Transformer - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

6/26/2014 Transformer - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer 1/30
Pole-mounted distribution
transformer with center-
tapped secondary winding
used to provide 'split-phase'
power for residential and
light commercial service,
which in North America is
typically rated 120/240
volt.
[1][2]
Transformer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction.
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic
flux in the core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding.
This varying magnetic field at the secondary induces a varying electromotive force
(emf) or voltage in the secondary winding. Making use of Faraday's Law in
conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties, transformers can thus
be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to another
within power networks.
Transformers range in size from RF transformers a small cm
3
fraction in volume to
units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons. A wide range of
transformer designs are used in electronic and electric power applications. Since
the invention in 1885 of the first constant potential transformer, transformers have
become essential for the AC transmission, distribution, and utilization of electrical
energy.
[3]
Contents
1 Basic principles
1.1 Ideal transformer
1.1.1 Polarity
1.2 Real transformer
1.2.1 Deviations from ideal
1.2.2 Leakage flux
1.2.3 Equivalent circuit
2 Basic transformer parameters and construction
2.1 Effect of frequency
2.2 Energy losses
2.3 Core form and shell form transformers
3 Construction
3.1 Cores
3.1.1 Laminated steel cores
3.1.2 Solid cores
3.1.3 Toroidal cores
3.1.4 Air cores
Ideal transformer connected with source V
P
on
primary and load impedance Z
L
on secondary, where 0
< Z
L
< .
Ideal transformer equations (eq.)
By Faraday's law of induction
3.2 Windings
3.3 Cooling
3.4 Insulation drying
3.5 Bushings
4 Classification parameters
5 Types
6 Applications
7 History
7.1 Discovery of induction
7.2 Induction coils
7.3 First alternating current transformers
7.4 Early series circuit transformer distribution
7.5 Closed-core transformers and parallel power distribution
7.6 Other early transformers
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links
Basic principles
Ideal transformer
It is very common, for simplification or approximation
purposes, to analyze the transformer as an ideal
transformer model as represented in the two images. An
ideal transformer is a theoretical, linear transformer that
is lossless and perfectly coupled; that is, there are no
energy losses and flux is completely confined within the
magnetic core. Perfect coupling implies infinitely high
core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and
zero net magnetomotive force.
[5][d]
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding
creates a varying magnetic flux in the core and a varying
magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding. This
varying magnetic field at the secondary induces a varying
electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the secondary
winding. The primary and secondary windings are
. . . (1)
[a]
. . . (2)
Combining ratio of (1) & (2)
Turns ratio . . . (3) where
for step-down transformers, a > 1
for step-up transformers, a < 1
By law of Conservation of Energy, apparent, real
and reactive power are each conserved in the
input and output
. . . (4)
Combining (3) & (4) with this endnote
[b]
yields
the ideal transformer identity
. (5)
By Ohm's Law and ideal transformer identity
. . . (6)
Apparent load impedance Z'
L
(Z
L
referred to the
primary)
Z'
L
= . (7)
wrapped around a core of infinitely high magnetic
permeability
[e]
so that all of the magnetic flux passes
through both the primary and secondary windings. With
voltage source connected to the primary winding and
load impedance connected to the secondary winding, the
transformer currents flow in the indicated directions. (See
also Polarity.)
According to Faraday's law of induction, since the same
magnetic flux passes through both the primary and
secondary windings in an ideal transformer,
[7]
a voltage
is induced in each winding, according to eq. (1) in the
secondary winding case, according to eq. (2) in the
primary winding case.
[8]
The primary emf is sometimes
termed counter emf.
[9]
This is in accordance with Lenz's
law, which states that induction of emf always opposes
development of any such change in magnetic field.
The transformer winding voltage ratio is thus shown to be
directly proportion to the winding turns ratio according to
eq. (3).
[10][11][f][g]
According to the law of Conservation of Energy, any
load impedance connected to the ideal transformer's
secondary winding results in conservation of apparent,
real and reactive power consistent with eq. (4).
The ideal transformer identity shown in eq. (5) is a
reasonable approximation for the typical commercial
transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio
both being inversely proportional to the corresponding
current ratio.
By Ohm's Law and the ideal transformer identity:
- the secondary circuit load impedance can be
expressed as eq. (6)
- the apparent load impedance referred to the
primary circuit is derived in eq. (7) to be equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load
impedance.
[7][13]
Polarity
Ideal transformer and induction law
[c]
Instrument transformer, with
polarity dot and X1 markings
on LV side terminal
A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams, nameplates or terminal markings to define the
relative polarity of transformer windings. Positively-increasing instantaneous current entering the primary winding's
dot end induces positive polarity voltage at the secondary winding's dot end.
[14][15][16][h][i][j]
Real transformer
Deviations from ideal
The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects in real transformers.
Leakage flux of a transformer
Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consist of
[20]
Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage applied in the transformer core, and
Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to the square of the transformer's
applied voltage.
Whereas windings in the ideal model have no resistances and infinite inductances, the windings in a real transformer
have finite non-zero resistances and inductances associated with:
Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings
[20]
Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding only resulting in primary and
secondary reactive impedance.
Leakage flux
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated
by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding,
including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that
take it outside the windings.
[21]
Such flux is termed leakage
flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the
mutually coupled transformer windings.
[9]
Leakage flux
results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged
from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power
supply. It is not directly a power loss, but results in inferior
voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage not to be
directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly
under heavy load.
[21]
Transformers are therefore normally
designed to have very low leakage inductance.
In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts
may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply.
[9]
Leaky
transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor
lamps, and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc
welders.
[22]
Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits
that have a DC component flowing in the windings.
[23]
Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if
the percent impedance (Z) and associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance (X/R) ratio of two transformers
were hypothetically exactly the same, the transformers would share power in proportion to their respective volt-
ampere ratings (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger unit would carry twice the current).
Real transformer equivalent circuit
However, the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant. Also, the Z impedance and X/R
ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary, corresponding 1,000 kVA and 500 kVA units' values being,
to illustrate, respectively, Z ~ 5.75%, X/R ~ 3.75 and Z ~ 5%, X/R ~ 4.75.
[24][25]
Equivalent circuit
Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior may be represented by an equivalent circuit
model, which can incorporate an ideal transformer.
[26]
Winding joule losses and leakage reactances are represented by the following series loop impedances of the model:
Primary winding: R
P
, X
P
Secondary winding: R
S
, X
S
.
In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, R
S
and X
S
are in practice usually referred to the primary side
by multiplying these impedances by the turns ratio squared, (N
P
/N
S
)
2
= a
2
.
Core loss and reactance is
represented by the
following shunt leg
impedances of the model:
Core or iron losses:
R
C
Magnetizing
reactance: X
M
.
R
C
and X
M
are
collectively termed the
magnetizing branch of the model.
Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core and are proportional to the square
of the core flux for operation at a given frequency.
[27]
The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current I
M
to maintain mutual flux in the core. Magnetizing current is in phase with the flux, the relationship between the two
being non-linear due to saturation effects. However, all impedances of the equivalent circuit shown are by definition
linear and such non-linearity effects are not typically reflected in transformer equivalent circuits.
[27]
With sinusoidal
supply, core flux lags the induced emf by 90. With open-circuited secondary winding, magnetizing branch current
I
0
equals transformer no-load current.
[26]
The resulting model, though sometimes termed 'exact' equivalent circuit based on linearity assumptions, retains a
number of approximations.
[26]
Analysis may be simplified by assuming that magnetizing branch impedance is
relatively high and relocating the branch to the left of the primary impedances. This introduces error but allows
Power transformer over-excitation
condition caused by decreased
frequency; flux (green), iron core's
magnetic characteristics (red) and
magnetizing current (blue).
Transformer universal emf equation
If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the
relationship for either winding between its rms
voltage E
rms
of the winding, and the supply
frequency f, number of turns N, core cross-
sectional area a in m
2
and peak magnetic flux
density B
peak
in Wb/m
2
or T (tesla) is given by
the universal emf equation:
[20]
If the flux does not contain even harmonics the
following equation can be used for half-cycle
average voltage E
avg
of any waveshape:
combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and reactances by simple summation as two series
impedances.
Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio parameters can be derived from the following tests:
open-circuit test,
[k]
short-circuit test, winding resistance test, and transformer ratio test.
Basic transformer parameters and construction
Effect of frequency
The time-
derivative term
in Faraday's
Law shows
that the flux in
the core is the
integral with
respect to time
of the applied
voltage.
[29]
The ideal
transformer's
core flux
increasing
linearly with
time for any
non-zero
frequency.
[6][30]
The flux in a real transformer's core
operates non-linearity as instantaneous current decreases
beyond a finite range resulting in magnetic saturation
associated with increasingly large magnetizing current,
which can eventually lead to transformer overheating.
The emf of a transformer at a given flux density increases with frequency.
[20]
By operating at higher frequencies,
transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching
saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance. However, properties such as core loss and
conductor skin effect also increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies
which reduce core and winding weight.
[31]
Conversely, frequencies used for some railway electrification systems
were much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50 60 Hz) for historical reasons
concerned mainly with the limitations of early electric traction motors. As such, the transformers used to step-down
the high over-head line voltages (e.g. 15 kV) were much heavier for the same power rating than those designed
only for the higher frequencies.
Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced
magnetizing current. At a lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of a transformer at other
than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is
practical. For example, transformers may need to be equipped with 'volts per hertz' over-excitation relays to
protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency.
One example of state-of-the-art design is traction transformers used for electric multiple unit and high-speed train
service operating across the country border and using different electrical standards, such transformers' being
restricted to be positioned below the passenger compartment. The power supply to, and converter equipment being
supply by, such traction transformers have to accommodate different input frequencies and voltage (ranging from as
high as 50 Hz down to 16.7 Hz and rated up to 25 kV) while being suitable for multiple AC asynchronous motor
and DC converters & motors with varying harmonics mitigation filtering requirements.
Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient voltages with high-frequency
components, such as caused in switching or by lightning.
[32]
Energy losses
Real transformer energy losses are dominated by winding resistance joule and core losses. Transformers' efficiency
tends to improve with increasing transformer capacity, the efficient of typical distribution transformers being about
98%.
[33][l]
As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to express these losses in terms of no-load loss, full-load loss,
half-load loss, and so on. Hysteresis and eddy current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate
overwhelmingly without load, while variable winding joule losses dominating increasingly as load increases. The no-
load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply. Designing
energy efficient transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel, or even amorphous
steel for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial cost. The choice of construction represents a trade-off between
initial cost and operating cost.
[35]
Transformer losses arise from:
Winding joule losses
Current flowing through winding conductors causes joule heating. As frequency increases, skin effect and
proximity effect causes winding resistance and, hence, losses to increase.
Core losses
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the
core. According to Steinmetz's formula, the heat energy due to hysteresis is given by
, and,
hysteresis loss is thus given by
where, f is the frequency, is the hysteresis coefficient and
max
is the maximum flux density, the
empirical exponent of which varies from about 1.4 to 1 .8 but is often given as 1.6 for iron.
[35][36][37]
Eddy current losses
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors and a core made from such a material also
constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate
within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core
material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse
square of the material thickness.
[35]
Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack
of plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers operating at
low frequencies use laminated or similar cores.
Magnetostriction related transformer hum
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract
slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction, the frictional energy of
which produces an audible noise known as mains hum or transformer hum.
[10][38]
This transformer hum is
especially objectionable in transformers supplied at power frequencies
[m]
and in high-frequency flyback
transformers associated with PAL system CRTs.
Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the
supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such
as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.
[39]
There are
also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small.
Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary
and secondary windings. This energy incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork, thus
amplifying audible transformer hum.
[40]
Core form and shell form transformers
Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'. When windings surround the core, the
transformer is core form; when windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form. Shell form design
may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in
stacking the core around winding coils.
[41]
Core form design tends to, as a general rule, be more economical, and
therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of
their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and
power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent.
[41][42][43][44]
Shell form design tends to be
preferred for extra high voltage and higher MVA applications because, though more labor-intensive to manufacture,
shell form transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit
strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage.
[44]
Core form = core type; shell form =
shell type
Laminated core transformer showing
edge of laminations at top of photo
Power transformer inrush current
caused by residual flux at switching
instant; flux (green), iron core's
magnetic characteristics (red) and
magnetizing current (blue).
Laminating the core greatly
reduces eddy-current losses
Construction
Cores
Laminated steel cores
Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores
made of high permeability silicon steel.
[45]
The steel has a permeability
many times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce
the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely
couples the windings.
[46]
Early transformer developers soon realized that
cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current
losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of
bundles of insulated iron wires.
[47]
Later designs constructed the core by
stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in
use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-
conducting layer of insulation.
[48]
The universal transformer equation
indicates a minimum cross-sectional area for the core to avoid saturation.
The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical
paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner
laminations reduce losses,
[49]
but are more laborious and expensive to
construct.
[50]
Thin laminations are generally used on high-frequency
transformers, with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate up
to 10 kHz.
One common design of laminated core
is made from interleaved stacks of E-
shaped steel sheets capped with I-
shaped pieces, leading to its name of
'E-I transformer'.
[50]
Such a design
tends to exhibit more losses, but is very
economical to manufacture. The cut-
core or C-core type is made by
winding a steel strip around a
rectangular form and then bonding the
layers together. It is then cut in two,
forming two C shapes, and the core
assembled by binding the two C halves
together with a steel strap.
[50]
They
have the advantage that the flux is
always oriented parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance.
Small toroidal core transformer
A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed. When power is then
reapplied, the residual field will cause a high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced,
usually after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform.
[51]
Overcurrent protection devices such as fuses must be
selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass. On transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission
lines, induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of the core and
operation of transformer protection devices.
[52]
Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with low-loss high-permeability
silicon steel or amorphous (non-crystalline) metal alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the
life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load.
[53]
Solid cores
Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch-mode power supplies that operate above mains
frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk
electrical resistivity. For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band, cores made from non-conductive magnetic
ceramic materials called ferrites are common.
[50]
Some radio-frequency transformers also have movable cores
(sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-
frequency circuits.
Toroidal cores
Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which,
depending on operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon
steel or permalloy wound into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite.
[54]
A strip
construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned,
improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance.
The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of
an E-I core.
[22]
The cross-section of the ring is usually square or
rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are
also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound
concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimizes the
length of wire needed, and also provides screening to minimize the core's
magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference.
Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types for a similar power level. Other
advantages compared to E-I types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum
(making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses
(making them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and greater choice of shapes. The main
disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity (see Classification parameters below). Because of the
lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path, toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current,
compared to laminated E-I types.
Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of
megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of inductive components. A drawback of toroidal
transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding. This is because it is necessary to pass the entire length
Windings are usually arranged
concentrically to minimize flux leakage.
of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil. As a consequence, toroidal
transformers rated more than a few kVA are uncommon. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the
benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing primary and
secondary windings.
Air cores
A physical core is not an absolute requisite and a functioning transformer can be produced simply by placing the
windings near each other, an arrangement termed an 'air-core' transformer. The air which comprises the magnetic
circuit is essentially lossless, and so an air-core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material.
[9]
The leakage inductance is inevitably high, resulting in very poor regulation, and so such designs are unsuitable for
use in power distribution.
[9]
They have however very high bandwidth, and are frequently employed in radio-
frequency applications,
[55]
for which a satisfactory coupling coefficient is maintained by carefully overlapping the
primary and secondary windings. They're also used for resonant transformers such as Tesla coils where they can
achieve reasonably low loss in spite of the high leakage inductance.
Windings
The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the
application, but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically
insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels
throughout every turn.
[56]
For small power and signal transformers,
in which currents are low and the potential difference between
adjacent turns is small, the coils are often wound from enamelled
magnet wire, such as Formvar wire. Larger power transformers
operating at high voltages may be wound with copper rectangular
strip conductors insulated by oil-impregnated paper and blocks of
pressboard.
[57]
High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of
kilohertz often have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize
the skin-effect and proximity effect losses.
[29]
Large power
transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at
low power frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would
otherwise exist in high-current windings.
[57]
Each strand is individually insulated, and the strands are arranged so
that at certain points in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different relative
positions in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor,
and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid
conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture.
[57]
The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high-frequency
response. Coils are split into sections, and those sections interleaved between the sections of the other winding.
Power-frequency transformers may have taps at intermediate points on the winding, usually on the higher voltage
winding side, for voltage adjustment. Taps may be manually reconnected, or a manual or automatic switch may be
provided for changing taps. Automatic on-load tap changers are used in electric power transmission or distribution,
Cut view through transformer windings.
White: insulator. Green spiral: Grain
oriented silicon steel. Black: Primary
winding made of oxygen-free copper. Red:
Secondary winding. Top left: Toroidal
transformer. Right: C-core, but E-core
would be similar. The black windings are
made of film. Top: Equally low capacitance
between all ends of both windings. Since
most cores are at least moderately
conductive they also need insulation.
Bottom: Lowest capacitance for one end of
the secondary winding needed for low-
power high-voltage transformers. Bottom
left: Reduction of leakage inductance
would lead to increase of capacitance.
on equipment such as arc furnace transformers, or for automatic
voltage regulators for sensitive loads. Audio-frequency transformers,
used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers,
have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A
center-tapped transformer is often used in the output stage of an
audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit. Modulation
transformers in AM transmitters are very similar.
Dry-type transformer winding insulation systems can be either of
standard open-wound 'dip-and-bake' construction or of higher
quality designs that include vacuum pressure impregnation (VPI),
vacuum pressure encapsulation (VPE), and cast coil encapsulation
processes.
[58]
In the VPI process, a combination of heat, vacuum
and pressure is used to thoroughly seal, bind, and eliminate
entrained air voids in the winding polyester resin insulation coat
layer, thus increasing resistance to corona. VPE windings are similar
to VPI windings but provide more protection against environmental
effects, such as from water, dirt or corrosive ambients, by multiple
dips including typically in terms of final epoxy coat.
[59]
Cooling
To place the cooling problem in perspective, the accepted rule of thumb is that the life expectancy of insulation in all
electric machines including all transformers is halved for about every 7 C to 10 C increase in operating
temperature, this life expectancy halving rule holding more narrowly when the increase is between about 7 C to
8 C in the case of transformer winding cellulose insulation.
[60][61][62]
Small dry-type and liquid-immersed transformers are often self-cooled by natural convection and radiation heat
dissipation. As power ratings increase, transformers are often cooled by forced-air cooling, forced-oil cooling,
water-cooling, or combinations of these.
[63]
Large transformers are filled with transformer oil that both cools and
insulates the windings.
[64]
Transformer oil is a highly refined mineral oil that cools the windings and insulation by
circulating within the transformer tank. The mineral oil and paper insulation system has been extensively studied and
used for more than 100 years. It is estimated that 50% of power transformers will survive 50 years of use, that the
average age of failure of power transformers is about 10 to 15 years, and that about 30% of power transformer
failures are due to insulation and overloading failures.
[65][66]
Prolonged operation at elevated temperature degrades
insulating properties of winding insulation and dielectric coolant, which not only shortens transformer life but can
Cutaway view of liquid-
immersed construction
transformer. The conservator
(reservoir) at top provides
liquid-to-atmosphere isolation
as coolant level and
temperature changes. The
walls and fins provide required
heat dissipation balance.
ultimately lead to catastrophic transformer failure.
[60]
With a great body of empirical study as a guide, transformer
oil testing including dissolved gas analysis provides valuable maintenance information. This underlines the need to
monitor, model, forecast and manage oil and winding conductor insulation temperature conditions under varying,
possibly difficult, power loading conditions.
[67][68]
Building regulations in many jurisdictions require indoor liquid-filled transformers to either use dielectric fluids that
are less flammable than oil, or be installed in fire-resistant rooms.
[69]
Air-cooled dry transformers can be more
economical where they eliminate the cost of a fire-resistant transformer room.
The tank of liquid filled transformers often has radiators through which the liquid coolant circulates by natural
convection or fins. Some large transformers employ electric fans for forced-air cooling, pumps for forced-liquid
cooling, or have heat exchangers for water-cooling.
[64]
An oil-immersed transformer may be equipped with a
Buchholz relay, which, depending on severity of gas accumulation due to internal arcing, is used to either alarm or
de-energize the transformer.
[51]
Oil-immersed transformer installations usually include fire protection measures such
as walls, oil containment, and fire-suppression sprinkler systems.
Polychlorinated biphenyls have properties that once favored their use as a
dielectric coolant, though concerns over their environmental persistence led to a
widespread ban on their use.
[70]
Today, non-toxic, stable silicone-based oils, or
fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire-resistant
liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault.
[69][71]
PCBs for
new equipment was banned in 1981 and in 2000 for use in existing equipment in
United Kingdom
[72]
Legislation enacted in Canada between 1977 and 1985
essentially bans PCB use in transformers manufactured in or imported into the
country after 1980, the maximum allowable level of PCB contamination in
existing mineral oil transformers being 50 ppm.
[73]
Some transformers, instead of being liquid-filled, have their windings enclosed in
sealed, pressurized tanks and cooled by nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride gas.
[71]
Experimental power transformers in the 500-to-1,000 kVA range have been
built with liquid nitrogen or helium cooled superconducting windings, which
eliminates winding losses without affecting core losses.
[74][75]
Insulation drying
Construction of oil-filled transformers requires that the insulation covering the
windings be thoroughly dried of residual moisture before the oil is introduced.
Drying is carried out at the factory, and may also be required as a field service.
Drying may be done by circulating hot air around the core, or by vapor-phase
drying (VPD) where an evaporated solvent transfers heat by condensation on the coil and core.
For small transformers, resistance heating by injection of current into the windings is used. The heating can be
controlled very well, and it is energy efficient. The method is called low-frequency heating (LFH) since the current
used is at a much lower frequency than that of the power grid, which is normally 50 or 60 Hz. A lower frequency
reduces the effect of inductance, so the voltage required can be reduced.
[76]
The LFH drying method is also used
for service of older transformers.
[77]
Bushings
Larger transformers are provided with high-voltage insulated bushings made of polymers or porcelain. A large
bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide careful control of the electric field gradient without letting
the transformer leak oil.
[78]
Classification parameters
Transformers can be classified in many ways, such as the following:
Power capacity: From a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA.
Duty of a transformer: Continuous, short-time, intermittent, periodic, varying.
Frequency range: Power-frequency, audio-frequency, or radio-frequency.
Voltage class: From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts.
Cooling type: Dry and liquid-immersed - self-cooled, forced air-cooled; liquid-immersed - forced oil-
cooled, water-cooled.
Circuit application: Such as power supply, impedance matching, output voltage and current stabilizer or
circuit isolation.
Utilization: Pulse, power, distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc..
Basic magnetic form: Core form, shell form.
Constant-potential transformer descriptor: Step-up, step-down, isolation.
General winding configuration: By EIC vector group - various possible two-winding combinations of the
phase designations delta, wye or star, and zigzag or interconnected star;
[n]
other - autotransformer, Scott-T,
zigzag grounding transformer winding.
[79][80][81][82]
Rectifier phase-shift winding configuration: 2-winding, 6-pulse; 3-winding, 12-pulse; . . . n-winding, [n-
1]*6-pulse; polygon; etc..
Types
Various specific electrical application designs require a variety of transformer types. Although they all share the
basic characteristic transformer principles, they are customize in construction or electrical properties for certain
installation requirements or circuit conditions.
Autotransformer: Transformer in which part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary
circuits.
[83]
Capacitor voltage transformer: Transformer in which capacitor divider is used to reduce high voltage
An electrical substation in Melbourne, Australia
showing three of five 220 kV 66 kV transformers,
each with a capacity of 150 MVA
[86]
Transformer at the Limestone
Generating Station in Manitoba,
Canada
before application to the primary winding.
Distribution transformer, power transformer: International standards make a distinction in terms of
distribution transformers being used to distribute energy from transmission lines and networks for local
consumption and power transformers being used to transfer electric energy between the generator and
distribution primary circuits.
[83][84][o]
Phase angle regulating transformer: A specialised transformer used to control the flow of real power on
three-phase electricity transmission networks.
Scott-T transformer: Transformer used for phase transformation from three-phase to two-phase and vice
versa.
[83]
Polyphase transformer: Any transformer with more than one phase.
Grounding transformer: Transformer used for grounding three-phase circuits to create a neutral in a three
wire system, using a wye-delta transformer,
[80][85]
or more commonly, a zigzag grounding winding.
[80][82][83]
Leakage transformer: Transformer that has loosely coupled windings.
Resonant transformer: Transformer that uses resonance to generate a high secondary voltage.
Audio transformer: Transformer used in audio equipment.
Output transformer: Transformer used to match the output of a valve amplifier to its load.
Instrument transformer: Potential or current transformer used to accurately and safely represent voltage,
current or phase position of high voltage or high power circuits.
[83]
Applications
Transformers are
used to increase
voltage before
transmitting
electrical energy
over long
distances through
wires. Wires have
resistance which
loses energy
through joule
heating at a rate
corresponding to
square of the
current. By
transforming power to a higher voltage transformers enable economical
transmission of power and distribution. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry,
permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand.
[87]
All but a tiny fraction of the world's
electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer.
[39]
Faraday's experiment with induction between
coils of wire
[88]
Induction coil, 1900, Bremerhavn,
Germany
Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step-down the supply voltage to a level suitable for
the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the
supply voltage.
Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones
and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way
conversation over a single pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a
signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits.
History
Discovery of induction
Electromagnetic induction, the principle of the operation of the
transformer, was discovered independently and almost
simultaneously by Joseph Henry and Michael Faraday in 1831.
Although Henry's work likely having preceded Faraday's work
by a few months, Faraday was the first to publish the results of
his experiments and thus receive credit for the discovery.
[89]
The
relationship between emf and magnetic flux is an equation now
known as Faraday's law of induction:
.
where is the magnitude of the emf in volts and
B
is the
magnetic flux through the circuit in webers.
[90]
Faraday performed the first experiments on induction between coils of wire, including winding a pair of coils around
an iron ring, thus creating the first toroidal closed-core transformer.
[91]
However he only applied individual pulses of
current to his transformer, and never discovered the relation between the turns ratio and emf in the windings.
Induction coils
The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil,
invented by Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland in 1836.
He was one of the first researchers to realize the more turns the
secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding, the larger the
induced secondary emf will be. Induction coils evolved from scientists'
and inventors' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries. Since batteries
produce direct current (DC) rather than AC, induction coils relied upon
vibrating electrical contacts that regularly interrupted the current in the
primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction. Between the
1830s and the 1870s, efforts to build better induction coils, mostly by
trial and error, slowly revealed the basic principles of transformers.
Faraday's ring transformer
First alternating current transformers
By the 1870s, efficient generators producing alternating current (AC) were available, and it was found AC could
power an induction coil directly, without an interrupter.
In 1876, Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a lighting system based on a set of induction coils where the
primary windings were connected to a source of AC. The secondary windings could be connected to several
'electric candles' (arc lamps) of his own design.
[92]

[93]
The coils Yablochkov employed functioned essentially as
transformers.
[92]
In 1878, the Ganz factory, Budapest, Hungary, began manufacturing equipment for electric lighting and, by 1883,
had installed over fifty systems in Austria-Hungary. Their AC systems
used arc and incandescent lamps, generators, and other equipment.
[94]
Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first exhibited a device with an
open iron core called a 'secondary generator' in London in 1882, then
sold the idea to the Westinghouse company in the United States.
[47]
They
also exhibited the invention in Turin, Italy in 1884, where it was adopted
for an electric lighting system.
[95]
However, the efficiency of their open-
core bipolar apparatus remained very low.
[95]
Early series circuit transformer distribution
Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient at transferring
power to loads. Until about 1880, the paradigm for AC power
transmission from a high voltage supply to a low voltage load was a
series circuit. Open-core transformers with a ratio near 1:1 were connected with their primaries in series to allow
use of a high voltage for transmission while presenting a low voltage to the lamps. The inherent flaw in this method
was that turning off a single lamp (or other electric device) affected the voltage supplied to all others on the same
circuit. Many adjustable transformer designs were introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of
the series circuit, including those employing methods of adjusting the core or bypassing the magnetic flux around
part of a coil.
[95]
Efficient, practical transformer designs did not appear until the 1880s, but within a decade, the
transformer would be instrumental in the War of Currents, and in seeing AC distribution systems triumph over their
DC counterparts, a position in which they have remained dominant ever since.
[96]
Closed-core transformers and parallel power distribution
In the autumn of 1884, Kroly Zipernowsky, Ott Blthy and Miksa Dri (ZBD), three engineers associated with
the Ganz factory, had determined that open-core devices were impracticable, as they were incapable of reliably
regulating voltage.
[98]
In their joint 1885 patent applications for novel transformers (later called ZBD transformers),
they described two designs with closed magnetic circuits where copper windings were either a) wound around iron
wire ring core or b) surrounded by iron wire core.
[95]
The two designs were the first application of the two basic
transformer constructions in common use to this day, which can as a class all be termed as either core form or shell
form (or alternatively, core type or shell type), as in a) or b), respectively (see images).
[41][42][99][100]
The Ganz
factory had also in the autumn of 1884 made delivery of the world's first five high-efficiency AC transformers, the
Shell form transformer. Sketch used
by Uppenborn to describe ZBD
engineers' 1885 patents and earliest
articles.
[95]
Core form, front; shell form, back.
Earliest specimens of ZBD-designed
high-efficiency constant-potential
transformers manufactured at the
Ganz factory in 1885.
The ZBD team consisted of Kroly
Zipernowsky, Ott Blthy and Miksa
Dri
Stanley's 1886 design for adjustable
gap open-core induction coils
[97]
first of these units having
been shipped on September
16, 1884.
[101]
This first unit
had been manufactured to the
following specifications:
1,400 W, 40 Hz, 120:72 V,
11.6:19.4 A, ratio 1.67:1,
one-phase, shell form.
[101]
In both designs, the magnetic
flux linking the primary and
secondary windings traveled
almost entirely within the
confines of the iron core, with
no intentional path through air
(see Toroidal cores below).
The new transformers were 3.4 times more efficient than the open-core
bipolar devices of Gaulard and Gibbs.
[102]
The ZBD patents included
two other major interrelated innovations: one concerning the use of
parallel connected, instead of series connected, utilization loads, the other
concerning the ability to have high turns ratio transformers such that the
supply network voltage could be much higher (initially 1,400 to 2,000 V)
than the voltage of utilization loads (100 V initially preferred).
[103][104]
When employed in parallel connected electric distribution systems,
closed-core transformers finally made it technically and economically
feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes, businesses and
public spaces.
[105][106]
Blthy had suggested the use of closed cores,
Zipernowsky had suggested the use of parallel shunt connections, and
Dri had performed the experiments;
[107]
Transformers today are designed on the principles discovered by the
three engineers. They also popularized the word 'transformer' to
describe a device for altering the emf of an electric current,
[105][108]
although the term had already been in use by 1882.
[109][110]
In 1886,
the ZBD engineers designed, and the Ganz factory supplied electrical
equipment for, the world's first power station that used AC generators
to power a parallel connected common electrical network, the steam-
powered Rome-Cerchi power plant.
[111]
Although George Westinghouse had bought Gaulard and Gibbs' patents
in 1885, the Edison Electric Light Company held an option on the US
rights for the ZBD transformers, requiring Westinghouse to pursue alternative designs on the same principles. He
assigned to William Stanley the task of developing a device for commercial use in United States.
[112]
Stanley's first
patented design was for induction coils with single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to regulate the emf present
in the secondary winding (see image).
[97]
This design
[113]
was first used commercially in the US in 1886
[96]
but
Westinghouse was intent on improving the Stanley design to make it (unlike the ZBD type) easy and cheap to
produce.
[113]
Westinghouse, Stanley and associates soon developed an easier to manufacture core, consisting of a stack of thin
'Eshaped' iron plates, insulated by thin sheets of paper or other insulating material. Prewound copper coils could
then be slid into place, and straight iron plates laid in to create a closed magnetic circuit. Westinghouse applied for a
patent for the new low-cost design in December 1886; it was granted in July 1887.
[107][114]
Other early transformers
In 1889, Russian-born engineer Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed the first three-phase transformer at the
Allgemeine Elektricitts-Gesellschaft ('General Electricity Company') in Germany.
[115]
In 1891, Nikola Tesla invented the Tesla coil, an air-cored, dual-tuned resonant transformer for generating very
high voltages at high frequency.
[116][117]
See also
Transformer types#Resonant transformer
Compensation winding
Electronic symbol
Geomagnetic storm
Inductor
Load profile
Magnetic core
Magnetization
Paraformer
Polyphase system
Rectiformer
Switched-mode power supply
Notes
a. ^ Where V
s
is the instantaneous voltage, N
s
is the number of turns in the secondary winding, and d/dt is the
derivative of the magnetic flux through one turn of the winding. With turns of the winding oriented
perpendicularly to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux density and the core area,
the magnetic field varying with time according to the excitation of the primary. The expression d/dt, defined as
the derivative of magnetic flux with time t, provides a measure of rate of magnetic flux in the core and hence of
emf induced in the respective winding.
b. ^ Although ideal transformer's winding inductances are each infinitely high, the square root of winding
inductances' ratio is equal to the turns ratio.
[4]
c. ^ Direction of transformer currents is according to Right-hand rule.
d. ^ This also implies the following: Input impedance is infinite when secondary is open and zero when secondary is
shorted; there is zero phase-shift through an ideal transformer; input and output power and reactive volt-ampere
are each conserved; these three statements apply for any frequency above zero and periodic waveforms are
conserved.
[6]
e. ^ Windings of real transformers are usually wound around very high permeability ferromagnetic cores but can also
be air-core wound.
f. ^ "The turn ratio of a transformer is the ratio of the number of turns in the high-voltage winding to that in the low-
voltage winding",
[12]
common usage having evolved over time from 'turn ratio' to 'turns ratio',
g. ^ A step-down transformer converts a high voltage to a lower voltage while a step-up transformer converts a low
voltage to a higher voltage, an isolation transformer having 1:1 turns ratio with output voltage the same as input
voltage.
h. ^ ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.13 defines polarity in terms of the relative instantaneous directions of the currents
entering the primary terminals and leaving the secondary terminals during most of each half cycle, the word
'instantaneous' differentiating from say phasor current.
[17][18]
i. ^ Transformer polarity can also be identified by terminal markings H0,H1,H2... on primary terminals and X1,X2,
(and Y1,Y2, Z1,Z2,Z3... if windings are available) on secondary terminals. Each letter prefix designates a different
winding and each numeral designates a termination or tap on each winding. The designated terminals H1,X1, (and
Y1, Z1 if available) indicate same instantaneous polarities for each winding as in the dot convention.
[19]
j. ^ When a voltage transformer is operated with sinusoidal voltages in its normal frequency range and power level
the voltage polarity at the output dot is the same (plus minus a few degrees) as the voltage polarity at the input dot.
k. ^ A standardized open-circuit or unloaded transformer test called the Epstein frame can also be used for the
characterization of magnetic properties of soft magnetic materials including especially electrical steels.
[28]
l. ^ Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of 99.85%.
[34]
m. ^ Transformer hum's fundamental noise frequency is two times that of the power frequency as there is an
extension and a contraction of core laminations for every cycle of the AC wave and a transformer's audible hum
noise level is dominated by the fundamental noise frequency and its first triplen harmonic, i.e., by the 100 & 300
Hz, or 120 & 360 Hz, frequencies.
[38]
n. ^ For example, the delta-wye transformer, by far the most common commercial three-phase transformer, is
known as the Dyn11 vector group configuration, Dyn11 denoting D for delta primary winding, y for wye
secondary winding, n for neutral of the wye winding, and 11 for relative phase position on the clock by which the
secondary winding leads the primary winding, namely, 30 leading.
o. ^ While the above formal definition, derived from standards such as IEEE C57.12.80, applies to large
transformers, it is not uncommon in colloquial, or even trade, parlance for small general-purpose transformers to
be referred to as 'power' transformers, for distribution transformers to be referred to as 'power distribution'
transformers, and so on.
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b
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External links
Inside Transformers, composed by J. B. Calvert, from Denver University
(http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/transfor.htm)
Substation and Transmission
(http://www.dmoz.org/Business/Electronics_and_Electrical/Substation_and_Transmission/) at DMOZ
Introduction to Current Transformers (http://www.elkor.net/pdfs/AN0305-Current_Transformers.pdf)
Transformer (Interactive Java applet) (http://www.phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Transformer.htm), 'Physics is fun'
by Chui-king Ng
HD video tutorial on transformers (http://www.afrotechmods.com/videos/transformer_tutorial.htm)
Three-phase transformer circuits (http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_10/6.html) from All About
Circuits
Bibliography of Transformer Books (http://www.transformerscommittee.org/info/Bibliographybooks.pdf) by
P.M. Balma, from IEEE Transformer Committee
Einschalten des Transformators. German Wikipedia article about transformer inrush current at switch on (in
German).
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transformer&oldid=614522160"
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