G Model

STILL-2575; No of Pages 9

Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Soil & Tillage Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/still

Visual assessment of soil structure: Part II. Implications of tillage, rotation and
traffic on sites in Canada, China and Germany
Lothar Mueller a,*, Bev D. Kay b, Bill Deen c, Chunsheng Hu d, Youming Zhang d, Maren Wolff e,
Frank Eulenstein f, Uwe Schindler a
a
Leibniz-Zentrum fuer Agrarlandschaftsforschung (ZALF) Muencheberg, Institut fuer Bodenlandschaftsforschung, Eberswalder Strasse 84, D-15374 Muencheberg, Germany
b
University of Guelph, Canada, Department of Land Resource Science, Guelph, Canada N1G 2W1
c
University of Guelph, Canada, Department of Plant Agriculture, Guelph, Canada N1G 2W1
d
Center for Agricultural Resources Research, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, 286 Huaizhong Rd., Shijiazhuang 050021, Hebei, China
e
Leibniz-Zentrum fuer Agrarlandschaftsforschung (ZALF) Muencheberg, Forschungsstation Landwirtschaft in Dedelow, Steinfurther Str. 14, 17291 Prenzlau, Germany
f
Leibniz-Zentrum fuer Agrarlandschaftsforschung (ZALF) Muencheberg, Institut fuer Landnutzungssysteme, Eberswalder Strasse 84, D-15374 Muencheberg, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: The aim of the paper was to utilize methods of visual structure assessments in conjunction with soil
Received 2 April 2008 physical measurements for the analysis of the impact of tillage, rotation and traffic on topsoil structure.
Received in revised form 5 September 2008 The study was conducted in long-term-experiments on the Elora rotation (ER) and Elora Landscape (EL)
Accepted 25 September 2008
sites in Canada, the Luancheng (LS) site in China and the Dedelow (DT) site in Germany. Texture of soils
ranged from loamy sand (DT) to sandy loam (EL, ER) to silt loam (LS), climate ranged from clearly sub-
Keywords: humid (LS), slightly sub-humid (DT) to humid (EL, ER). Two common variants of tillage were compared on
Soil structure
all sites: (1) Moldboard Ploughing (MP) and (2) No-Till (NT). Within the plots, wheeltracks were analysed
Tillage
separately on ER and DT sites.
Method
Crop yield On ER site, different rotation variants were sampled. On EL site, large alfalfa and corn plots and the
driveway in between were sampled at different slope positions. Methods of visual structure analysis of
Peerlkamp, Diez and Shepherd were tested along with measurements of dry bulk density (DBD), initial
infiltration rates and soil penetrometer and shear resistance. Both visual structure assessment and
measurements indicated significant differences between variants of tillage and traffic on DT and ER sites.
Differences between alfalfa (good structure) and corn rotation (less favourable structure) were also
significant on EL and ER sites. Soils in Germany and Canada were partly compacted, under wheeltracks in
particular. Most favourable topsoil structure conditions were found under MP plots, most unfavourable
structure was detected under wheeeltracks and NT plots. On LS site in China (loess soil, lower weights of
machinery) visual structure was overall favourable and no significant differences between tillage
variants were found. However, MP plots indicated the beginning of subsoil compaction.
Crop yields confirmed differences between tillage variants. Yields of cereals were significantly higher
(350–800 kg ha1) under MP as compared with NT on ER and DT sites due to a better air capacity.
It may be concluded that (i) results of visual assessments were coincident with those of soil physical
measurements and can complement them, (ii) under intensively mechanised soil management in sub-
humid to humid regions, NT can lead to sub-optimum topsoil structure states, (iii) subsoil compaction is a
risk of MP on all soils, and (iv) controlled traffic and the inclusion of perennials into the rotation may be
advantageous for soil structure.
ß 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction measurements to characterize soil structure status are dry

Soil structure is a crucial aspect of soil quality (Jackson et al.,
2003; Karlen, 2004; Kay et al., 2006). Commonly used soil physical
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 33432 82233; fax: +49 33432 82280.
E-mail address: lmueller@zalf.de (L. Mueller).
bulk density (DBD) or parameters physically related to DBD such
as total volume of pores and macropores (Håkansson and Lipiec,
2000; Logsdon and Karlen, 2004; Dam et al., 2005; Filipovic et al.,
2007). Measures of soil strength such as penetration resistance
or shear strength have also been used as indicators of soil
compaction (To and Kay, 2005; Sharratt et al., 2006; Filipovic et al.,
2007; Whalley et al., 2007). However, in cohesive soils compaction

0167-1987/$ – see front matter ß 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.09.010

Please cite this article in press as: Mueller, L., et al., Visual assessment of soil structure: Part II. Implications of tillage, rotation and traffic
on sites in Canada, China and Germany. Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.09.010
G Model
STILL-2575; No of Pages 9
2 L. Mueller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx
processes cannot be sufficiently explained by changes in DBD or
soil strength alone (Horn, 1990, 2003; Dexter et al., 2004).
Measures of water and air permeability may give better indication
of soil physical status (Lipiec et al., 2006; Schjønning et al., 2007).
Some authors (Dexter, 2004; Keller et al., 2007) use parameters of
the water retention curve (WRC) to characterize soil structure
status.
Whether soil structure is optimum or not depends on the
process being considered. Optimum soil structure for plant root
development, biological activity and gas exchange, solute trans-
port, engagement of soils by machinery and other processes may
differ. A suitable structure status for biological processes of root
development seems to be largely dependent on the relationship of
water and air filled pores in soil (Werner and Paul, 1999; Kay et al.,
2006), placing emphasis on the air capacity (AC) of soils
(macropores > 10 mm). An AC of 0.15 m3 m3 seems to be very
suitable for development of plants in temperate humid and sub-
humid climates (Kay et al., 2006) whilst 0.10 m3 m3 are critical for
topsoils and 0.05 m3 m3 for subsoils (Kundler, 1989, p. 56). The
range of soil macropores is most sensitive to soil management
procedures and alterations of DBD and total porosity are mainly
alterations of macroporosity. Thus, DBD is a crucial variable in
studies of soil structure. The AC is defined by free drainage
conditions. The volumetric air content can be lower than AC if
impeded drainage by groundwater or temporarily perched water
table occurs.
Crop rotation and tillage strategies must produce optimum
soil structure for high and sustainable crop yields (Hulugalle
et al., 2007). Conservation Tillage (CT), including Reduced Tillage
(RT) or No-Till (NT) are technologies that contrast with
conventional Moldboard Ploughing (MP). The aim of CT is to
enhance agricultural productivity, improve biodiversity, save
resources and mitigate human impacts on climate change (Bauer
et al., 2006; Harper et al., 2007; Yan et al., 2007; Madejón et al.,
2007; Chivenge et al., 2007; Lal et al., 2007). Impacts of tillage
system on soil structure, however, are often impredictable and
not in accordance with expectations (Logsdon and Cambardella,
2000).
Conflicting results may be due to several reasons including both
local natural conditions (Hamza and Anderson, 2005), adequacy of
indicators (Mueller et al., 2008) and the sampling strategy
(Logsdon et al., 1999) including the interpretation of parameters.
Thus common rules on basic soil physical measurements, e.g. to
answer the question ‘‘Is this particular soil at optimum structure or
is it compacted and has a need for tillage?’’ do not exist.
Reported effects of tillage on crop yields are also inconsistent.
Diaz-Zorita et al. (2004) found NT was advantageous and tillage
generally affected crop yields negatively. In the study of Ordóñez
Fernández et al. (2007) no significant effects on crop yields were
found, but there was a slight tendency of yield increase by NT in
dry years but no significant differences in wet years. Wang et al.
(2007) found crop yields under NT equivalent to or higher than
those from conventional tillage methods, especially in dry years.
However, during wet years yields tended to be lower (10–15%)
with NT. On sandy loam soil in central Canada higher DBD under
NT was found but crop yield was not significantly different over 11
years (Dam et al., 2005). Tsuji et al. (2006) reported that yields of
summer crops were higher under NT and RT in comparison with
MP, and yields of winter crop yields were significantly reduced
under NT.
Lal et al. (2007) concluded NT was effective in combination with
crop residue as mulch. NT farming can reduce yield in poorly
drained, clayey soils when springtime is cold and wet.
In part 1 of our study the suitability of visual structure
indicators has been evaluated (Mueller et al., 2008) on three sites.
Please cite this article in press as: Mueller, L., et al., Visual assessment of soil structure: Part II. Implications of tillage, rotation and traffic
on sites in Canada, China and Germany. Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.09.010
It was found that simple visual assessment methods of the
Peerlkamp type may provide reliable information on the structural
status of topsoils. Results were further improved using the New
Zealand VSA (Shepherd, 2000) or the Werner method (Werner and
Thaemert, 1989), which is based on different single parameters of
visual structure. Better visual soil structure scores were associated
with lower DBD and higher yield of cereals. The extent to which
these results apply to soils under a contrasting management
practices remain to be identified.
The objectives of this study were to
(i) Ascertain the implications of different tillage, rotation and
traffic effects for visual soil structure on representative loamy
and silty soils in a humid to sub-humid climate and
(ii) analyse the ascertained differences between most contrasting
tillage variants (Ploughing (MP) and NT by functional para-
meters of soil structure and crop yield.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Site characterisation
The study included sites of long-term-experiments (>10 years)
in Canada, China and Germany.
In Canada, field analyses were conducted in autumn 2005 on
two long-term-experiments located at the Elora Research Station
of the University of Guelph in southern Ontario. The climate is
characterised by a mean annual temperature of 6 8C and an annual
precipitation of 846 mm, with a mean temperature of 16.1 8C and
precipitation of 392 mm in the period of May to September (Vigier
et al., 2003). The dominant soil is an Albic Luvisol according to the
FAO system (ISSS-ISRIC-FAO, 1998), of loam to silt loam texture
(Yang and Kay, 2001).
Soil quality indicators were analysed for differing rotations and
tillage treatments from the Elora Rotation (ER) experiment.
Rotation treatments were split into two tillage variants: MP of
20 cm and NT. From the total experiment, main rotation variants
were selected and sampled on blocks No. 2 and 4 in the last year of
the rotation (Fig. 1). These rotations were:
(1) Continuous corn (Zea mays L.), C–C–C–C.
(2) Continuous alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), replanted in 4 years,
A–A–A–A.
(8) Corn–corn–soybean–soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.), C–C–S–
S.
(12) Corn–corn–soybean–winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
with interseeded red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), C–C–S–
WWRC.
On every plot, wheeltracks and the area between them were
sampled separately. The experiment was located on a site that was
relatively uniform in topography and soil texture. Details on this
trial are given in Meyer-Aurich et al. (2006a,b).
The Elora Landscape (EL) site contains both a 2 years corn–
barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) rotation (sampled in the corn phase of
the rotation) and a permanent alfalfa plot (sampled in the 4th year)
separated by a grassed strip, which was also used for agricultural
traffic. This site covers a medium-steep catena (slope of 8–
10 m 100 m1). Soil quality indicators were analysed from this
experiment to determine the effect of extreme variants of crops
and slope position.
In China, work was conducted at the Luancheng Agro-
Ecosystem Experimental Station (LS) of Shijiazhuang Institute
(Hebei Province). The annual mean temperate is 12.2 8C and
precipitation is 537 mm. The soil is a Haplic Cambisol (Eutric,
G Model
STILL-2575; No of Pages 9

L. Mueller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx 3

Fig. 1. Sketch of sampled plots on the Elora Rotation (ER) and Elora Landscape (EL) experimental fields (Canada, Province Ontario). Rotation: (1) Continuous corn (C–C–C–C).
(2) Continuous alfalfa (A–A–A–A). (8) Corn–corn–soybean–soybean (C–C–S–S). Corn–corn–soybean–winter wheat with interseeded red clover (C–C–S–WWRC).

Siltic) (WRB, 2006) developed on deep loess (silt loam texture).
Typical landuse is a wheat-corn double cropping system under
irrigation (Zhang et al., 2002; Hu et al., 2005). The tillage variants
that were sampled for this study were NT and MP. The large plots
were not randomised (Fig. 2) but the soil was very uniform over the
area of the total field.
In Germany, representative plots of main tillage variants of
the long-term tillage trial No. 751 of the Research Station
Agriculture in Dedelow (DT) were sampled (Fig. 2). The climate
is characterised by a mean annual temperature of 8.4 8C and a
precipitation of 498 mm. Dominant soils are classified as Haplic
Luvisol (Arenic) (WRB, 2006) with a texture of loamy sand to
sandy loam. The rotation consists mainly of cereals, such as
winter wheat and corn. Tillage variants were MP and NT. Within
the total trial the block of lowest soil heterogeneity was pre-
selected based on available large-scale maps (Koszinski and
Rogasik, 2007, unpublished data). Sampled plots were also not
randomised.
The history and pattern of field traffic were different on sites.
The ER, El, and DT sites had a high degree of mechanisation and
high traffic intensity comparable with many farms in the region
for many years. The DT site in particular was highly pre-
compacted in the subsoil before establishing the trial in 1983.
The LS site had a lower degree of mechanisation and was not
precompacted before starting the trial. At the ER and DT sites,
the main traffic was in preferential lanes in the center of the
plots. However, lanes of all machines do not match and thus the
sampled regions outside of the preferential lanes were
considered as random traffic areas. The EL and LS sites also
had random traffic areas.
2.2. Soil structure evaluation
From the total set of methods of soil structure scorings and
measurements (Mueller et al., 2008), the following were applied on
all sites:
(i) The Peerlkamp method (Peerlkamp, 1967), which is based on
the comparison of aggregates and pores with description
scores. The best soil structure has a score of 10 and worst has a
score of 1. A description of loam and clay soils with scores at
the extremes of the scale are: 1–2 ‘‘Plough layer consists
entirely of big clods, smooth dense crack faces, roots only in
cracks’’, 9–10 ‘‘Plough layer all porous crumbs, very few dense
aggregates’’ (Peerlkamp, 1967).
(ii) The Diez score (Diez and Weigelt, 1997), which is based on a
comparison of aggregates with those in sample photographs.
The best structure has a score of 1 and worst has 5.
(iii) The soil structure test of the VSA procedure (Shepherd, 2000)
in which soil fragmentation and friability are examined after a
drop shatter test. An unconfined large sample of bulk soil
fragments was dropped from a height of 1 m. Scores rank from
2 (best) to 0 (worst).
(iv) The porosity test using the VSA procedure (Shepherd, 2000) in
which soil is fragmented by hand and the structure compared
to that in sample photographs. Scores rank from 2 (best) to 0
(worst).
The VSA procedure was conducted on samples from a soil depth
of 0 to 20 cm. The Peerlkamp and Diez tests were performed on
samples from 0 to 5, 5 to 10, 10 to 25 and 25 to 35 cm depths.

Fig. 2. Sampled NT and MP plots on tillage trials of the Luancheng Agro-Ecosystem Experimental Station (China, Hebei Province) and the Dedelow Research Station (Germany)
(MP = Moldboard Ploughing, NT = No-Till).

Please cite this article in press as: Mueller, L., et al., Visual assessment of soil structure: Part II. Implications of tillage, rotation and traffic
on sites in Canada, China and Germany. Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.09.010
G Model
STILL-2575; No of Pages 9
4 L. Mueller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx
2.3. Soil physical measurements
DBD was determined on undisturbed soil cores of 100 cm3 at
four depths (0–5, 5–10, 10–25 and 25–35 cm). Soil moisture
content and DBD were measured by drying the cylinder soil
samples at 105 8C. The initial field infiltration rate method
simulated a heavy rain of 30 mm. A cylinder of 7.5 cm length
was pushed 4.5 cm vertically into the soil. The above ground 3 cm
of the cylinder was filled with water and the time required for
infiltration was measured.
Relating data of visual soil structure and measured
DBD to critical soil ecological states in terms of available
volumetric air content (AV), different variants of AV at free
soil drainage (suction 30 kPa, pF 2.5) have been calculated
using a typical measured WRC of every site (To and Kay,
2005; Zhang et al., 2002; Schindler and Mueller, 2006;
Mueller et al., 2008). Three variants of AV were considered,
an optimum state (AV = 15 m3 100 m3), a sub-optimum state
(AV = 10 m3 100 m3) and a critical state (AV = 5 m3 100 m3).
Measured water contents at 30 kPa were 26.2 m3 100 m3 at
ER site, 29.1 m3 100 m3 at LS site and 26.3 m3 100 m3 at DT
site.
The calculation of the desirable DBD at a given variant of AV was
done by the formula, which is being used for the calculation of the
compaction status of soil for extension purposes in Germany (Horn
et al., 2002, page 10):
1
DBD ¼ ð100  AVÞððWV  DBD1 Þ þ ð100DP 1 ÞÞ : (1)
where DBD* = DBD at a desired air content AV* (Mg m3),
AV* = desired volumetric air content (m3 100 m3), WV* = volu-
metric water content (m3 100 m3) at a given drainage status of
soil, in, this case suction 30 kPa, pF 2.5, DBD = measured DBD
(Mg m3), DP = particle density (Mg m3).
This calculation is based on the assumption that changes of the
water content with DBD are very small at free drainage conditions
(suction 30 kPa, pF 2.5) and also at slightly impeded conditions
(suction 6 kPa, pF 1.8) if extremely loose soil conditions are
excluded (Hartge, 1978, p. 155).
2.4. Plant measurements
Crop yields and harvest index were measured as part of ongoing
experiments at ER, EL and DT sites. Yields of the latest 4 (ER site) to
5 years (DT site) were averaged over years and variants of soil
tillage.
2.5. Data processing and statistics
Measured parameters were assessed by the calculation of
means and frequency distributions of data using different
procedures of the statistical package SPSS Inc. (1993). The
variability of soil parameters was described in terms of
standard deviation and confidence intervals of the mean. Soil
structure scores were ordinal-scaled data and tested by
nonparametric tests applying the procedure NPAR TESTS (SPSS
Inc., 1993). Statistical differences between means of stratified
data were tested in case of paired observations by the Wilcoxon
test. (SPSS Inc., 1993). Metrically scaled data were tested by
variance analysis applying the procedure ANOVA of SPSS.
Differences of group means were tested for significance using
the robust Welch test or the t-test in case of paired samples
(SPSS Inc., 1993).
Please cite this article in press as: Mueller, L., et al., Visual assessment of soil structure: Part II. Implications of tillage, rotation and traffic
on sites in Canada, China and Germany. Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.09.010
Fig. 3. Peerlkamp scores of No-Till and Moldboard Ploughing variants at different
depths.
3. Results
3.1. Implications of tillage, rotation and traffic effects for visual soil
structure and soil physical data
3.1.1. Tillage effects
Tillage had a significant impact on soil structure as character-
ized by visual soil tests. Fig. 3 shows the Peerlkamp scores for the
NT and MP plots on ER, DT and LS sites. Peerlkamp scores of seven
or higher indicate favourable structure conditions whilst scores
less than five are indicating unfavourable soil structure states
(Peerlkamp, 1967). On all sites, visual topsoil structure was best
within the upper 5 cm and was not different between tillage
variants at this depth.
Significant differences in topsoil structure (deeper than 5 cm)
occurred between NT and MP on the DT and ER sites (pairwise
Wilcoxon tests). Both of these sites had experienced high field
traffic intensity for some years. Thus their structure looked
unfavourable (large blocky aggregates), indicating clear precom-
paction. The relatively low structure score on the ER site in
comparison with DT site was probably influenced by the date of
sampling (ER site after harvest, DT site in spring). At the LS site,
both topsoil (<25 cm) and subsoil (>25 cm) structure were
favourable but at 25–30 cm there was a significantly smaller
Peerlkamp score under MP plots (pairwise Wilcoxon tests). Other
methods like VSA procedures showed the same tendencies, but due
to a smaller number of replications, the differences were not
significant.
Both soil physical parameters and visual scores averaged over
the total topsoil are shown in Table 1. High tillage intensity
decreased DBD, enhanced air content and diminished penetration
resistance and shear strength on the ER and DT sites. This was
associated with a more friable looking structure and more suitable
soil structure scores. There was a tendency of better structure at
high tillage intensity (MP plots) at ER and DT sites. The clearest
differences were observed at the DT site whilst ploughed soil on
both other sites had experienced a consolidation over the
vegetation period.
However, as many parameters of Table 1 had been averaged
over the total topsoil, the number of statistical replications got
smaller and the differences were not significant in many cases.
3.1.2. Rotation effects
The visual soil structure under alfalfa was significantly better
than under corn (Wilcoxon test, pairwise). Fig. 4 shows results of
the Peerlkamp test along different depths of the topsoil averaged
over both Elora (EL + ER) sites. Though sampling was in the last
year of the rotation, e.g. 4 years after last ploughing, all scores
under alfalfa were higher than 5, and the average was between 6
G Model
STILL-2575; No of Pages 9

L. Mueller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx 5

partially explain lack of significant difference between scores for

(C–C–S–S) and (C–C–S–WWRC).
Peerlkamp results were confirmed by structure and porosity
scores by the VSA procedure and Diez scores. As the drop shatter
test was conducted for the total topsoil and not for different
depths, their number of replications was too low for statistical
tests.

3.1.3. Traffic effects

ER, EL, and DT sites were characterised by high traffic intensity
over several years. Wheeltracks showed significantly worse
structure features than the adjacent soil on all rotations. These
were lower visual soil structure scores, increased DBD and
diminished infiltration rates (Fig. 5). Though some bars in Fig. 5
do overlap, pairwise tests showed significance of all parameters
within the upper 25 cm (Table 2)

Fig. 4. Peerlkamp structure scores of alfalfa and corn (ER + EL site, MP plots, random 3.2. Topsoil aeration status at different tillage intensity
traffic).

The topsoil aeration status was characterised by bulk densities

and 7. Differences between alfalfa and corn in Fig. 4 were
significant at 0.05 level (Wilcoxon test of paired samples). Under
permanent corn, soil structure looked particularly unfavourable at
depth of 5–25 cm. Results of Fig. 4 were observed under random
traffic conditions, clearly recognisable wheeltracks were excluded
from this consideration.
The soil structure under corn–corn–soybean–soybean (C–C–S–
S) and corn–corn–soybean–winter wheat with interseeded red
clover (C–C–S–WWRC) gave intermediate scores (mean Peerlkamp
scores of 5), between the high values for alfalfa and the low values
for corn. Lack of uniformity of red clover stands over the plots could
and corresponding volumetric air contents (AV) at extreme
variants of tillage intensity in terms of NT and MP variants on
all three sites. Fig. 6 shows the range of measured DBD in the upper
25 cm and at the upper subsoil (25–35 cm) along with DBD’s at
volumetric air contents of 5, 10 and 15 m3 100 m3 at free drainage
(suction 30 kPa). Corresponding visual soil structure scores
(Peerlkamp scores in Fig. 6) differed between sites.
3.2.1. ER site
From Fig. 6a it was clear that to provide an optimum topsoil AV
of 15 m3 100 m3, the DBD should be less than 1.5 Mg m3 and the

Table 1
Tillage effects on soil physical measurements and visual soil structure assessments.

Parameter Site Tillage intensity Significance level Welch testa

High (MP) Low (NT)

Dry bulk density (DBD, Mg m3) ER 1.35 1.45 0.03*

LS 1.44 1.50 0.31
DT 1.41 1.60 0.03*

Infiltration rate (Vini, m d1) ER 7.39 5.39 0.47

LS 6.47 2.99 0.18
DT 5.64 2.24 0.35

Air volume during sampling (AV, m3 100 m3) ER 18.1 11.5 0.01*
LS 8.5 7.2 0.21
DT 15.4 10.1 0.06

Penetration resistance (MPa) DT 0.51 1.23 0.01*

Shear strength (MPa) DT 19.8 39.3 0.05*

Porosity score VSA ER 1.50 1.12 0.12

LS 1.38 1.19 0.25
DT 1.67 1.45 0.19

Peerlkamp score ER 5.34 4.61 0.22

LS 8.23 7.51 0.38
DT 7.19 5.18 <0.001***

Diez score ER 2.73 3.39 0.08

LS 2.00 2.27 0.30
DT 2.36 2.98 0.02*

Structure score VSA ER 1.81 1.83 0.85

LS 1.88 1.56 0.20
DT 1.83 1.75 0.50

ER = Elora Rotation, Elora, Ontario, Canada; LS = Luancheng, Hebei, China; DT = Dedelow, Germany; MP = Moldboard Ploughing, NT = No-Till, VSA = Visual Soil Assessment
(Shepherd, 2000).
a
In case of visual scores a quasi-metric scale had been assumed due to significant linear correlations between structure scores and DBD (Mueller et al., 2008).
*
Significant at <0.05.
***
Significant at <0.001.

Please cite this article in press as: Mueller, L., et al., Visual assessment of soil structure: Part II. Implications of tillage, rotation and traffic
on sites in Canada, China and Germany. Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.09.010
G Model
STILL-2575; No of Pages 9

6 L. Mueller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx

Fig. 5. Topsoil structure parameters of wheeltracks as compared with adjacent soil.

15 data pairs of Elora landscape and Dedelow sites. All parameters were
standardised between 0 and 1 by Y* = (Yi  Ymin)(Ymax  Ymin)1.

Peerlkamp score greater than 4 at free drainage conditions. To

provide an air volume of 10 m3 100 m3 in the upper subsoil, it
should have a DBD less than 1.56 Mg m3 and a Peerlkamp score
also greater than 4. Currently both conditions were provided at
both variants of tillage. However, those drainage conditions (pF
2.5) are unlikely to be reached by gravitational drainage at this site
in a humid climate. At slightly impeded conditions (pF 1.8) DBD
should be less than 1.4 Mg m3 to reach an optimum AV of
15 m3 100 m3 in the topsoil. NT was not able to provide this.

3.2.2. LS site
The topsoil should have a DBD of 1.47 Mg m3 or less and a
corresponding Peerlkamp score of 7 and the upper subsoil a DBD of
1.55 Mg m3 and a Peerlkamp score of 6 to reach optimum AV
(Fig. 6b). This was mainly given, but some NT soil samples had
higher DBD. Current DBD in the upper subsoil of both tillage
variants have reached the optimum value on average and further
subsoil compaction should be avoided. In case of impeded drainage
(heavy rains, extended irrigation) aeration problems are probable
too at this site.

3.2.3. DT site
Optimum AV at free drainage was at DBD of 1.54 Mg m3 and
corresponding Peerlkamp scores of 6 in the topsoil and at DBD of
1.62 Mg m3 and Peerlkamp scores of 5 in the upper subsoil
(Fig. 6c). In the topsoil of NT this value has been exceeded and in
the upper subsoil it has been exceeded in many cases of both tillage
variants. Even at slightly impeded drainage (pF 1.8) MP would
provide optimum AV whilst NT plots would than have AV less than
10 m3 100 m3.
Fig. 6. (a) Measured dry bulk densities (DBD), corresponding visual soil structure
(Peerlkamp score) and air content AV* of soil, Elora site AV* = air content at free
Table 2 drainage status (suction: 30 kPa). (b) Measured dry bulk densities, corresponding
Data range and significance levels for soil structural responses shown in Fig. 5. visual soil structure (Peerlkamp score) and air content AV* of soil, Luancheng site
AV* = air content at free drainage status (suction: 30 kPa). (c) Measured dry bulk
Parameter Ymin Ymax Significance level of differences densities, corresponding visual soil structure (Peerlkamp score) and air content AV*
between means of random traffic of soil, Dedelow site AV* = air content at free drainage status (suction: 30 kPa).
areas and wheeltracks, Wilcoxon test

Peerlkamp score 3.2 7.4 0.009***

Structure score 1 2 0.004***
3.3. Crop yields at different tillage intensity
Porosity score 0.5 1.75 0.029**
DBD (Mg m3) 1.25 1.64 0.002*** Crop yields were significantly affected by year (weather),
Vini (m d1) 0.08 16.04 0.005*** rotation and tillage intensity. The variance analysis (Procedure
**
Significant at 0.01. ANOVA of SPSS) revealed significance of all three factors on the
***
Significant at 0.001. yield. Yield differences were significant at 0.05 level (Welch test).

Please cite this article in press as: Mueller, L., et al., Visual assessment of soil structure: Part II. Implications of tillage, rotation and traffic
on sites in Canada, China and Germany. Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.09.010
G Model
STILL-2575; No of Pages 9

L. Mueller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx 7

Table 3
Grain and total plant yields at different tillage intensity on Elora and Dedelow sites.

Parameter Site Average by tillage intensity Significance level Welch test

High (MP) Low (NT)

Yield of cereals (kg ha1) DT 8,930 8,060 0.03*

ER 8,260 7,530 0.08

Above ground biomass (kg ha1) DT 16,110 14,150 0.01*

ER 11,050 10,040 0.29

DT = Dedelow, Germany; ER = Elora Rotation, Elora, Ontario, Canada; MP = Moldboard Ploughing, NT = No-Till.
*
Significant at 0.05.

Table 4
Grain yields of corn (kg ha1) at different rotation and tillage on Elora site.

Rotation

C–C–C–C (4 years) C–C–S–S (2 years) C–C–S–WWRC (2 years)

Tillage intensity High (MP) 7656 8367 8548

Low (NT) 7303 8023 7701
Difference 353 344 841
** * *
Significance Welch test

MP = Moldboard Ploughing; NT = No-Tillage; C–C–C–C = Continuous corn, C–C–S–S = corn–corn–soybean–soybean, crop in the year of sampling underlined; C–C–S–
WWRC = corn–corn–soybean–winter wheat with interseeded red clover.
*
Significant at 0.05.
**
Significant at 0.01.

Yields are displayed in dependence of tillage (ER and DT sites,
Table 3) and rotation  tillage (ER site only, Table 4) averaged over
the years.
At the ER site, the rotation C–C–S–WWRC with ploughing had
highest and the rotation C–C–C–C under NT had lowest corn yields.
However, it should be noted that C–C–C–C produced the largest
amount of above ground biomass. Considering yields of corn,
rotation C–C–S–S was in between in case of MP. The soybean yield
of this rotation was about 300 kg per hectare higher in the MP
variants as compared with NT. The yield difference between tillage
variants was significant at each rotation variant (Table 4).
On the EL site of relief and substrate inhomogeneity, crop yield
of corn was obviously more affected by rooting depth and water
capacity in the rootzone. The largest yield (8781 kg ha1 corn,
averaged over 6 years) was measured in the deep colluvium at the
footslope at position 3.2 in Fig. 1, followed by the summit position
(8622 kg ha1, position 1.2). The degraded slope position 2.2
(shallow topsoil and rooting depth) had a yield (7216 kg ha1) that
was significantly smaller than all other positions.
4. Discussion
4.1. Effect of compaction and tillage on soil structure
Field soil structure status had been influenced by tillage and
compaction effects, and these were clearly recognisable both by
methods of visual structure evaluation and by physical parameters.
Not all of the methods gave statistically significant results in all
cases.
On Elora (humid climate) and Dedelow (sub-humid climate)
sites, unfavourable soil structure was found on some NT plots,
under continuous corn in particular. Those states were not only
caused by self-consolidation of soil or by shrinkage tensile forces
but also by consolidation due to recurring random traffic. In the
case of continuous corn, ploughing loosened soil, whilst NT did not
alleviate compaction zones.
In some cases there was a higher resistance of the soil to
compaction. This was probable for the treatments with alfalfa or
red clover as the soil of these variants was drier over the year as it
was during soil sampling.
The results from the Elora and Dedelow sites are inconsistent
with the findings of Logsdon and Cambardella (2000) who
concluded from density measurements that under NT manage-
ment no soil compaction occurred in structured loamy soils.
However, on the soil in China we found the same trend as the noted
by Logsdon and Cambardella (2000). The results from Elora and
Dedelow sites are in agreement with Munkholm et al. (2003) who
found that periodic non-inversion soil loosening of the lower part
of the arable layer is needed on direct drilled sandy loam soil in a
moist and cool climate. In Ontario, NT resulted in larger soil
aggregates, compared with the mouldboard tillage on fine-
textured soil (Gregorich et al., 1993). Also, Lapen et al. (2004)
found in the same region of Ontario that conventional tilled soils
that were not preferentially trafficked had the most favourable
aeration properties, and subsequently, greatest corn populations
and yields. NT soils were at greater risk of aeration limiting
conditions, especially those in continuous corn and preferentially
trafficked. Lipiec et al. (2006) detected better structure in terms of
higher porosity and infiltration rates under ploughed soils as
compared to NT.
High tillage intensity by MP was suitable for the topsoil
structure but may be a common risk for the subsoil status. Tractor
tyres running in the furrow cause severe and persistent subsoil
compaction (Chamen et al., 2003; Munkholm et al., 2005). This
compaction was present on all sites, even beginning on the
Luancheng site. A plough pan was beginning to be formed on the
MP plots of this site that had not been ploughed before starting the
experiment.
The subsoil of Dedelow site had been compacted by MP over some
decades on all plots. Subsoil compaction is typical for many sites of
the humid temperate zone. On a Luvisol of silty loam, highest bulk
density and further compaction were observed at the conventional
plough variant in the layer 30–35 cm (Filipovic et al., 2007).
Thus, ploughing to improve unfavourable structure can only be
an option if it is conducted as onland-ploughing (Munkholm et al.,
2005).

Please cite this article in press as: Mueller, L., et al., Visual assessment of soil structure: Part II. Implications of tillage, rotation and traffic
on sites in Canada, China and Germany. Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.09.010
G Model
STILL-2575; No of Pages 9
8 L. Mueller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx
There would be an advantage of NT to avoid subsoil
compaction. Ehlers et al. (2000) found on silty soils advantages
of RT intensity with depth. The denser topsoil containing more
vertical macropores was better able to prevent deep subsoil
compaction than the loose ploughed topsoil. However, high tire
loads of 5 Mg led to deep compaction and crop yield reductions in
all variants.
Since traffic is a reason for overconsolidation of soil and
unfavourable visual soil structure, NT practices may have a lasting
advantage against MP tillage only if strict controlled traffic is
performed (Ball et al., 1997; Chamen et al., 2003; Hamza and
Anderson, 2005; Raper, 2005; Chan et al., 2006; Braunack and
McGarry, 2006). If traffic is not controlled compacted zones can
remain persistent with NT.
Discussing tillage systems and implications for soil structure,
soil organic matter (OM) has to be taken into consideration. In
general, medium- to long-term cropping leads to a significant
decline in OM content, fractions of OM and aggregate stability as
related to perennials. The inclusion of perennial fodder crops or
grassland in rotations is a proper measure to recover soil
structure (Shepherd et al., 2001). Masri and Ryan (2006) found
better macrostructure and soil quality under cereal/legume
rotations as compared with continuous wheat and wheat/fallow.
Also, Riley et al. (2008) indicated a decline in soil structure
quality after annual MP if no grass had been included into the
rotation.
4.2. Soil structural status and response of crops
Our results confirmed a significant association between soil
structure and crop yield on both Pleistocene sites in a humid
(Elora) and sub-humid (Dedelow) climate. Plots of highest tillage
intensity (MP) showed best visual structure. This was also
associated with a better soil aeration status (AV in the vicinity
of optimum of 15 m3 100 m3 at free drainage) and consequently
with higher formation of biomass. Under wheeltracks and some NT
plots, very high densities limited the status of aeration and
hampered root development of plants.
MP plots provided better crop yields because of better AV at DT
and ER sites.
Air volumes of 15 m3 100 m3, which are the optimum for the
development of plants in loamy soils (Ruebensam and Rauhe,
1968, p. 140, Kay et al., 2006), were provided by MP. In this context,
the soil drainage status is of crucial importance for aeration
conditions and management abilities of soils over the vegetation
period (Mueller et al., 1990, 2005). Except for free drainage
conditions, periods of impeded drainage occurred on all three sites.
This is probable because of perched water above Bt-horizons in
Luvisols (ER and DT sites) and irrigation on LS site.
It would be of interest to monitor temporal changes of visual
soil structure and their associations with density and pore size
distributions.
A study of Yang and Kay (2001) showed a significant
implication of organic carbon on crop yields. Increased soil organic
carbon had positive effects on crop yield. Also, Shukla et al. (2004)
found OM and structure parameters like waterstable aggregates
and DBD explained most variability in biomass grain yields.
We found best structure features indicated by small crumbly
aggregates associated with lowest soil bulk densities and highest
air capacities. Those conditions are probably not only a result of
tillage but may be due to the influence of growing roots over the
season too. Very loose soil conditions, e.g. a good looking structure,
may also be disadvantageous for the phase of germination and
emergence of crops (Kay et al., 2006) and would require a certain
consolidation by rolling with seeding. It will require more work to
Please cite this article in press as: Mueller, L., et al., Visual assessment of soil structure: Part II. Implications of tillage, rotation and traffic
on sites in Canada, China and Germany. Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.09.010
relate the ecological value of soil structure scores to biological
processes in soils.
5. Conclusions
 Methods of visual soil structure evaluation were feasible tools to
provide fast semi-quantitative information on the status of
physical soil quality. Results of visual assessments were
coincident with those of measurements. They can complement
crucial measurements like DBD or penetration resistance.
 Differences in soil structure by tillage and rotation and
compaction effects by agricultural machinery could be indicated
by visual structure assessments in conjunction with physical
measurements.
 Field traffic and lack of tillage had significant negative impacts on
soil structure at Elora and Dedelow sites. At Luancheng site
(Loess soil, low traffic intensity) soil structure was more
favourable and not significant between NT and MP.
 At the Elora site, a more favourable structure occurred under
alfalfa than under corn.
 At Luancheng site, the effect of compaction of the transition zone
between topsoil and subsoil due to MP became apparent.
 In accordance with the soil structure assessments and measure-
ments of physical soil quality, yields of cereals under MP were
350–800 kg ha1 higher than under NT at Elora and Dedelow
sites.
 Unfavourable soil structure under NT continuous corn can be
improved by inclusion of red clover and alfalfa into the rotation,
which could also increase carbon sequestration.
 As compaction of the upper topsoil and subsoil is a risk of MP on
all soils, onland ploughing and controlled traffic will be
advantageous for soil structure.
Acknowledgements
Field work of authors from ZALF Muencheberg in Canada and
China had been supported by the German Federal Ministry of
Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection, project numbers 11/
04 and 8/06-07. Colleagues of Guelph University and Chinese
Academy of Science (CAS) and Chinese Academy of Agricultural
Science (CAAS) provided support. Overall data were managed by
Mrs. Dipl Ing (FH) Ute Moritz of ZALF Muencheberg. Dr. S.
Koszinski and Dr. H. Rogasik gave assistance to the sampling
strategy on Dedelow site. Authors wish to appreciate their thanks
for all supporters.
References
Ball, B., Campbell, D.J., Douglas, J.T., Henshall, J.K., ÓSullivan, M.O., 1997. Soil
structural quality, compaction and land management. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 48,
593–601.
Bauer, P.J., Frederick, J.R., Novak, J.M., Hunt, P.G., 2006. Soil CO2 flux from a Norfolk
loamy sand after 25 years of conventional and conservation tillage. Soil Till. Res.
90, 205–211.
Braunack, M.V., McGarry, D., 2006. Sugar yield decline joint venture. Traffic control
and tillage strategies for harvesting and planting of sugarcane (Saccharum
officinarum) in Australia. Soil Till. Res. 89, 86–102.
Chamen, T., Alakukku, L., Pires, S., Sommer, C., Spoor, G., Tijink, F., Weisskopf, P.,
2003. Prevention strategies for field traffic-induced subsoil compaction: a
review. Part 2. Equipment and field practices. Soil Till. Res. 73, 161–174.
Chan, K.Y., Oates, A., Swan, A.D., Hayes, R.C., Dear, B.S., Peoples, M.B., 2006.
Agronomic consequences of tractor wheel compaction on a clay soil. Soil Till.
Res. 89, 13–21.
Chivenge, P.P., Murwira, H.K., Giller, K.E., Mapfumo, P., Six, J., 2007. Long-term
impact of reduced tillage and residue management on soil carbon stabilization:
implications for conservation agriculture on contrasting soils. Soil Till. Res. 94,
328–337.
Dam, R.F., Mehdi, B.B., Burgess, M.S.E., Madramootoo, C.A., Mehuys, G.R., Callum,
I.R., 2005. Soil bulk density and crop yield under eleven consecutive years of
corn with different tillage and residue practices in a sandy loam soil in central
Canada. Soil Till. Res. 84, 41–53.
G Model
STILL-2575; No of Pages 9
L. Mueller et al. / Soil & Tillage Research xxx (2008) xxx–xxx
Dexter, A.R., 2004. Soil physical quality. Part I. Theory, effects of soil texture, density,
and organic matter, and effects on root growth. Geoderma 120, 201–214.
Dexter, A.R., Czyż, E.A., Gaţe, O.P., 2004. Soil structure and the saturated hydraulic
conductivity of subsoils. Soil Till. Res. 79, 185–189.
Diaz-Zorita, M., Grove, J.H., Murdock, L., Herbeck, J., Perfect, E., 2004. Soil structural
disturbance effects on crop yields and soil properties in a no-till production
system. Agron. J. 96, 1651–1659.
Diez, T., Weigelt, H., 1997. Bodenstruktur erkennen und beurteilen. Anleitung zur
Bodenuntersuchung mit dem Spaten. Sonderdruck diz agrarmagazin. Bayer.
Landesanstalt fuer Bodenkultur und Pflanzenbau, Freising-Muenchen. 2nd ed.,
16 pp.
Ehlers, W., Werner, D., Maehner, T., 2000. Wirkung mechanischer Belastung auf
Gefuege und Ertragsleistung einer Loess-Parabraunerde mit zwei Bearbeitungs-
systemen. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 163, 321–333.
Filipovic, D., Husnjak, S., Kosutic, S., Gospodaric, Z., 2007. Effects of tillage systems
on compaction and crop yield of Albic Luvisol in Croatia. J. Terramech. 43,
177–189.
Gregorich, E.G., Reynolds, D., Culley, J.L., McGovern, M.A., Curnoe, W.E., 1993.
Changes in soil physical properties with depth in a conventionally tilled soil
after no tillage. Soil Till. Res. 26, 289–299.
Håkansson, I., Lipiec, J., 2000. A review of the usefulness of relative bulk density
values in studies of soil structure and compaction. Soil Till. Res. 53, 71–85.
Hamza, M.A., Anderson, W.K., 2005. Soil compaction in cropping systems. A review
of the nature, causes and possible solutions. Soil Till. Res. 82, 121–145.
Harper, R.J., Beck, A.C., Ritson, P., Hill, M.J., Mitchell, C.D., Barrett, D.J., Smettem,
K.J.R., Mann, S.S., 2007. The potential of greenhouse sinks to underwrite
improved land management. Ecol. Eng. 29, 329–341.
Hartge, K.-H., 1978. Einfuehrung in die Bodenphysik, 1st ed. Ferdinand Enke Verlag
Stuttgart, 364 pp.
Horn, R., 1990. Aggregate characterization as compared to soil bulk properties. Soil
Till. Res. 17, 265–289.
Horn, R., Paul, R., Simota, C., Flaige, H., 2002. Schutz vor mechanischer Belastung. In:
Blume, H.P., Felix-Henningsen, P., Fischer, W.R., Frede, H.-G., Horn, R., Stahr, K.
(Eds.), Handbuch der Bodenkunde, ecomed, 14. Erg. Lfg. 12/2002. pp. 1–12.
Horn, R., 2003. Stress–strain effects in structured unsaturated soils on coupled
mechanical and hydraulic processes. Geoderma 116, 77–88.
Hu, C., Delgado, J.A., Zhang, X., Ma, L., 2005. Assessment of groundwater use by
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in the Luancheng Xian region and potential
implications for water conservation in the Northwestern North China Plain.
J. Soil Water Conserv. 60, 80–88.
Hulugalle, N.R., Weaver, T.B., Finlay, L.A., Hare, J., Entwistle, P.C., 2007. Soil proper-
ties and crop yields in a dryland Vertisol sown with cotton-based crop rotations.
Soil Till. Res. 93, 356–369.
ISSS-ISRIC-FAO, 1998. World Reference Base for Soil Resources. FAO, World Soil
Resources Reports No. 84, Rome, 79 pp.
Karlen, D.L., 2004. Soil quality as an indicator of sustainable tillage practices. Soil
Till. Res. 78, 129–130.
Jackson, L.E., Calderon, F.J., Steenwerth, K.L., Scow, K.M., Rolston, D.E., 2003.
Responses of soil microbial processes and community structure to tillage events
and implications for soil quality. Geoderma 114, 305–317.
Kay, B.D., Hajabbasi, M.A., Ying, J., Tollenaar, M., 2006. Optimum versus non-limiting
water contents for root growth, biomass accumulation, gas exchange and the
rate of development of maize (Zea mays L.). Soil Till. Res. 88, 42–54.
Keller, T., Arvidsson, J., Dexter, A., 2007. Soil structures produced by tillage as
affected by soil water content and the physical quality of soil. Soil Till. Res. 92,
45–52.
Koszinski, S., Rogasik, H., 2007. Unpublished data of ZALF Muencheberg.
Kundler, P., 1989. Erhoehung der Bodenfruchtbarkeit, 1st ed. VEB Deutscher
Landwirtschaftsverlag, Berlin, 452 pp.
Lal, R., Reicosky, D.C., Hanson, J.D., 2007. Evolution of the plow over 10,000 years
and the rationale for no-till farming. Soil Till. Res. 93, 1–12.
Lapen, D.R., Topp, G.C., Gregorich, E.G., Curnoe, W.E., 2004. Least limiting water
range indicators of soil quality and corn production, eastern Ontario, Canada.
Soil Till. Res. 78, 151–170.
Lipiec, J., Kuś, J., Słowińska-Jurkiewicz, A., Nosalewicz, A., 2006. Soil porosity and
water infiltration as influenced by tillage methods. Soil Till. Res. 89, 210–220.
Logsdon, S.D., Cambardella, C.A., 2000. Temporal changes in small depth-incre-
mental soil bulk density. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64 (2), 710–714.
Logsdon, S.D., Karlen, D.L., 2004. Bulk density as a soil quality indicator during
conversion to no-tillage. Soil Till. Res. 78, 143–149.
Logsdon, S.D., Kaspar, T.C., Cambardella, C.A., 1999. Depth-incremental soil proper-
ties under no-till or chisel management. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 63 (1), 197–200.
Madejón, E., Moreno, F., Murillo, J.M., Pelegrı́n, F., 2007. Soil biochemical response to
long-term conservation tillage under semi-arid Mediterranean conditions. Soil
Till. Res. 94, 346–352.
Masri, Z., Ryan, J., 2006. Soil organic matter and related physical properties in a
Mediterranean wheat-based rotation trial. Soil Till. Res. 87, 146–154.
Meyer-Aurich, A., Weersink, A., Janovicek, K., Deen, W., 2006a. Cost efficient
rotation and tillage options to sequester carbon and mitigate GHG emissions
from agriculture in Eastern Canada. J. Soil Water Qual. 117, 119–127.
Meyer-Aurich, A., Janovicek, K., Deen, W., Weersink, A., 2006b. Impact of tillage and
rotation on yield and economic performance in corn-based cropping systems.
Agron. J. 98, 1204–1212.
Please cite this article in press as: Mueller, L., et al., Visual assessment of soil structure: Part II. Implications of tillage, rotation and traffic
on sites in Canada, China and Germany. Soil Tillage Res. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.09.010
9
Mueller, L., Tille, P., Kretschmer, H., 1990. Trafficability and workability of alluvial
clay soils in response to drainage status. Soil Till. Res. 16, 273–287.
Mueller, L., Behrendt, A., Schalitz, G., Schindler, U., 2005. Above ground biomass and
water use efficiency of crops at shallow water tables in a temperate climate.
Agric. Water Manage. 75/2, 117–136.
Mueller, L., Kay, B.D., Hu, C.S., Li, Y., Schindler, U., Behrendt, A., Shepherd, T.G., Ball,
B.C., 2008. Visual assessment of soil structure: evaluation of methodologies on
sites in Canada, China and Germany. Part I. Comparing visual methods and
linking them with soil physical data and biomass of cereals. Soil Till. Res.
manuscript, first paper of this series, submitted.
Munkholm, L.J., Schjonning, P., Rasmussen, K.J., Tanderup, K., 2003. Spatial and
temporal effects of direct drilling on soil structure in the seedling environment.
Soil Till. Res. 71, 163–173.
Munkholm, L.J., Schjonning, P., Jorgensen, M.H., Thorup-Kristensen, K., 2005. Miti-
gation of subsoil recompaction by light traffic and on-land ploughing. II. Root
and yield response. Soil Till. Res. 80, 159–170.
Ordóñez Fernández, R., González Fernández, P., Giráldez Cervera, J.V., Perea Torres,
F., 2007. Soil properties and crop yields after 21 years of direct drilling trials in
southern Spain. Soil Till. Res. 94, 47–54.
Peerlkamp, P.K., 1967. Visual estimation of soil structure. In: de Boodt, M., de
Leenherr, D.E., Frese, H., Low, A.J., Peerlkamp, P.K. (Eds.), West European
Methods for Soil Structure Determination, vol. 2 (11). State Faculty Agricultural
Science, Ghent, Belgium, pp. 216–223.
Raper, R.L., 2005. Agricultural traffic impacts on soil. J. Terramech. 42, 259–280.
Riley, H., Pommeresche, R., Eltun, R., Hansen, S., Korsaeth, A., 2008. Soil structure,
organic matter and earthworm activity in a comparison of cropping systems
with contrasting tillage, rotations, fertilizer levels and manure use. Agric.
Ecosyst. Environ. 124, 275–284.
Ruebensam, E., Rauhe, K., 1968. Ackerbau, 2nd ed. VEB Deutscher Landwirtschafts-
verlag, Berlin, 544 pp.
Schindler, U., Mueller, L., 2006. Simplifying the evaporation method for quantifying
soil hydraulic properties. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 169, 623–629.
Schjønning, P., Munkholm, L.J., Elmholt, S., Olesen, J.E., 2007. Organic matter and soil
tilth in arable farming: management makes a difference within 5–6 years. Agric.
Ecosyst. Environ. 122, 157–172.
Sharratt, B., Zhang, M., Sparrow, S., 2006. Twenty years of tillage research in
subarctic Alaska. I. Impact on soil strength, aggregation, roughness, and residue
cover. Soil Till. Res. 91, 75–81.
Shepherd, T.G., 2000. Visual Soil Assessment. Volume 1. Field Guide for Cropping
and Pastoral Grazing on Flat to Rolling Country. Horizons.mw/Landcare
Research, Palmerston North, 84 pp.
Shepherd, T.G., Saggar, S., Newman, R.H., Ross, C.W., Dando, J.L., 2001. Tillage-
induced changes to soil structure and organic carbon fractions in New Zealand
soils. Aust. J. Soil Res. 39, 465–489.
Shukla, M.K., Lal, R., Ebinger, M., 2004. Soil quality indicators for the North
Appalachian experimental watersheds in Coshocton. Ohio. Soil Science 169,
195–205.
SPSS Inc., 1993. Handbooks SPSS for Windows. Release 6.0. Advanced statistics 578
pp., Professional statistics 385 pp.
To, J., Kay, B.D., 2005. Variation in penetrometer resistance with soil properties: the
contribution of effective stress and implications for pedotransfer functions.
Geoderma 126, 261–276.
Tsuji, H., Yamamoto, H., Matsuo, K., Usuki, K., 2006. The effects of long-term
conservation tillage, crop residues and P fertilizer on soil conditions and
responses of summer and winter crops on an Andosol in Japan. Soil Till. Res.
89, 167–176.
Vigier, B. Gregorich, E.G., Kroetsch, D., King, D., 2003. Benchmark site documenta-
tion 14-on & 44-on (Rockwood, Ontario). Soil quality evaluation program, site
description report. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Research Branch and
Eastern Cereals and Oilseeds Research Centre (ECORC), Ottawa, ON. Revised
Edition, 2003 (http://res2.agr.ca/CRECO/r1444/cont_e.htm).
Wang, X.B., Cai, D.X., Hoogmoed, W.B., Oenema, O., Perdok, U.D., 2007. Develop-
ments in conservation tillage in rainfed regions of North China. Soil Till. Res. 93,
239–250.
Werner, D., Thaemert, W., 1989. Zur Diagnose des physikalischen Bodenzustandes
auf Produktionsflaechen. Arch. Acker-Pflanzenbau Bodenkd. Berl. 33, 729–739.
Werner, D., Paul, R., 1999. Kennzeichnung der Verdichtungsgefaehrdung land-
wirtschaftlich genutzter Boeden. Wasser Boden 51, 10–14.
Whalley, W.R., To, J., Kay, B.D., Whitmore, A.P., 2007. Prediction of the penetrometer
resistance of soils with models with few parameters. Geoderma 137, 370–377.
WRB, 2006. World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2006, A Framework for
International Classification, Correlation and Communication, FAO Rome,
2006. World Soil Resources Reports 103, 145 pp.
Yan, H., Cao, M., Liu, J., Tao, B., 2007. Potential and sustainability for carbon
sequestration with improved soil management in agricultural soils of China.
Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 121, 325–335.
Yang, X.M., Kay, B.D., 2001. Rotation and tillage effects on soil organic carbon
sequestration in a typic Hapludalf in Southern Ontario. Soil Till. Res. 59,
107–114.
Zhang, Y., Liu, C., Shen, Y., Kondoh, A., Tang, C., Tanaka, T., Shimada, J., 2002.
Measurement of evapotranspiration in a winter wheat field. Hydrol. Process.
16, 2805–2817, doi:10.1002/hyp.1072 Published online 21 May 2002 in Wiley
InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com).