9 Ad Hoc Network Protocols

The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunicat The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications, INHA
University ions, INHA University

http:// http://multinet.inha.ac.kr multinet.inha.ac.kr
Multimedia Network Lab. Multimedia Network Lab.
Mobile Computing
Chapter 9:
Ad-hoc Protocols
Prof. Sang-J o Yoo
2
The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunicat The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications, INHA University ions, INHA University
http://multinet.inha.ac.kr
Multimedia Network Lab Multimedia Network Lab. .
Contents
Introduction
Ad-hoc Network Overview
Routing over Multi-hop Ad-hoc Networks
DSDV Protocol
DSR Protocol
AODV Protocol
ZRP Protocol
Conclusion Remarks
Introduction
4
Model of Operation
Wireless computing devices should physically be able to communicate
with each other, even when no routers or base stations or Internet
service providers (ISPs) can be found.
In the absence of infrastructure, what is needed is that the wireless
devices themselves take on the missing functions.
5
Model of Operation
Ad-hoc network model
The nodes are using IP and they have IP addresses.
The nodes are far enough apart so that not all of them are within range
of each other.
The nodes may be mobile so that two nodes within range at one point in
time may be out of range moments later.
The nodes are able to assist each other in the process of delivering
packets of data.
MH3
MH1
MH4
MH2
MH1
MH6
MH5
MH7
MH8
6
Applications
Conferencing
Sometimes business network infrastructure is often missing (e.g.,
outside of their normal office), but the need of collaborative computing
might be even more important.
Home Networking
Offers the prospect of reachability to all the nodes at home regardless
of their normal point of attachment.
Emergency Services
As the Internet (existing infrastructure) grows in importance, the loss
of network connectivity during natural disasters will become an ever
more noticeable consequence of the calamity.
Very important to fine ways to enable the operations of networks even
when infrastructure elements have been disabled.
7
Applications
Accidents or disasters in rural areas where poor or no preestablished
communication infrastructure exists:
Extending infrastructure network coverage
Rapid deployment of communication infrastructure in rural areas.
Infrastructure
Network
Gateway
Ad Hoc Network
8
Applications
Personal Area Networks and Bluetooth
PAN: very localized network populated by
some network nodes that are closely
associated with a single person.
The PAN devices may not need to have an
attachment to the public networks, but
certainly need to communicate with each
other.
Intra PAN communication and inter PAN
communication
Ubiquitous Computing
Computers will be all around us, constantly
performing mundane tasks to make our lives
a little easier.

(2005 2300 )

(2005 733 )

(2005 2300 )

(2005 733 )
9
Applications
Ubiquitous intelligent internetworking devices that detect their
environment, interact with each other, and respond to changing
environmental condition will create a future that is as challenging to
imagine as a science fiction scenario.
Sensor Dust
A large collection of tiny sensor devices
once situated, the sensors remain stationary
largely homogeneous
power is likely to be a scarce resource, which determines the lifetime of the
network
Aan offer detailed information about terrain or environmental dangerous
conditions.
10
Applications
Sensor Networks
Distribute sensors containing wireless transceivers.
The sensors could then form an ad-hoc network and cooperate to gather
the desired information.
Transceiver
Memory
Sensors
Battery
Embedded
Processor
1kbps-1Mbps
10-100 Meters 128KB-1MB
Limited Storage
60% of
total cost
Limited
life time
10MHz
Low cost
processor
Transceiver
Memory
Sensors
Battery
Embedded
Processor
Transceiver
Memory
Sensors
Battery
Embedded
Processor
1kbps-1Mbps
10-100 Meters 128KB-1MB
Limited Storage
60% of
total cost
Limited
life time
10MHz
Low cost
processor
11
Applications
Automotive/PC Interaction
Ad-hoc network between automotive computers and laptops or PDA in
our cars.
Indicate mechanical problems, repair service categories, repair shop position,
and so on.
Ad-hoc network between automobiles and their occupants.
Positioning information,
Ad-hoc network between cars.
Other Envisioned Applications
12
Technical and Market Factors
Scalability
Node mobility: routing information is changed very rapid.
Ad-hoc network do not typically allow the same kinds of aggregation
techniques for standard Internet routing protocols.
Scalability problem
Need some ways to maintain aggregation for ad-hoc networks.
Ad-hoc network should be designed to reduce the number of control
messages.
Ad-hoc network algorithms should be carefully evaluated and compared
for their relative scalability in the face of node population growth and
increased node mobility.
Power Budget vs. Latency
Ad-hoc Network
Overview
14
MANET
Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET)
A collection of mobile platforms nodes where each node is free to move
about arbitrarily.
Distributed, mobile, wireless, multi-hop networks
Without the benefit of any existing infrastructure.
Each node logically consists of a router.
15
MANET
Background
Since 1970s, U.S. DoDsponsored research on this network.
MANET can expand the Internet.
16
Characteristics of MANET
Dynamic topology
links formed and broken with mobility
Possibly uni-directional links
Constrained resources
battery power
wireless transmitter range
Network partitions
A
B
A
B
17
MANET Design Issues
Network size
Node density & geographical area
Connectivity
The number of neighbors that each node can link to directly.
Link capacity between nodes.
Network topology
User mobility can directly affect on the network topology.
User traffic
Traffic type: burst or constant
Traffic priority and MAC layer issue
Operational environment
Energy
Battery-operated store-and-forward nodes
Need low energy networking approach
Link, MAC, Network layer design issues
18
MANET Design Issues
Regulatory
Power spectral density (PSD) requirement for both legal and public health
reasons.
Performance metrics
QoS requirements
Throughput, delay, loss
Cost
Cost-versus-performance trades
19
History
Original motivation for MANET
Military need for battle field survivability.
Mobile wireless communication systems for coordinating group actions in a
distributed manner, avoiding single points of failure.
Military need to set up a temporal network when there is no fixed and
pre-placed communications infrastructure.
Need for multi-hop networking
Low power, LOS (line of sight) limitation, and so on
20
History
Packet Radio Network (PRNet)
21
Nokia Rooftop Product
22
FHP
FHP Wireless, USA
ad hoc network in a campus
23
FHP Wireless
24
MeshNetworks
MeshNetworks, USA
25
Networking Scenario: To Internet
26
SkyPilot NeighborNet
SkyPilot Network, USA
Routing over Multi-
hop Wireless
Networks
28
Review of Routing
Next-hop routing:
Each node maintains for each destination the preferred neighbor (i.e.,
next hop)
Source routing:
The source keeps for each destination the whole path leading to each
destination.
29
Link-State Routing:
Each node periodically broadcasts the link costs of its outgoing
links to all destinations.
could be done through flooding
As a node receives this information, it updates its view of the
network topology.
Each node knows the entire network topology.
Each node determines the best path to the destination.
ex: based on shortest-path algorithm
...
5 c y
3 a x
cost next hop destination
Review of Routing
30
Distance-Vector Routing:
Host i, for each destination x, keeps a set of distances {d
ij
(x)| j is
a neighbor or i}.
Host k is the next hop if d
ik
(x) = min{d
ij
(x), for all js}.
Update Rule:
Each node monitors the costs of its outgoing links and periodically
broadcasts, to all neighbors, its current estimate of the shortest path
to every other node.
...
5 j
2
3 j
1
distance d
ij
(x) neighbor
Review of Routing
31
Ad-hoc Routing Overview
Table Driven (Proactive) Protocol
When the application starts, a route can be immediately selected from the
route table
Sore route information even before it is needed
Traditional distributed shortest-path protocols
Maintain routes between every host pair at all times
Additional control packets: continually update stale route entries.
Example: DSDV (destination sequenced distance vector)
32
On Demand (Reactive) Protocol
Routing information is acquired only when it is actually needed.
Less bandwidth for maintain the route table.
Source initiates route discovery
Suffer a long delay when the application starts
Because a route to the destination will have to be acquired before the
communications can begin.
Example: DSR (dynamic source routing)
Hybrid Protocol
Adaptive; Combination of proactive and reactive
Example : ZRP (zone routing protocol)
33
Ad hoc routing protocol
Proactive(Table-driven) Reactive(On-demand) Hybrid
DSDV WRP
CGSR
ZRP AODV DSR LMR ABR
TORA SSR
DSDV Protocol
(Destination Sequenced Distance
Vector)
35
DSDV Overview
DSDV: Charles E. Perkins & Pravin Bhagwat, Computer
Communications Review, 94
Routing table follows the distance-vector style.
periodical update
Each route entry is tagged with a sequence number that is originated by
the destination node.
to avoid loops
Purpose
Construction of temporary networks with no wires and no administrative
intervention required.
Previous routing protocols for wired networks to ad-hoc
Highly dynamic network topology
Too heavy (computational burden)
Convergence characteristics do not seem good enough
Wireless medium differs
36
Route Advertisement
Each MN advertises its own route table to each of the current
neighbors.
The entries in this list may change dynamically over time.
A lot of control traffic in the network.
Solution
two types of route update packets
Full dump
All available routing information
Incremental
Only information changed since the last full dump
Use hop count as the metric.
could be easily extended to other metrics.
Route Advertisement (DSDV)
37
Route Advertisement (DSDV)
Special designs:
It sometimes delays advertising routes to damp fluctuations of routing
tables.
to avoid broadcasting unstable route information
Sometimes speedup advertising routes to propagate important topology
changes.
such as new links, broken links.
Each node periodically broadcasts its route entries.
say, every few seconds
broadcast is limited to a physical range (due to the nature of wireless
communication)
not network-wide
unreliable
power-saving hosts are not disturbed.
38
Route Table (DSDV)
The information in each broadcast:
Route entry:
destinations address
hop count to the destination
sequence number (originally stamped by the destination node)
to distinguish fresh from stale route entries
each broadcast has a new number (typically, +1)
Within the header of the packet route table also contains
senders new sequence number
hardware address (MAC) and network address (IP)
for address resolution from layer-3 to layer-2
Route Selection
More recent seq num is preferred.
Paths with the same seq num those with the smallest metric will be used.
39
DSDV Operation (DSDV)
MH3
MH1
MH7
MH8
MH5
MH6
MH4
MH1
MH2
The install time
helps determine
when delete
stale routes.
40
41
Procedure
When MH1 moves into the vicinity of MH8 and MH7, it triggers an
immediate incremental routing information update, which is broadcast
to MH6.
MH6 also triggers an immediate update, which carries along the new
routing information for MH1.
MH4, upon receiving this information, then broadcasts it at every
interval until the next full routing information dump.
At MH4, the incremental advertised routing updates has the form
shown in Table 4.
Quick Update:
When a new or substantially modified route is received, it is broadcast
immediately.
Periodical Update:
Otherwise, route entries are rebroadcast periodically.
42
Quick Update (DSDV)
When a Quick Update Is Needed?
Case 1: when X finds its (direct) next hop Y is broken
X assigns an infinity metric to host Y.
X increases the seq. no. of Y by 1.
This is the ONLY situation that Ys destination sequence number can be
increased by a host other than Y.
X broadcasts the route info. immediately.
Case 2: when X knows a route to a distant host Z and receives an
infinity metric for Z with an old or equal sequence no:
broadcast its own route information immediately
43
X Y
dest_seq_no of Y =k
route entry for Y:
dest_seq_no of Y =k
metric =1
broadcast:
dest_seq_no of Y =k+1
metric =infinity
Quick Update: case 1 (DSDV)
44
Quick Update: case 2 (DSDV)
X Y
step 1:
Y: I have no route to Z.
(seq_no(Z) =10)
step 2: (X broadcast)
I can reach Z with 6 hops.
(seq_no =11)
Z
route entry for Z:
seq_no(Z) =11
metric =6
45
Damping Fluctuations (DSDV)
How the settling time table is used to prevent fluctuations of route
table entry advertisement.
MH9
MH2
MH6
MH4
Mobile Host
Collection 2
Mobile Host
Collection 1
The larger the number of the
updates can be expected in
Figure
The settling time data is stored
in a table with the following fields.
1) Destination address
2) Last settling time
3) Average settling time
1. 12 hops
(SN=10)
3. 12 hops
(SN=11)
..
2. 11 hops
(SN=10)
4. 11 hops
(SN=11)
...
46
Damping Fluctuations (DSDV)
Suppose a new routing information update arrives at MH4 and the SN
in the new entry is newer than the SN in the currently used entry but
has a worse metric,
Then MH4 must use the new entry in making subsequent forwarding
decisions.
MH4 does not have to advertise the new route immediately and can
consult its route settling time table to decide how long to wait before
advertise it.
The average settling time is used for this determination. For instance,
MH4 may decide to delay (average_settling_time*2) before advertising a
route.
The settling time is calculated by maintaining a running , weighted average
over the most recent updates of the routers, for each destination.
This can be quite beneficial, because if the possibly unstable route
were advertised immediately, the effects would ripple through the
network.
47
DSDV design goal
The DSDV approach relies on periodic exchange of routing
information among all participating nodes.
An alternative is to design a system that performs route discovery on
a need to know basis. For devices operating on limited battery power,
this may be an important design consideration.
DSR Protocol
(Dynamic Source Routing Protocol)
49
What is DSR?
DSR is self-organizing and self-configuring
Composed of two mechanisms
Route Discovery
Route Maintenance
Source Routing- the sender of a packet determines the complete
sequence of nodes to forward the packet
Designed for use in wireless ad hoc networks
No periodic router advertisements
Dynamically determines route based on cached info and on the results of
a route discovery
50
Terms
Found on Packets
Source Routes
The path of nodes the packet will travel.
Route Record
Address of each intermediate node through the Route Request
message has been forwarded. (initialized to an empty list)
Request ID
Unique identifier determined by the initiator
Found in Nodes
Send Buffer
Contains a copy of each pack that cannot be transmitted because of
no source route
Route Cache
Previously learned source routes
51
Goal is to find a Source Route
Normally will find the source route by searching its Route Cache
If no route is found then the initiator will send a Route Request
A host initiating a route discovery broadcasts a Route Request packet
Each Route Request packet contains a route record, request id
If successful, initiating host receives a Route Reply packet
The route is saved in the cache for future use.
Basic Operations in DSR: Route Discovery
52
Example: Route Discovery
A sends the route request packet to find the route to H
A
B
D
G
E
F
C
H
Building Record Route during Route Discovery
source
destination
ID=2
<A>
<A>
<A>
ID=2
ID=2
<A,D>
<A,B>
<A,C>
ID=2
ID=2
ID=2 <A,C,E>
<A,D,F>
ID=2
ID=2
<A,C,E,G>
ID=2
53
When Route Request Received
if (node == target)
send Route Reply to initiator;
if (node has already seen the Route Request with the same ID)
discard Route Request;
else append address to route record and
broadcast;
When the destination receives the Route Request message.
Will send a Route Reply message
H will examine its Route Cache for a route back to node A.
If no path found, H will send its own Route Request for node A with Route
Reply piggybacked.
Unidirectional link
Symmetric link: the reverse direction exists.
54
Example: Route Discovery
Propagation of Route Reply
with the Route Record
A
B
D
G
E
F
C
H
<A,D,F>
<A,D,F>
<A,D,F>
ID=2
ID=2
ID=2
If the source node attempts to send additional data packets to this same node. In fact,
it should initiate Route Request because it is possible that the destination node is not
currently reachable.
To reduce the overhead, If the node attempts to send additional data packets to this
same node more frequently than the limit allows, the subsequent packets should be
buffered in the Send Buffer until a Route Reply is received, but if the node does send
packets within the minimum allowable interval between new Route Discoveries for the
same target, then the node can send all packets without initiating any Route Request
message.
55
Route Maintenance
If transmission error is detected at data link layer, Route Error
packet is generated and sent to the original sender of the packet.
The node removes the broken link in error from its route cache
when a Route Error packet is received.
Retransmission is a function for upper layer (TCP).
To destination E
If A has in its Route Cache another route to E, it sends the packet using
the new route immediately.
Otherwise, it may perform a new Route Discovery for E.
A B C D E
56
Additional Route Discovery Features
Caching Overheard Routing Information
A node forwarding or overhearing any packet may add the routing
information from that packet to its own Route Cache.
From data packet, Route Request, and Route Reply.
Limitation on caching
When unidirectional links are used.
C forwards a data packet along the route from A to E.
It learns from the header, C D E possible route.
But C B A may not work because these links might be unidirectional.
A B C D E
57
Replying to Route Requests Using Cached Routes
A node (not target node) receiving a Route Request searches its own
Route Cache.
If a route is found the node generally returns a Route Reply to the
initiator itself rather than forwarding the Route Request.
<A Route Reply Storm>
Nodes B,C,D,E, and F
all receive As Route
Request for target G.
58
Preventing Route Reply Storms
The above replying functionality can result in a possible Route Reply
storm.
If a node broadcasts a Route Request for a target node.
Wasting bandwidth and increasing network collisions.
Delay sending its own Route Reply for a short period.
D=H * (h-1+r)
H=constant delay, h=hop numbers to the route, r=random number
between 0 and 1.
Route Request Hop Limits
To limit the number of intermediate nodes allowed to forward the
Route Request.
As the Request if forwarded, the limit is decreased.
If it reaches zero before the target, it is discarded.
AODV Protocol
(Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance-
Vector Protocol)
60
Design Choices
DSDV
Pro-active
routing table entry for every
destination
periodically update
Short establishment delay
Overhead for unnecessary link
information (O(n
2
))
Hop-by-hop routing
Less per-packet overhead
DSR
Reactive
route for communicated
destinations
on-demand routing: flooding
Long routing delay (reduced by
cache/overhearing)
Less overhead packet
Source routing
Large per-packet overhead
Less scalable in term of #hop
AODV = Hop-by-hop + Reactive
61
AODV Design Purposes
Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing, Charles E. Perkins,
Elizabeth M. Royer. Proceedings of IEEE WMCSA'99,New Orleans, LA,
Feb. 1999
Quick adaptation under dynamic link conditions
Lower transmission latency
Low network utilization (less broadcast)
Loop-free property (How: using destination sequence #)
Scalable to large network
Assumptions
Uses symmetric links.
62
Key Ideas
Partialrouting table are constructed lazily
Entries are updated only when a node sends to another node unavailable
in its routing table
No periodic updates
Node not on active paths maintain no routing entries
Reduce packet overhead
Routing table
No source routing needed reduce bit overhead
Serve as cache reduce establishment latency
Sequence number loop free
Push link failure to relevant nodes
Reduce establishment latency
63
Route Establishment Procedure
Route Discovery: on demand
Follows route request (RREQ) and route reply (RREP) messages.
1. When, a node needs a route to a destination it broadcasts a RREQ.
2. Any node with a route to the destination can reply RREP to the source node.
3. Route information is maintained by each node in its route table.
4. Information obtained through RREQ and RREP is kept in the route table.
5. Sequence numbers are used to eliminate stale routes.
6. Routes with old sequence numbers are aged out of the system.
64
Route Discovery
Initiated when a node needs to communicate with another node
which has no information in the local route table.
Each node has 2 counters:
Source node broadcasts a route request (RREQ) to its neighbor nodes.
broadcast_id node sequence number
hop_cnt
dest_addr
source_addr
source_sequence_#
dest_Sequence_#
broadcast_id
65
RREQ- details
<source_addr, broadcast_id> is unique
Broadcast_idis incremented for new RREQ
If the neighboring node doesnt reply with a RREP, hop_cnt is
incremented.
RREQ from same node with same broadcast_idwill not be
broadcasted more than once.
A
B
C
D
B wont rebroadcast this RREQ
For example, node A wants to
contact node D, but there is no
active path to reach node D.
66
RREQ- details
Source_sequence_#: To maintain freshness information about the reverse
route to the source
Dest_sequence_#: how fresh a route to the destination
Every node will record the neighbors address where first copy of RREQ is
from
These entries will be maintained for long enough for RREQ to traverse and
produce a RREP to the sender
67
Process the RREQ
To process the RREQ, the node sets up a reverse route (path) entry
for the source node in its route table.
Source nodes IP address
Sequence number
Number of hops to the source node
IP address of the neighbor from which the RREQ was received the next
hop toward the source node.
With reverse route entry, the node knows how to forward a RREP to
the source.
If the route entry is not used within the specified lifetime, the route
information is deleted.
68
Reverse Path (route) Example
A
B
C
D E
Source
Destination
Assume same dest_sequence_#for all nodes
A
B
C
D E
Source
Destination
Reverse Path Formation Reverse Path Formation
Network Layout Network Layout
69
Respond to the RREQ
If a node has an unexpired entry to the destination in its route table
and
the sequence number associated with that destination is not smaller
the that indicated in the RREQ.
To prevent loop and keep freshness.
Not respond with older route information than that of source.
Then, the node responds by unicasting a RREP back to the source.
If the node cannot satisfy the RREQ, it increments the RREQs hop count
and then broadcasts the packet to its neighbors.
70
RREP Procedure
If the destination node is responding,
Place its current sequence number.
Initialize the hop count to zero.
Place the length of time this route is valid in the RREPs lifetime.
If an intermediate node responding,
Places its record of the destinations sequence number.
Set the hop count equal to its
distance from the destination.
Place the amount of time for
the destination in the route
entry.
source_addr
hop_cnt
dest_addr
source_sequence_#
lifetime (expiration time for
reverse path route entry)
71
RREP Procedure
When an intermediate node receives the RREP, it sets up a forward
route (path) entry to the destination in its route table.
IP address of the destination
IP address of the neighbor from which the RREP arrived
Sequence number
The hop count to the destination
Lifetime contained in the RREP.
So, the forward and reverse route entries of each node can be used
for other RREQs.
If a node receives RREPs from more than one neighbor.
Forwards the first RREP
And forwards a later RREP only if that RREP contains a greater sequence
number or a smaller hop count.
72
AODV Route Discovery Example
B
A
S
E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S
M
N
L
SD
73
B
A
S
E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Represents transmission of RREQ
Z
Y
Broadcast transmission
M
N
L
74
B
A
S
E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Represents links on Reverse Path
Z
Y
M
N
L
75
B
A
S
E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward
it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once
Z
Y
M
N
L
76
B
A
S
E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
M
N
L
77
B
A
S
E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D
is the intended target of the RREQ
M
N
L
78
B
A
S
E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
Represents links on path taken by RREP
M
N
L
79
B
A
S
E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
M
N
L
Forward links are setup when RREP travels along
the reverse path
Represents a link on the forward path
80
B
A
S
E
F
H
J
D
C
G
I
K
Z
Y
M
N
L
Routing table entries used to forward data packet.
Route is not included in packet header.
DATA
81
Route Maintenance
If the source node moves during an active session,
It can reinitiate route discovery to establish a new route to the destination.
When either the destination or some intermediate node moves,
A Route Error (RERR) message is sent to the affected source node.
When a source node receives the RERR, it can initiate route discovery if
the route is still needed.
A
B
C
D
E
F
D
source
destination
RERR
RERR
A
B
C
E
F
D
source
destination
82
AODV Multicast Protocol
Use the same two messages (RREQ and RREP) for multicast route
discovery.
Multicast group membership is dynamic: nodes are able to join and
leave the group at any time.
Each multicast group has a multicast group leader.
Maintain the multicast group sequence number
It is in no way a central point of failure.
core-based tree !!! (group leader = core node)
83
Multicast Route Discovery
Multicast route discovery begins either when
A node wishes to join a multicast group (set the J oin flag) or
When it has data to send to a multicast group and does not have a
current route to it.
The source node creates RREQ
with destination address (multicast group ID)
the groups last known sequence number.
Then, broadcast it to its neighbors.
The RREQ is
A join request, only a node that is a member of the multicast tree may
respond.
Otherwise, an node with a current route to the multicast group may reply.
Source node means
the node that begins
route discovery
procedure (does not
mean multicast group
data source)
A node which is not a group
member can be a tree member.
84
If the RREQ is a join request,
Any node that is not a tree member creates a reverse route entry to the
source and
Broadcasts the RREQ to it neighbors.
A node replies
if it is a router for the multicast groups tree and
It recorded sequence number for the group is at least as great as that
contained in the RREQ.
The node unicast RREP back to the source node.
Nodes along the path to the source node that received the RREP,
Set up a forward path entry for the group in their multicast route table by
adding the node from which they received the RREP as a next hop.
Increment the Hop Count field and forward the RREP to the next node.
85
Group
Leader
T
T
G
G
G
G
N
G
N
N
N
N
RREQ
Broadcasting
G: Multicast Group Member
T: Multicast Tree Member
N: Non-Tree Member
N
Group
Leader
T
T
G
G
G
G
N
G
N
N
N
N
N
RREQ message propagation
RREP sent back to the source
86
Group
Leader
T
T
G
G
G
G
T
G
N
N
N
N
N
Multicast tree branch addition
Setting the activated flag in its multicast
route table.
This node is changed into tree member.
These are non-tree members. But now they
have route table to the group (i.e., know the
best next hop to connect the tree.)
G
Select the greatest multicast group sequence and
the smallest hop count to the multicast tree.
Source node activates the route by sending a
multicast activation (MACT) message.
87
Leave the tree
Non-leaf node
Must not prune itself from the tree, but it must continue to serve as a
router for the tree.
Leaf node
Unicast a MACT message (with the Prune flag set) to its next hop.
The next hop
Delete the information for the sending node.
If the deletion makes the node a leaf, and the node is not a group member,
then it sends a MACT message with the Prune flag set to its next hop.
88
Leave the tree
Group
Leader
T
T
G
G
G
G
T
G
N
N
N
N
N
G
MACT (Prune)
MACT (Prune)
Group
Leader
T
T
G
G
G
G
G
N
N
N
N
N
G
N
G
N
Pruning of multicast group member Multicast tree after pruning
89
Multicast Tree Maintenance
Link breaks
At every hello_interval, a node must receive a broadcast from each of its
next hop such as RREQ, Group Hello, data, and Hello (RREP with TTL=1)
message.
If no broadcast receives during hello_interval from the next hop, then the
node send Hello to its next hop.
Failure to receive any broadcasts from the next hop on the multicast tree
for hello_life,
hello_life=(1+allowed_hello_loss)*hello_interval
Indicates the next hop is out of range and so the link must be repaired.
90
When a link break occurs
Downstream node is responsible for repairing it.
Downstream node broadcasts a join RREQ including an extension field
indicating the distance from the group leader.
Any node can respond to the RREQ by sending a RREP if it satisfies the
following conditions:
It is a part of the multicast tree
It has a fresh enough multicast group sequence number.
Its hop count to the leader is smaller than that indicated in the RREQ.
The next procedure is the same as tree join procedure
91
Group
Leader
T
T
G
G
G
G
G
N
N
N
N
N
G
N
G
N
Downstream
node
RREQ (D=2)
RREP
Group
Leader
T
T
G
G
G
G
G
N
N
N
N
N
G
N
G
N
Repaired multicast tree
ZRP Protocol
(Zone Routing Protocol)
93
ZRP Background ZRP Background
Proactive
Nodes store route information before it is needed in routing tables.
Little delay to determine route to the destination.
Continuously use a large portion of network capacity to keep the routing
information current.
Reactive
Routing information is calculated only before data transmissions.
Large delay to set up the route.
Hybrid / Hierarchical
For a large network
Assimilate the advantages of both the proactive and reactive protocols.
94
The Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) The Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)
A hybrid routing protocol that combines both proactive and on-
demand routing strategies
Each node has a predefined zone
Inside zones: proactive routing
Intrazone Routing Protocol (IARP)
Limits the scope of proactive procedure to nodes local neighborhood
Outside zones: on-demand routing
Interzone Routing Protocol (IERP)
Search throughout the network is done by a subset of network nodes.
ZRP provides more flexibility
95
Routing Zones Routing Zones
Routing Zone:
Defined for each node and includes the nodes
whose distance is at most some predefined
number.
Each node is required to know the topology
of the network within its routing zone only
and nodes are updated about topology
changes only within its routing zone
(using proactive algorithm).
Zone Radius=2
S Central Node
L outside zone
A-F Neighbors
G-K Peripheral
The zone is not a
description of physical
distance but rather of
node connectivity
(hops).
96
ZRP Architecture ZRP Architecture
97
Intrazone Intrazone Routing Protocol (IARP) Routing Protocol (IARP)
Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP)
Used by a node during construction of its routing zone to find its
neighboring nodes.
Broadcast hello beacons.
The quality of the beacon reception is used to indicate the status of the
connection to the neighbor.
When a neighbor is either lost or found, IARP is notified of this new link status.
Intrazone Routing Protocol (IARP)
Nodes broadcast route updates periodically to all nodes in their respective
routing zones.
Each node learns the topology of its routing zone.
OSPF-like protocols can be used.
Reduces update traffic by using the route hop count to prevent updates from
propagating beyond the zone radius
98
Interzone Interzone Routing Protocol (IERP) Routing Protocol (IERP)
Responsible for reactively discovering routes to destinations located
beyond a nodes routing zone.
Bordercasting:
Packet delivery service that directs messages from one node out to its
peripheral nodes.
Make bordercast tree.
99
IERP Route Discovery Operation IERP Route Discovery Operation
1. Source node (S) checks whether the
destination (D) is within its zone. if
yes, send data.
2. S bordercasts a route request to its
peripheral nodes (C, H, G).
3. The peripheral nodes execute the
same algorithm
4. If the destination is within their zone,
a route reply is sent back to the
source, indicating the route to the
destination.
5. If not, the peripheral nodes forward
the route request to their peripheral
nodes. (H->B)
B recognizes D is in its routing zone and
responds to the route request, indicating the
forwarding path SHBD.
Route accumulation procedure: node appends
it address to a received route request packet.
A single route query returns multiple route replies, which can be used to
determine the best route based on hop count or any other path metric.
100
Query Control Mechanisms Query Control Mechanisms
Excess route request traffic as a result of overlapping queried routing
zones
Certain query control mechanisms to be implemented to reduce this
amount of query traffic
by steering requests outward from sources routing zone
and away from each other
Mechanisms Used:
Query Detection (QD1/QD2)
Early Termination (ET)
Selective Bordercasting (SBC)
101
Query Control Mechanism Query Control Mechanism - - QD QD
Query Detection
When the peripheral nodes continue to bordercast to their peripheral
nodes, the query may be relayed through the same nodes again.
BRP provides two query detection methods, QD1 and QD2, to notify the
remaining nodes through some form of eavesdropping without incurring
additional control traffic
QD1
Allows intermediate nodes (which relay queries to the edge of the routing
zone) to detect queries
QD2
In single channel networks, possible for queries to be detected by any
node within range of a query transmitting node
102
QD1/ QD2 QD1/ QD2
Node S bordercasts to two
peripheral nodes, B and D
The intermediate nodes A and
C can detect the passing
packets using QD1.
If QD2 is implemented, node
E will be able to receive As
transmission and record the
query as well.
103
Query Control Mechanism Query Control Mechanism - - Early Early
Termination Termination
Early Termination
A node can prevent a route request from entering already covered
regions through a scheme called early termination.
Uses information from query detection to identify which local nodes have
already bordercasted the query.
A node can prune a peripheral node if it has already relayed a query to
that node.
104
Early Termination Early Termination
Node T bordercasts a
route request to S and Z
through B
B records the request
packet (QD1)
S bordercasts to its
peripheral node, C
B terminates the
transmission to C
because it recognizes
node C belongs to the
previously queried
routing zone of node T
105
Query Control Mechanism Query Control Mechanism - - SBC SBC
Selective Bordercasting (SBC)
Rather than bordercast queries to all peripheral nodes, the same
coverage can be provided by bordercasting to a chosen subset of
peripheral nodes.
Requires IARP to provide network topology information for an extended
zone that is twice the radius of the routing zone.
A node will first determine the subset of other peripheral nodes
covered by its assigned inner peripheral nodes.
The node will then bordercast to this subset of assigned inner
peripheral nodes which forms the minimal partitioning set of the outer
peripheral nodes.
106
SBC SBC
Ss inner peripheral nodes are A,
B and C
Its outer peripheral nodes are F,
G, H, X, Y and Z
2 inner peripheral nodes of B (H
and X) are also inner peripheral
nodes of A and C
S can choose to eliminate B
from its list of bordercast
recipients since A can provide
coverage to H and C can cover
X
107
Conclusion Remarks
Research Issues
Multicasting in mobile ad-hoc networks
QoS multicasting & Reliable multicasting
Routing with QoS constraints
QoS routing with security constrains
QoS provisioning network architecture
Power-conservative designs in ad-hoc networks
Layer and service dependent power control
Performance analysis
TCP controlled transfer
Connection and traffic management
Resource allocation, QoS supports, scheduling,

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The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunicat The Graduate School of Information Technology and Telecommunications, INHA

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