem of international terrorismL Confronted (ith "rises@ leaders of the most po(erful states in the (orld are at least
as li&el4 to respond (ith the plaintive "r4@ F+hat "an (e doLF@ as (ith "onfident s"hemes for doin/ (hat needs to 'e doneH hand(rin/in/ is no less
t4pi"al of statesmen than s(ash'u"&lin/. >he vision of the state as a (ell-oiled me"hanism@ ri"hl4 endo(ed (ith "apa'ilit4 to do (hatever its
leaders (ish to have done@ does not survive a "areful e8amination of the (or&in/s of real states in the real (orld. >here is "omfort in this@ for the
less than almi/ht4 state is less dan/erous. %ut it spells trou'le@ too@ for the limitation of the "ompeten"e of the state e8tends to its "apa"it4 to
serve as (ell as to oppress@ to prote"t as (ell as to atta"&@ and to uphold (orld order as (ell as to disrupt (orld order. <ot all of the pro'lems of
international relations stem from the po(er of statesH the (ea&ness of states produ"es its o(n 'at"h of diffi"ulties.
1-*
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to State K7s
@ A >urnin0 a*a5 from the state prevents mo)iliBation for 0ood $auses.
9o)le 94
C5aul@ 5u'lisher of R=!$RB@ >;! CO<S!R?!<C!S O= 7!5OBI>ICIZA>IO<@) Radio =ree !urope@ O"to'er
1*@ 1993@ httpG$$(((.friends-partners.or/$friends$ne(s$omri$1993$10$93101*I.htmlCopt@moIilla@uni8@en/lish@@ne(A@
a""essed Aul4 02D
=irst@ as people turn a*a5 from the state as the sour"e of support@ the5 inevita)l5 $are less a)out *hat the state does
and are less *illin0 to ta(e a$tion to assert their vie*s. >hat means that neither the state nor the opposition
$an mo)iliBe them to ta(e a$tion for or a0ainst an5thin0. As a resultC the opposition $annot easil5 0et lar0e
num)ers of people to demonstrate even if the opposition is ta&in/ positions that polls su//est most people a/ree
(ith. And the 0overnment $annot dra* on popular support even *hen it ma5 )e doin0 thin0s that the people
have said the5 *ant. >hat means that the siIe of demonstrations for or a/ainst an4thin/ or an4one are an in"reasin/l4 poor indi"ator of
(hat the people (ant or do not (ant the state to do. Se"ond@ pre"isel4 'e"ause people are fo"usin/ on their private lives and ta&in/ responsi'ilit4
for them@ the4 are li&el4 to 'e"ome in"reasin/l4 upset (hen the state attempts to intervene in their lives even for the most 'eni/n purposes@
parti"ularl4 if it does so in an ineffe"tive manner. Su"h attitudes@ (idespread in man4 "ountries and important in limitin/ the po(er of state
institutions@ nonetheless pose a parti"ular dan/er to "ountries ma&in/ the transition from "ommunism to demo"ra"4. +hile those vie(s help
promote the dismantlin/ of the old state@ the4 also virtuall4 pre"lude the emer/en"e of a ne( and effi"ient one. As a result@ these "ountries are
often li&el4 to find themselves (ithout the effe"tive state institutions that modern so"ieties and e"onomies reJuire if the4 are to 'e (ell re/ulated.
And third@ $ountries *ith depoliti$iBed populations are espe$iall5 at ris( *hen the5 fa$e a $risis. >he
0overnments $annot $ount on support 'e"ause people no lon/er e8pe"t the /overnments to 'e a'le to deliver.
1--
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
A-to >hreat Constru$tion
@ A De)ates a)out threats in the a$ademi$ *orld result in )etter poli$5-ma(in0:real
threats $an )e $onfronted and ris(s $an )e *ei0hed.
,alt 91 5rofessor of 5oliti"al S"ien"e@ ?niversit4 of Chi"a/o 1991 CStephen@ I<>!R<A>IO<AB S>?7I!S
R?AR>!RB@ p. **9--0D
A re"urrin/ theme of this essa4 has 'een the t(in dan/ers of separatin/ the stud4 of se"urit4 affairs from the a"ademi" (orld
or of shiftin/ the fo"us of a"ademi" s"holarship too far from real-(orld issues. >he dan/er of (ar (ill 'e (ith us for
some time to "ome@ and states (ill "ontinue to a"Juire militar4 for"es for a variet4 of purposes. ?nless one 'elieves
that i/noran"e is prefera'le to e8pertise@ the value of independent national se"urit4 s"holars should 'e apparent.
Indeed@ histor4 su//ests that "ountries that suppress de'ate on national se"urit4 matters are more li&el4 to 'lunder into
disaster@ 'e"ause mis/uided poli"ies "annot 'e evaluated and stopped in time. As in other areas of pu'li" poli"4@ a"ademi"
e8perts in se"urit4 studies "an help in several (a4s. In the short term@ a"ademi"s are (ell pla"ed to evaluate "urrent
pro/rams@ 'e"ause the4 fa"e less pressure to support offi"ial poli"4. >he lon/-term effe"ts of a"ademi" involvement ma4 'e even
more si/nifi"antG a"ademi" resear"h "an help states learn from past mista&es and "an provide the theoreti"al
innovations the produ"e 'etter poli"4 "hoi"es in the future. =urthermore@ their role in trainin/ the ne( /eneration of
e8perts /ives a"ademi"s an additional avenue of influen"e.
@ A Ris( in the international s5stem is inevita)le:the 0oal should )e to *ei0h the impa$ts
of a$tion vs ina$tion in the fa$e of a parti$ular threat.
;arvard <u$lear Stud5 9roup 4. C'iving *ith 1uclear ?eapons@ p.11-2D
+hen 5resident Aohn =. Kenned4 (as sho(n irrefuta'le eviden"e of the Soviet missile empla"ement ?-* photo/raphs of the missile 'ases in
Cu'e he and his advisors dis"ussed the matter for si8 da4s 'efore de"idin/ on an Ameri"an response to the "hallen/e. >he de"ision@ to
pla"e a naval 'lo"&ade around the island@ (as not a ris&-free response. >his@ Kenned4 honestl4 admitted to the nation the ni/ht
of O"to'er **@ 191*G ,4 fello( "itiIens@ let no one dou't this is a diffi"ult and dan/erous effort on (hi"h (e have set out.
<o one "an foresee pre"isel4 (hat "ourse it (ill ta&ea %ut the /reat dan/er of all (ould 'e to do nothin/. +h4 did the
president 'elieve that to do nothin/) a'out the missiles in Cu'a (ould 'e an even /reater dan/er than a""eptin/ the diffi"ult and dan/erous)
"ourse of the 'lo"&adeL ;e a""epted some ris& of (ar in the lon/ run@ '4 dis"oura/in/ future Soviet a//ressive
'ehavior. Ina"tion mi/ht have led to an even more dan/erous future. >his the president also e8plained that ni/ht in his address to
the nationG M>hisN sudden@ "landestine de"ision to station (eapons for the first time outside Soviet soil is a deli'erate
provo"ative and un#ustified "han/e in the status Juo (hi"h "annot 'e a""epted '4 this "ountr4 if our "oura/e and our
"ommitments are ever to 'e trusted '4 either friend or foe. >he 19-06s tau/ht us a "lear lessonG A//ressive "ondu"t@ if allo(ed to
/ro( un"he"&ed and un"hallen/ed@ ultimatel4 leads to (ar. >he Ameri"an /overnment mana/ed the 191* "risis (ith
s&ill and restraint offerin/ a "ompromise to the Soviets and /ivin/ them suffi"ient time to "all 'a"& their missile-laden ships@ for e8ample
and the missiles (ere (ithdra(n from Cu'a. >he president "arefull4 supervised Ameri"an militar4 a"tions to ensure that his orders
(ere not misunderstood. ;e did not push his su""ess too far or i/nore the real ris&s of (ar. >he point here is not@ to ma&e the 'lo"&ade a model
for Ameri"an a"tion in the futureG different "ir"umstan"es ma4 "all for different poli"ies. Rather the point is to underline the persisten"e
of ris& in international affairs. !ver4 proposed response to the Soviet a"tion doin/ nothin/@ enfor"in/ the 'lo"&ade@ or invadin/ Cu'a
entailed some ris& of nu"lear (ar. Kenned46s tas& and (e thin& his su""ess (as to (ei/h a""uratel4 the ris&s entailed in
ea"h "ourse and de"ide on poli"4 a""ordin/l4.

1-.
SDI 2010 RRS
Aff K Core
@ A Confrontin0 threats earl5 prevents es$alation:,,II proves.
"oon P. 5rofessor of International Relations at Seoul <ational ?niversit4H former =orei/n ,inister of South
Korea *00-Coun/-K(an@ Introdu"tionG 5o(er C4"le >heor4 and the 5ra"ti"e of International Relations)@
International 5oliti"al S"ien"e Revie( *00-H vol. *.H p. 2-3/
In histor4@ the effort to 'alan"e po(er Juite often tended to start too late to prote"t the se"urit4 of some of the individual
states. If the 'alan"in/ pro"ess 'e/ins too late@ the resultin/ amount of for"e ne"essar4 to stop an a//ressor is often
mu"h lar/er than if the pro"ess had 'een started mu"h earlier. =or e8ample@ the fate of CIe"hoslova&ia and 5oland sho(ed ho(
non-intervention or (aitin/ for the automati") (or&in/ throu/h of the pro"ess turned out to 'e pro'lemati". 5o(er
"4"le theor4 "ould also supplement the stru"ture-oriented nature of the traditional 'alan"e of po(er theor4 '4 in"orporatin/ an a/ent-oriented
e8planation. >his (as possi'le throu/h its fo"us on the relationship 'et(een po(er and the role of a state in the international s4stem. It espe"iall4
hi/hli/hted the fa"t that a dis"repan"4 'et(een the relative po(er of a state and its role in the s4stem (ould result in a /reater possi'ilit4 for
s4stemi" insta'ilit4. In order to prevent this insta'ilit4 from developin/ into a (ar@ pra"titioners of international relations
(ere to 'e"ome a(are of the d4nami"s of "han/in/ po(er and role@ ad#ustin/ role to po(er. A statesperson here (as not
simpl4 re/arded as a prisoner of stru"ture and therefore as an outsider to the pro"ess 'ut as an a/ent "apa'le of influen"in/ the operation of
eJuili'rium. >hus po(er "4"le theor4 "ould over"ome the (ea&ness of theoreti"al determinism asso"iated (ith the traditional 'alan"e of po(er.
>he Juestion is often raised (hether /overnment de"ision-ma&ers "ould possi'l4 &no( or respond to su"h relative po(er shifts in the real (orld.
A""ordin/ to 7oran@ (hen the tides of histor4) shift a/ainst the state@ the push and shove of (orld politi"s reveals
these matters to the poli"4-ma&er@ in that state and amon/ its "ompetitors@ (ith a'undant ur/en"4. C*D >he Issue of
S4stemi" Sta'ilit4 5o(er "4"le theor4 is 'uilt on the "on"eption of "han/in/ relative "apa'ilities of a state@ and as su"h it shares the realist
assumption emphasiIin/ the importan"e of po(er in e8plainin/ international relations. %ut its main fo"us is on the
lon/itudinal dimension of po(er relations@ the rise and de"line of relative state po(er and role@ and not on the stati" po(er distri'ution at a
parti"ular time. As a result@ po(er "4"le theor4 provides a si/nifi"antl4 different e8planation for sta'ilit4 and order (ithin the international
s4stem. =irst of all@ po(er "4"le theor4 ar/ues that (hat matters most in e8plainin/ the sta'ilit4 of the international s4stem or (ar and pea"e is
not the t4pe of parti"ular international s4stem CRose"ran"e@ 191-D 'ut the transformation from one s4stem to another. =or e8ample@ in the 1910s
there (as a de'ate on the sta'ilit4 of the international s4stem 'et(een the defenders of 'ipolarit4 su"h as +altI C191.D and the defenders of
multi-polarit4 su"h as Rose"ran"e C1911D@ and 7euts"h and Sin/er C191.D. After anal4Iin/ five histori"al o""asions sin"e the ori/in of the modern
state s4stem@ 7oran "on"luded that (hat has 'een responsi'le for ma#or (ar (as not (hether one t4pe of s4stem is
more or less "ondu"ive to (ar 'ut that instead s4stems transformation itself led to (ar C7oran@ 1921D. A non-linear t4pe of
stru"tural "han/e that is massive@ unpredi"ted@ devastatin/ to forei/n poli"4 e8pe"tation@ and destru"tive of se"urit4 is the tri//er for
ma#or (ar@ not the nature of a parti"ular t4pe of international s4stem.
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@ A Some states are 0enuine threats.
K5dd 93 5rofessor of 5oliti"al S"ien"e of California@ Riverside@ S!C?RI> S>?7I!S@ Autumn 1992 p. 10.
As for the Se"ond +orld +ar@ fe( stru"tural realists (ill ma&e a sustained "ase the ;itler (as /enuinel4 motivated '4 a
rational pursuit of se"urit4 for 9erman4 and the other 9erman statesmen (ould have responded in the same (a4 to 9erman46s international
situation. !ven 9ermen /enerals opposed ;itler6s militar4 adventurism until 19-9H it is diffi"ult to ima/ine a less
for"eful "ivilian leader overrulin/ them and leadin/ 9erman4 in an oath of "onJuest. In the "ase of the "old (ar@ it is
a/ain diffi"ult to es"ape the "on"lusion that the Soviet ?nion (as indeed e8pansionist 'efore 9or'a"hev and not solel4
motivated '4 se"urit4 "on"erns. >he in"reased emphasis (ithin international relations s"holarship on e8plainin/ the nature and ori/ins
of a//ressive e8pansionists states refle"ts a /ro(in/ "onsensus that a//ressive states are at the root of "onfli"t@ not
se"urit4 "on"erns.
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@ A Representations of state a$tion $annot $han0e realismC and even if the5 $ouldC *e have
no *a5 of (no*in0 if the5 ne* s5stem *ould )e an5 )etter.
-earsheimerC 91 5rofessor of 5oliti"al S"ien"e@ ?niversit4 of Chi"a/o 1990 CAohn@ I<>!R<A>IO<AB
S!C?RI>@ p. 91-*D
>he most revealin/ aspe"t of +endt6s dis"ussion is that he did not respond to the t(o main "har/e leveled a/ainst "riti"al theor4 in =alse
5romise.) >he first pro'lem (ith "riti"al theor4 is that althou/h the theor4 is deepl4 "on"erned (ith radi"all4
"han/in/ state 'ehavior@ it sa4s little a'out ho( "han/e "omes a'out. >he theor4 does not tell us (h4 parti"ular
dis"ourses 'e"ome dominant and other fall '4 the (a4side. Spe"ifi"all4@ +endt does not e8plain (h4 realism has 'een
the dominant dis"ourse in (orld politi"s for (ell over a thousand 4ears@ althou/h I e8pli"itl4 raised the Juestion in =alse
5romise) Cp. .*D. ,oreover@ he shed no li/ht on (h4 the time is ripe for unseatin/ realism@ nor on (h4 realism is li&el4 to
'e repla"ed '4 a more pea"eful@ "ommunitarian dis"ourse@ althou/h I e8pli"itl4 raised 'oth Juestions. +endt6s failure to ans(er
these Juestions has important ramifi"ations for his o(n ar/uments. =or e8ample@ he maintains that if it is possi'le to "han/e international politi"al
dis"ourse and alter state 'ehavior@ then it is irresponsi'le to pursue poli"ies that perpetuate destru"tive old orders Mi.e.@ realismN@ espe"iall4 if (e
"are a'out the (ell-'ein/ of future /eneration.) >he "lear impli"ation here is that realists li&e me are irresponsi'le and do not "are mu"h a'out the
(elfare of future /enerations. ;o(ever@ even if (e "han/e dis"ourses and move 'e4ond realism@ a fundamental pro'lem
(ith +endt6s ar/ument remainsG 'e"ause his theor4 "annot predi"t the future@ he "annot &no( (hether the dis"ourse
that ultimatel4 repla"es realism (ill 'e more 'eni/n than realism. ;e has no (a4 of &no(in/ (hether a fas"isti"
dis"ourse more violent than realism (ill emer/e as the he/emoni" dis"ourse. =or e8ample@ he o'viousl4 (ould li&e
another 9or'a"hev to "ome to po(er in Russia@ 'ut a "riti"al theor4 perspe"tive@ defendin/ realism mi/ht ver4 (ell
'e the more responsi'le poli"4 "hoi"e.
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A-to ?niversalit5 K
>he5 sa5 our ar0ument a$ts as a universalC )ut
=irst the5 put *ords in our mouth
,e defended a narro* $onte8t and the5 made it an imposin0 universal so their lin(s made
sense.
Se$ond the perm o)viousl5 solves
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Aff K Core
A-to ?niversalit5 K $ont7
AndJ >heir K of the universal allo*s t5rann5C and defaults to e8treme relativism
>on4 >in(er is a professor of a""ountin/ at %aru"h Colle/e at the Cit4 ?niversit4 of <e( or& and editor of the #ournal@ Criti"al
5erspe"tives on A""ountin/ Aoumal of ,ana/ement Studies *-G. Aul4 1942 o'tained via !%SCO host$%usiness Sour"e Complete data'ase
>he "ritiJue developed here is "omposed of t(o strandsG first@ ,or/an treats the pro"esses '4 (hi"h metaphors are /enerated as thou/h the4 (ere so"iall4
unstru"turedH there'4 underratin/ the ideolo/i"al roots of metaphor. >hese aso"ial pro"livities in his aned4sis render his pleas for diversit4 in metaphori"al usa/e as
little more than politi"al voluntarism. Se"ond@ and relatedl4@ ,or/anFs advo"a"4 of metaphori"sd diversit4 at the s"ientifi" Cor/aniIational theor4D level@ is supported
'4@ (hat !d/el4 des"ri'es as@ Fthe unsha&en "onvi"tion of li'eral do/matismF at the epistemolo/i"al level C!d/el4@ 193.D. In opposin/ t4r#inni"al forms of positivism@
,or/an paints himself into a philosophi"al "orner Cof RelativismDG he finds himself in the epistemolo/i"al Juandar4 of
opposin/ rationalisti" s"ien"e C(hi"h he eJuates (ith positivismD@ 4et havin/ to prose"ute his "ase (ithout appearin/ to impose his
o(n rationale on another su'#e"tive vie(point Cthe ver4 F"rimeF of (hi"h positivism stands a""usedD. ,or/anFs poli"4 proposals are
seriousl4 (ea&ened 'e"ause of the short"omin/s in his anal4sis@ referred to a'ove. ;e deplores authoritarian interferen"e in s"ientifi"
pro"esses@ and proposes that (e institutionaliIe a &ind of supportive@ tolerant@ un"riti"al@ s"ientifi" free-for-all. ?nfortunatel4@ the
su//estion that (e are Ffree to institutionaliIeF in an4 manner (e "hoose@ treats s"ientifi" pro"esses as thou/h the4
(ere independent of an4 so"ial and histori"al 'a"&/round. >he a'ove "riti"isms of ,or/anFs position are developed more full4 in the third
se"tion of the paper. =irst@ ho(ever@ (e need to e8amine@ in /reater detail@ his rationale for proposin/ a more diverse metaphori"al usa/e@ and ho( he supports these
proposals (ith his antifundamentalist Cantipositivisti"D epistemolo/4 C,or/an@ 193-"@ pp. -9*-.0.D. ,or/an Juestions (hether a Fs4nthesis of perspe"tivesF a'out
mana/ement is either possi'le or desira'le@ and he dou'ts the value of "onstru"tin/ an inte/rated theor4 of mana/ement s"ien"e C,or/an@ 193-a@ p. 1D. ;e notes that
FCoheren"e in dis"ipline is onl4 reall4 a pro'lem if one 'elieves that "oheren"e is possi'le. I do not sin"e "oheren"e involves the sele"tion of a fi8ed and unne"essaril4
narro( point of vie(... I favor an approa"h to mana/ement s"ien"e that en"oura/es diversit4 and see&s to "ope (ith this diversit4 in an a"tive and "onstru"tive (a4F
Ci'id.@ p. 3D. ,or/Iin unders"ores his ar/ument '4 pointin/ to a variet4 of vie(s that e8ist a'out m"ina/ement Ce./.@ those of the mana/er@ and those of the mana/edD
and ar/ues that the s"ientifi" "hoi"e of a vie(point is all too often a "hoi"e '4 default - an inherited perspe"tive - that has not 'enefited from the plurIAit4 of vie(s of
the su'#e"t. ,or/an "laims he is not see&in/ a s4nthesis of this pluralit4@ or an4 one /lo'al perspe"tive to su'sume all othersH rather he (ants to F. .. enhan"e the
"apa"it4 for intelli/ent understandin/ and "hoi"e on the part of the mana/ement s"ientistF ti'id.@ p. 9D. ;is aversion to Fa /lo'al perspe"tiveF@ or
sin/le set of s"ientifi" standards@ is 'est understood in terms of his opposition to the t4rann4 of positivisti"
epistemolo/4 in or/aniIational studies C,or/an@ 193-"@ pp. -9--0D. =or ,or/an@ positivism is distin/uished '4G its emphasis on
empiri"ismH its Fri/ourFH its Juest for /eneraliIa'ilit4H its impli"it a""eptan"e of the su'#e"t-o'#e"t splitH and@ most importeint@ its appeal to a
fundamentalist epistemolo/i"al position.FpF =or ,or/an@ =undamentalism Cmore usuall4 termed Ration#AismD "onsists of@ Fthose epistemolo/i"al stan"es that are
ultimatel4 tr4in/ to fmd the 'est (a4 to do resear"hF C,or/an@ 193-"@ p. -31D. All rationalisti" or fundamentalist epistemolo/ies - not #ust those (hi"h authenti"ate
positivism - pursue an Funattaina'le idealF in ,or/anFs vie(@ 'e"ause Fno sin/le set of s"ientifi" standards "an "laim a monopol4 over de"isions as to (hat "ounts as
valid &no(led/eF ti'id.@ pp. -31@ -9-D. ,or/anFs motivation for opposin/ the universalisti" pretensions of an imperialisti" positivist
epistemolo/4 are 'oth "lear and lauda'le. ;e is tr4in/ to "reate FhouseroomF for hermeneuti"@ humanisti"@ interpretative@ and other
nonpositivisti" approa"hes to or/aniIational resear"h C,or/an@ 193-"@ p. .0-@ passimD. +hat is less "lear is (h4 - in opposin/ positivism -
he "hooses to oppose all forms of rationalism and@ at times@ adopt an e8treme relativist position ti'id.D. As (e (ill see@ relativism under"uts
,or/anFs o(n ar/uments for the "onstru"tive use of metaphors@ and (ea&ens his "hallen/e to positivism in mana/ement studies. I
do not mean to impl4 that all metaphors are fla(ed as theoreti"al toolsH (hat this paper "ontends is that "ertain metaphors transport espe"iIAl4 po(erful 'iases@
'e"ause of the (a4 the4 "amoufla/e the so"isd underpinnin/s of the reIAit4 to (hi"h the4 refer. It (ould 'e ina""urate to su//est that ,or/an is una(are of the
am'i/uities in his epistemolo/i"al position. In %e4ond ,ethod@ he a"&no(led/es the diffi"ulties inherent in adoptin/ a relativisti" stan"e. !ven diale"ti"al@ s4ntheti"@
and other nonpositivisti" approa"hes@ are Fultimatel4 tr4in/ to find the one 'est (a4 to do resear"hFH and that (ith relativism@ (e /ive up hope of
findin/@ Fan independent point of evaluation for #ud/in/ the merits of different resear"h approa"hesF ti'id.@ p. -30D. %ut havin/
offered a spirited "ase FA/ainst RelativismF@ ,or/"in re"oils from em'ra"in/ rationalismG Fthere are no /rounds for sa4in/ a resear"h perspe"tive.. .is not (orth(hileF
ti'id.@ p. -31D. In the end@ ,or/an re#e"ts fundamentalist vie(points in favour of relativism 'e"ause@ FA more relativisti" vie( of the resear"h pro"ess en"oura/es us to
see these different approa"hes as doin/ different thin/s. . .F ti'id.@ p. -92D. ?ltimatel4@ for ,or/an@ it is the o'li/ation to ea"h individued resear"her@ Fto refle"t on the
nature of his or her a"tivit4 as a means of "hoosin/ an appropriate path of a"tionF C,or/an@ 193-"@ p. -2.D. ?nfortunatel4@ in opposin/ Ration#Aism@ ,or/an a'di"ates
the epistemolo/i"al tas& of tr4in/ to help resear"hers "hoose the Fappropriate pathF. Indeed@ the term FappropriateF is meanin/less in ,or/anFs relativisti" perspe"tive
'e"ause different resear"h paradi/ms are Cto use KuhnFs termD Fin"ommensura'leF. ,or/an e8pli"itl4 favours the relativism of Kuhn and =e4era'end in his
epistemolo/i"al s4mpathies@ (ith some minor modifi"ations. ;e notes that F . . . (e are o'li/ed to re"o/niIe that no one resear"h strate/4 or inJuirin/ s4stem "an 'e
authoritive or "omplete and that there is at least some merit in =e4era'endFs "laim that Kan4thin/ /oesKF C,or/an@ 193-"@ p. -31D. On e8amination@ =e4era'endFs and
KuhnFs relativism suffers from some serious dra('a"&s. It (as =e4era'end (ho mis"hievousl4 Juipped that KuhnFs notion that normeA s"ien"e
(as puIIle solvin/ (ith paradi/ms@ failed to provide a (a4 of distin/uishin/ resear"h from other a"tivities - in"ludin/ or/aniIed "rime C=e4era'end@ 1920D. KuhnFs
repl4 (as that he never intended to mar& out s"ien"e from other a"tivities CKuhn@ 1920D. In KuhnFs and =e4era'endFs vie(@ there is no #ustifi"ation for reverin/
s"ientifi" &no(led/e as thou/h it (ere a superior and Fo'#e"tiveF form of so"ial &no(led/e C=e4era'end@ 1920D. >here are man4 histori"al instan"es (here the
elevation and deifi"ation of s"ien"e has 'een lin&ed (ith its misuse '4 partisan interestsH mu"h in the same (a4 as the /od-&in/s of an"ient !/4pt and "hiefs of
primitive tri'es 'olstered their po(er usin/ reli/ion and "laims of supernatural affiliation C;oo/velt@ 1920D.IuF Ironi"all4@ it is pre"isel4 'e"ause of su"h a'uses that
KuhnFs and =e4era'endFs relativism is potentiall4 so dan/erous. >he4 mista&enl4 eJuate all rationalism (ith oppression@ and fail to a"&no(led/e
the possi'ilit4 of a radi"al rationalism that "ould oppose repression and "ontri'ute to human eman"ipation. Radi"al
rationalism opposes the misuse of s"ien"e '4 developin/ "riteria for distin/uishin/ F/oodF s"ien"e from F'adF @ and there'4
see&in/ to prevent s"ien"e from 'ein/ redu"ed to the status of For/aniIed "rimeF@ or@ more relevantl4@ to the a"tivities of the Fthou/ht poli"eF
C!d/el4@ 193.D.
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A-to ?niversalit5 K $ont7
@ A >his relativism a$$identl5 re-$reates the ver5 (inds of universalit5 it opposes and paves
the *a5 for 0roup-thin( atro$it5
>on4 >in(er is a professor of a""ountin/ at %aru"h Colle/e at the Cit4 ?niversit4 of <e( or& and editor of the
#ournal@ Criti"al 5erspe"tives on A""ountin/ Aoumal of ,ana/ement Studies *-G. Aul4 1942 o'tained via
!%SCO host$%usiness Sour"e Complete data'ase
>he philosophi"al relativism of Kuhn and =e4era'end onl4 e8a"er'ates the a'ove diffi"ulties. As RavetI notes@ the4 "ompound
the pro'lem '4 proposin/ a seemin/l4 F'ehaviouristi" "riterion for the /enuineness of a s"ientifi" fieldG one (here de'ate
on fundamentals is irrelevant@ and all (or& pro"eeds as puIIlesolvin/ (ithin a do/mati" frame(or&. =or inse"ure s"ientists in fields of
human 'ehaviour@ this offered a #ustifi"ation of ar'itraril4 imposed "onformit4 CRavetI@ 193.@ p. 3D. RavetI notes that in
re"ent epistemolo/i"al de'ates@ =e4era'end sometimes pla4s the "ourt #ester@ sometimes the Zen master@ and at other times@ the =as"ist Ci'id.@ p.
9D. +hat =e4era'end offers@ to repla"e the old ideal of the philosoph4 of s"ien"e@ is "onfused and un"onstru"tive. =e4era'endFs relativism
entails that ultimatel4@ Fan4thin/ /oesF C,or/an@ 193-"@ p. -31D@ or Fdo 4our o(n thin/F CRavetI@ 193.D (ithout an4 o'li/ation
to "onvention@ so"ial mores@ or Fhi/herF values. =or RavetI@ =e4era'endFs thesis is fas"ist in effe"t Calthou/h not in
intentD 'e"ause@ Fin the short run@ it ma4 ver4 (ell mean destro4in/ the intelle"tual 'arriers to the vi"tor4 of ar'itrar4
(ill and 'rute for"e in intelle"tual@ and hen"e so"ial mattersF Ci'id.D. In this re/ard@ RavetI re"alls the "onne"tions of <aIi 9erman
fol& ideolo/4 and reli/ion (ith earlier "urrents of romanti" and antime"hani"al philosophies.. .and other "ounter-"ulture prophets
Ci'id.@ p. 9D.
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