The

Steel Construction
Institute
S
Design
of Structural Steelwork
Lattice Framed
Industrial
Building
(Revised Edition)
mit deutscher
Zusammenfassung
_______________________
avec rsum
franais

=
___________
This document
con resumen
espaol
___________
contains
100
pages
con sommario
italiano
-
Institut de a Construction
Mtallique
Institut fr Stahlbau Istituto di Costruzioni in Acciaio Instituto de Ia ConstrucciOn Metlica
/
is The Steel Construction Institute. Its
aim is to
promote
the
proper
and effective use of steel in construction.
= =
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is
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organisations
and individuals
that are concerned with the use
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and members include
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The Steel Construction
!nstitute 1993
Instituut voor Staalbouwconstructie Institut de la Construction
Mtallique
Staalkonstruktion !nstitut Institut fr Stahlbau
Instituto da
Construcao
Metlica !stituto di Costruzioni in Acciaio
!voriroisro
Yuip.v
iccxraaicev.v Instituto de Ia Construccin
Metlica
SCI PUBLICATION 028
Design
of
Structural Steelwork
Lattice
Framed Industrial
Building
(Revised
Edition)
Entwurf
elnes Stah/bau-Gebudes
-
G/tterahmen
/ndustriegebude
Dimensionnement d'/mmeubles a structure
meta/llque
-
btiment
industriel en cadre et tre I/I/s
Progettazione
dl Ed/f/cl in Accialo: Ed/f/cl Industrial! Inte/alat/ a
Tra/lcclo
Pro
yecto
de Ed/f/c/os con Estructura de Acero.
Ed/f/do /ndustr/al
en Ce/os/a
C SOUTHCOMBE
BSc(Eng), MSc(Eng), CEng,
MICE
ISBN
1
870004 83 3
British
Library
Cataloguing
in
Publication Data
A
catalogue
record for this book is available from the British
Library
The Steel Construction Institute
1993
The Steel
Construction Institute
Silwood Park
Ascot
Berkshire SL5 7QN
Telephone:
0344 23345
Fax: 0344 22944
FOREWORD
This
publication
is a revised edition of the
original
text written
by
Mr W
Bates
and first
published
in 1983.
Its
purpose
is to aid the education of
undergraduate
students in
Engineering by providing
sample
calculations for
a
typical
industrial
building capable
of
future extension.
The revision was made
necessary by changes
in
design
Codes
and current
practice
over the
past
decade.
For their
helpful
contributions
regarding design,
fabrication and the erection
process,
the
author is indebted to:
Mr. A. Curnow
(Blight
and White
Limited,
Plymouth)
Mr. R. Fox
(F.
Parkin and Son
Ltd., Exeter)
Mr. P. Marozinski
(Conder Limited, Winchester)
11
CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD
U
SUMMARY
v
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2.
SCOPE 2
3. STANDARDS AND CODES OF PRACTICE 4
3.1 British Standard
5950
-
Structural use of steelwork
in
building
4
3.2 BS 5502
-
Buildings
and structures for
agriculture
4
3.3 BS 6399: Part 1: 1 984
-
Design Loading
for
Buildings
4
3.4 BS 6399: Part 3: 1 988
-
Code of
practice
for
imposed
roof loads 4
3.5
CP3:
Chapter
V:
Part 2: 1972- Wind Loads 4
3.6
Statutory
regulations
5
3.7
National structural steelwork
specification
for
building
construction
(2nd Edition) 5
3.8
Quality
assurance 5
4. BUILDING FORM
6
4.1
General 6
4.2 Low
pitch
roofs 6
5.
LATTICE FRAMED ROOFS 8
5.1
Simple
forms
8
5.2
More
complex
forms 10
5.3
Cladding
1 2
5.4 Purlins 13
5.5 Side rails 14
6. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
16
7. PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
19
7.1
Purlins and side rails 19
7.2
Lattice framed roof
girders
19
7.3 Stanchions 1 9
7.4
Bracing
21
7.5 Connections 21
111
CONTENTS
-
Continued
Page
8. EXAMPLE
-
DESIGN BRIEF AND APPROACH
24
8.1 Brief
24
8.2
Cladding
24
9. DESIGN OF STEELWORK
27
9.1
Loading
27
9.2 Assessment of roof load
27
9.3 Assessment of
wind load on structure 28
9.4
Design
of
purlins
31
9.5
Design
of main roof frame
36
9.6
Preliminary
calculations
37
9.7
Loading
Cases
(for
characteristic loads)
40
9.8
Analyses
40
10.
FINAL DESIGN
49
10.1
Top
boom
49
10.2 Bottom
boom
51
10.3 Internal
members
53
10.4
Comparison
of member sizes
54
10.5 Column
design
-
members 1 to
4
and 5
55
10.6 Gable steelwork
61
10.7
Bracing
67
10.8 Column Base (Reference 1. Clause 4.13)
70
10.9 Foundation
73
11. ALTERNATIVE
FRAME ANALYSIS
75
12. JOINT DESIGN
78
1 2.1
Application
limit check list
78
12.2 Joint welds
81
13. FINAL FRAME LAYOUT
84
REFERENCES
87
BIBLIOGRAPHY
89
iv
SUMMARY
Design
of structural
steelwork
-
Lattice framed industrial
building
The
designer
of
single storey buildings
for
commercial and
industrial use will consider a
number of
possible
solutions.
A
decision has to
be
made
regarding cladding,
structural form
and material. This
publication
illustrates for the benefit of
students,
the
many
factors which
influence the final choice of a suitable
design.
Consideration is
given
to a
variety
of
building
forms as well as to the choice
of
cladding
and
its
supporting
element at the
conceptual design stage;
other factors
influencing
the
design
are
related to
fabrication, transport
and erection.
A structural steelwork frame
incorporating
solid web beams for columns and a latticed
structure for the
roof,
is chosen and full
design
details worked out.
The detailed
design
of a
building
30 m
wide,
48 m
long
x 6 m to eaves is
provided
as an
illustration.
The solution considers the main
loading
calculations and members
initially.
A detailed
analysis
is carried
out and checks are made of all
members,
the latticed roof
being
formed of
rectangular
hollow section.
Typical joints
and the foundation are
designed.
Entwurf eines Stahlbau-Gebudes
-
Gitterahmen
Industriegebude
Zusammenfassung
Der Konstrukteuer eines
eingeschossigen
Handels
-
oder Industrie-Gebaudes wird eine Reihe
moglicher LOsungen
in Berracht
ziehen.
Entscheidungen
mQssen
getroffen
werden hinsichteich
Verkleidung, Formgebung
und
zu
verwendender
Werkstoffe.
Diese
Veroffentlichung
illustriert
zum Nutzen von Studenten die vielen
Faktoren,
die die
endgtlltige
Wahi eines
geeigneten
Entwurfs beeinflussen.
Bei der
Konzeptentwickiung
werden verschiedene Gebude-Formen als auch eine Auswahl von
Verkleidungen
und ihre
Befestigungs
-
Elemente
betrachiet;
andere
Fakioren,
die den
Entwuif
beeinflussen, betreffen ilerstellung,
Transport
und
Errichtung.
Em Stahlbaurahmen
mit soliden Ste
gtrgern fir
die Stlitzen
und etne
GitterstrukiurftJr
das
Dach wird
gewahit,
wozu alle
Entwurfs-Einzelheiten ausgearbeiter
wurden.
Als illustration 1st der detaillierte
Enlwurfeines
Gebudes mit 30 m Breite und 48 m
Lange,
sowie 6 m bis
zur
Unterkante des Daches
dargesteilt.
Bel der
LOsung
wurden die wesentlichen
Lastberechnungen
der Glieder im
Ausgangszustand
beracksichtigt.
Eine deraillicerte
Analyse
wurde
durchgefilhrr
sowie alle Glieder
aberprtlft;
das Rahmendach wird aus
rechteckigen Hohlquerschnirren gebildet. Typische Verbindungen
und die
Grtindung
sind
dargesrelir.
V
Dimensionnement d'immeubles a structure
mtallique
-
btiment
industriel en cadre et
treitlis
Rsum
Le
projeteur
d
'immeubles,
a un
seul
niveau,
pour usage
industriel
et commercial
peut
envisager
de nombreuses solutions constructives,
une decision doit
tre
prise
concernant la
forme
structurale,
les
parios
et le
matriau.
Cette
publication
discute,
a 1 'intention des
tudiants,
les
nombreuxfacteurs qui influencent
le
choix d 'un bon dimensionnement.
On considre une
grande
varitE de
formes
de btiments ainsi
que
le choix des
parois
et des
lments
qui
les
supportent,
dans le cadre de I
'etape
de
conception
du btiment. D 'autres
facteurs qui influencent
le
dimensionnement et
qui
sont
relatfs
a
la
fabrication,
au
transport
et
au
montage,
sont
egalement
discuts.
Une structure en acier
comportant
des colonnes en
prof/s
et une toiture en
treillis,
est choisie
et tudie en detail.
Le dimensionnement dtaillC
d 'un btiment de 30 m de
large,
48 m de
long
et 6 m sous la
toiture est donnC
comme illustration.
La solution
comporte
une
analyse
dtai!le et une
verfi
cation de tous
les
Clments,
le treillis
de toiture tant rCalisC en
profils
creux
rectangulaires;
certains
assemblages
ainsi
que
les
fondations
sont
egalement
tudis.
Progettazione
di
Edilici in Acciaio: Edifici Industriali Intelaiati
a Traliccio
Sommario
Nella
pro gettazione
di
edfici monopiano
ad uso commerciale
e industriale devono essere
esaminate
dirvese
possibili
so! uzioni.
E'
necessario
operare
Ia scelta del
rivestimento,
della
struttura
portante
e del materiale.
Questa pubblicazione presenta,
a
beneficio degli
studenti,
tutti
quei fattori
che
infiuenzano
la scelta
finale
in vista di
una
adeguata pro gettazione.
Per la
fase
preliminare
di
progettazione
viene
presa
in considerazione
la varieta' delle
tipologie
strutturali,
!a scelta del rivestimento e dci suoi
elementi di
collegamento,
a/tn
fattori
che
influenzano
ii
pro getto
sono
que/li
relativi alla lavorazione,
a!
trasporto
ed al
montaggio.
Si il/ustra in
particolare,
sviluppando
tutti i
dettagli
relativi
al
pro getto,
un
edfici
intelaiato in
acciaio,
formato
da colonne
ad anima
piena
e da elementi di
copertura
realizzati con una
struttura a traliccio.
A
titolo di
esempio
viene
presentata
la
pro gettazione dettagliata
di un
edficio
alto 6 metri con
dimensioni in
pianta
di 30 metri di
larghezza
e 48 metni di
lunghezza.
Sono
presentati
I
principali
calcoli relativi ai carichi ed al
predimensionamento.
L 'analisi
dettagliata
e'
seguita
dalla
verfica
di tutti
gli
elementi
portanti.
In
particolare
Ia struttura a traliccio onizzontale
e'
formata
da
sezioni
rettangolari
cave.
Vengono
inollre
progettati
alcuni
giunti tipici
e le
fondazioni.
vi
Proyecto
de Edificios con Estructura de Acero. Edificlo Industrial en Celosia
Resumen
El
proyectista
de
edficios
de una
planta para
usos comerciales o industriales
dispone
de
dferentes posibles
soluciones. Para la selecciOn deben tomarse decisiones sobre
revestimientos,
materiales
y fonna
de la estructura. Esta
publicaciOn
aclara
para
los
estudiantes todos
losfactores que infiuyen
en Ia eieccin
final
de un
proyecto
adecuado.
Se
analizan
dferenres formas
de
ed/lcios
as! como la elecciOn de revestimiento
y
sus
elementos de
soporte
a nivel de diseflo
conceptual.
Se tratan ademds
otrosfactores influyentes
relacionados con la
fabricaciOn,
transporte y montaje.
Se
escoge
como modelo una estructura
aporticada
de acero
formada por perfiles
de alma ilena
en los
pilares y
una celosta
para
la
cubierta,
desarroiidndose
completamente
todos los detalles
del
proyecro.
Como ilustraciOn se
incluye
ci ca/cub dew//ado de un
edficio
de 30 m. de
anchura,
48 m
de
ion
gitud y
6 m. de altura. La soluciOn
comienza considerando las
cargas principales
sobre
las barras. A
continuaciOn se 1/eva a cabo un anlisis dew//ado as( como la
comprobaciOn
de
todas las barras
(la
celos(a de cubierta estd
formada por
tubos
rectangulares).
Tamb(en se
proyectan
los nudos
y
zapatas t(picos.
vii
1. INTRODUCTION
In
general
the basic brief for the
design
of the
majority
of
single
storey
buildings
for industrial
and commercial use is to
provide,
for the
client,
a
structure
which
has
no
internal columns.
If
some columns are essential the number should be limited.
Thus,
in
principle,
the
requirement
is for the construction of four walls and a roof for a
single
or multi
bay
structure. The walls
can be formed of different materials
e.g.
steel columns with
cladding
which
may
be of
profiled
or
plain sheet, precast concrete,
or
masonry
load
bearing
walls etc. The
designer
will
generally
consider for the roof a
system
of beams or latticed frameworks in
structural steel
to
support
the roof
cladding.
Solid web beams will make use of
universal beam sections.
The use of
light
latticed frameworks for the roof of an industrial
building provides
a
neat,
efficient structure which
frequently
satisfies architectural
requirements.
The
design
of the
steelwork is
simple.
Modern fabrication
systems
and erection
procedures
make these
structural forms economic.
This is
particularly apparent
when it is
appreciated
how
many
industrial
buildings today
employ
latticed roof
framing
and how
many
makers of standard
buildings,
as well as
suppliers
of industrialised
building systems,
make use of this
type
of
framing
in
preference
to solid web
beam construction.
The
purpose
of this
publication
is to discuss the
many
factors which
can
influence
the decision
making
process
and can lead
to
adopting
latticed framework construction. Alternative
design
solutions are then illustrated
by
means of a
practical example.
1
2. SCOPE
The
scope
of
the
publication
is
mainly
restricted to
plane
frame structures. Other
forms,
such
as
space
frames,
are not considered in detail.
Various
types
of steel sections are used in the construction
of the
components
for this
type
of
structure,
viz, hot rolled structural
shapes
such
as universal
beams,
universal
columns,
angles,
structural hollow
sections and cold formed
sections,
etc.
Important
factors
which must be considered at the
conceptual stage
of the
design process
are
the
questions
of
workshop
facilities
-
including
size
-
and
transportation
between
workshop
and site. Whilst
long girders
or
large
sections
may
appear
to be
desirable,
in order to reduce
the number of site
connections,
this can
reduce the number of fabricators who could tender
for
a
given project.
In the United
Kingdom,
road
transport
is
normally
used
and loads
up
to 2.9 m
width,
18.3 m
long
and
76,200 kg weight
may
be moved without
any problems.
Above these dimensions the
Police need to be notified of "Abnormal Indivisible Loads"
and
indemnity
to
Highway
and
Bridge
Authorities is
required.
Where the dimensions exceed width 6.1
m,
length
27.4
m,
or
weight 152,400 kg
a
Department
of
Transport Special
Order is
required.
(Reference
'Abnormal Indivisible
Loads',
"Aide Memoire
for Requirements
as to Notice and
Authorisation
when not
complying
with Construction and Use
Regulations",
Source:
Director
(Transport),
Departments
of
the Environment and
Transport).
It should be noted
that the various
police
authorities have different
periods
when abnormal
loads are allowed
to move
through
their districts. If
neighbouring
"times" are
significantly
out of
phase
and
general
traffic
hold-ups
cause
disruption
to the movement of abnormal loads
it is
possible
for the latter to be
delayed by
up
to 24 hours. If one or more
cranes and
associated erection
staff are held
up by
these enforced
delays,
the additional costs can be
very
significant.
Certain towns and cities
place length
restrictions on materials which can
be moved
by
road
e.g.
certain areas of London restrict
lengths
to 12 m.
Girders can be fabricated and
despatched lying
flat,
the overall
height
of the load is
dependent
upon
the route travelled and the clear
height
of
any bridges likely
to he encountered. Rail
transport
can accommodate
long pieces,
but width and
height
are
more restricted.
One solution to limit the
length
and
height
of units
being transported
is to use a
system
as
illustrated in
Figure
1. The two external sections are
shop
welded
and the central section is
site or
shop assembled;
the whole
being
bolted
together
on site. The
completed
rafter can be
craned into
position.
For
export
where
shipment
is
involved,
pieces up
to the same dimensions
as for road
transport
may
be accommodated but it should be
appreciated
that
shipping
charges
are often based on
volume rather than
weight.
Often there are
relatively
severe
restrictions on the
length
of a
piece
that can be carried in the hold of a
ship.
The
ship's engineer may
refuse to
carry
the
steelwork as deck
cargo.
It
may
be found more economical to
despatch
the steel
piece-small
for
subsequent
assembly
on site. Care must then be taken to ensure that
the site work is
satisfactory.
Other factors of
importance
which can influence the economics of this
type
of construction
are
the facilities available for fabrication and for erection on site.
2
Many
fabrication
shops
now have
equipment
which can cut and hole steelwork in
a
semi-automatic manner
thus
reducing
direct labour costs.
Jigs
can also be used for the
rapid
assembly
of
components.
All these tend to make lattice construction more attractive.
On site
the
lighter
overall
weight
of individual
components
can result in the
use
of
simple lifting
equipment;
site costs rise
appreciably
if
heavy
cranes have to be installed for erection
purposes.
For the
design example
in this
publication
it is assumed that the
building
is for the home
market and that a well
equipped
fabricator will manufacture and erect the steelwork. It
follows that the
design
must be in accordance with the
appropriate
British
Standards,
codes
and
regulations.
Brief
explanatory
notes on
these
publications
are
given
in
Section 3.
External
Central
section section
7,7,7
Z7rr
Figure
1
Sectioned
girder
3
3. STANDARDS AND CODES OF PRACTICE
3.1 British Standard 5950
-
Structural use of steelwork in
building
This document' is in nine
parts combining
codes
of
practice
to cover the
design,
construction
and fire
protection
of steel structures
and
specifications
for
materials, workmanship
and
erection.
The relevant
parts incorporated
into this
publication
are Parts 1 and 5.
3.1.1 BS 5950: Part 1: 1990 Code of
practice
for
design
in
simple
and
continuous construction: hot rolled sections
This limit state
specification provides limiting
values for
strength
and deformation for various
elements
which
form
part
of
structures,
and for whole
systems.
The document' covers
aspects
related to hot rolled sections i.e.
UBs, UCs, angles, channels,
hollow
sections,
etc.
3.1.2 BS 5950: Part 5: 1987 Code of
practice
for
design
of cold formed
sections
This
specification2, using
limit state
philosophy, provides limiting
values for
strength
and
deformation and identifies full
design procedures
and
empirical
methods. Within this
publication,
it is used in the
design
of
purlins
and side
sheeting
rails.
3.2 BS
5502
-
Buildings
and structures for
agriculture
Various
parts
which cover
materials,
design,
construction and
loadings3.
3.3 BS 6399: Part 1: 1984
-
Design Loading
for
Buildings
This is a "Code of
practice
for dead
and
imposed
loads"
for
use
in
designing buildings(4
(this
is
provided
as a revision to
CP3
Chapter
V
Part 1: 1967 which it
supercedes).
3.4 BS 6399: Part 3:
1988
-
Code of
practice
for
imposed
roof
loads
This is a "Code of
practice
for
imposed
roof loads" and in
particular suggests
methods of
considering
snow loads for various
buildings5.
The loads can be used for
permissible
stress
design
or where factored loads are
adopted.
This code
recognises
the variation
in
snow
loading throughout
the United
Kingdom
and the
effect of variable snow loads on a roof due to
drifting
effects.
3.5 CP3:
Chapter
V: Part 2: 1972
-
Wind Loads
The effect of wind on a
building
has been found to be
very complex
and
dependent upon
many
factors such as the
geographical location,
the
shape
of the
building
and its
relationship,
to other
buildings
and natural
features.
The
various rules for
calculating
the
design
wind
loads on a
structure and its
cladding
are
given
in this code of
practice6, supplemented by
a
guide published by
the
Building
Research Establishment7.
4
This code will be
replaced
by
BS 6399: Part 2.
3.6
Statutory
regulations
In
addition to the above the
buildings
must
comply
with the
requirements
of the
Building
Regulations,
which
apply
in
England
and
Wales,
and where
appropriate
with the
special
variations or
equivalent regulations applicable throughout
the UK. Particular thermal and
sound insulation
requirements
of the
cladding
must also be met. For
buildings
outside the
United
Kingdom
the local
regulations
must be observed. Whilst
many places accept
structures
designed
to British Standards care must be taken to consider
any
unusual features such as
typhoons
or
earthquakes.
3.7 National structural
steelwork
specification
for
building
construction
(2nd Edition)
The
object
of this
publication8
by
BCSA and SCI is to achieve
greater uniformity
in contract
specifications
issued with tender and contract documents.
3.8
Quality
assurance
BSI
Handbook
provides
a
comprehensive
document of the relevant standards associated
with this
topic.
Of
particular
interest to the
designer/fabricator/erector
is BS 5750 : 1987'
which
provides
a three level
specification
of
QA
requirements
in
the contractual situation.
5
4.
BUILDING
FORM
4.1 General
Before
proceeding
to the detailed
design
of a lattice framed roof it is desirable to consider the
alternatives available.
At the outset is must be
appreciated
that if an industrial
building
is to be warm
during
the
winter
and cool
during
the summer some form of
heating
and ventilation is
required
in
addition to the thermal insulation called for
by
the Thermal Insulation
(Industrial Buildings)
Regulations.
The roof
space,
which will be heated with the rest of the
building
unless cut off
completely
by
a horizontal
ceiling,
is a constant
charge
on
running
costs without
contributing
to the work
space.
There
are, therefore,
financial
advantages
in
keeping
the roof
space
to a
minimum
bearing
in mind that services can be accommodated in this
space.
This can be
achieved
by keeping
the roof
space
as shallow as
possible,
commensurate with
economy
of
initial cost and
efficiency
of the
cladding.
A flat
roof,
or a roof with
only
a nominal
camber,
can reduce the roof
space
to the minimum
but
may
be
expensive
to build since the roof
cladding
will have to be of a more
sophisticated
nature to ensure
adequate
weather
protection. Again,
with
a flat roof of
any
reasonable
span,
deflection of the
structure
or
girders
becomes
important
and extra steelwork
may
be
required
merely
to reduce it. A
portal
frame
design helps
to reduce the deflection but it does not
reduce the cost of the
cladding
and the
provision
of
the
necessary rigid joints
is an
added cost
on the
structure.
Probably
the most economical form
of
roof
construction
is
one of low
pitch (say
50 which
is
the
preferred
minimum)
on
which a
simple
form of
cladding
can be used with success and
which at the same time reduces
deflection whilst
maintaining
reasonable
heating
costs.
However care is
required
in the
selection
of
the
type
of
sheet,
the
type
of
fixing
and the
sealing
of end
laps (which
should be
avoided,
if
possible). Special
care is
required
where
translucent
sheets
are
required
(see
section 5.3 on
cladding).
For other than raised seam
roofing
7

is the
preferred
minimum
slope.
4.2 Low
pitch
roofs
Such low
pitch
roofs can be
supported by
either solid web
beams,
castellated beams or lattice
frames. Each has
advantages
and
disadvantages
which must he examined before a decision
can be made.
4.2.1 Solid web beam
This
is the heaviest form
though relatively simple
and
cheap
to make.
However,
the
depth
of
section
satisfactory
for structural
purposes may
be too shallow for
the
penetration
of
service
ducting.
A monorail or
underslung
crane can be
supported
at
any position
but local
stiffening
of the section
may
then be
required.
4.2.2 Castellated beam
This is a method of
increasing
the sectional
properties
of a beam without
materially
increasing
the
weight.
The roof
space
increases but some services can be accommodated in the
castellations. Monorails can be located as
required
but it
may
be
necessary
to fill in local
castellations and stiffen the
flange
to
carry
the load. Castellated beams increase the
bending
strength
and flexural stiffness
quite significantly.
Enhanced shear
capacity
at
points
of
high
shear can be accommodated
by
filling
the castellations in that
region.
6
4.2.3 Lattice
frame
Figure
2 shows three
different
types
of rafter and indicates the facilities for services and
monorails. It also illustrates
that,
notwithstanding
its extra
depth,
the lattice frame has a
distinct
advantage
where services
have to be carried in the roof. In
addition,
the reduction in
weight
of the
girder
can result in
economy
in
the
supporting
structure and foundations.
This is the
lightest
form
of construction
though
it
requires
more fabrication. The roof
space
increases but services can
usually
be accommodated within the
depth
of the
girder.
Monorails
supported
at the
panel points
cause little
problem,
but if
they
are located between them some
local
stiffening
may
be
required.
The latticed
girder
will have
a much
larger
second moment of area and section modulus
(about
XX
axis)
than a
corresponding
solid
web beam of a similar
weight.
Therefore there will be
enhanced
strength
and
stiffness.
Type
(c)
Figure
2
Typical
roof
girders
Monorail
7
Solid web beam
Type
(a)
Type (b)
5. LATTICE FRAMED ROOFS
5.1
Simple
forms
Depending
on the overall dimensions of the
building,
the lattice framed roof can
take
many
forms,
some of which are examined below:
5.1.1
Single bay
low
pitch
roof
Economically
spans up
to 30m are often fabricated
using
standard
UB,
UC section
portals.
Above this
span lighter
rafters are
provided by
latticed
girders,
as shown in
Figures
1 and 3.
The
advantage
of the horizontal boom is that
designing
for the "kick out"
effect,
Figure
4,
is
removed. Columns are then
only designed
for axial load and moment
(due
to the
eccentricity
of the
load)
from the
roof,
in addition to wind load on the vertical
cladding.
A factor to be
considered is the
possible lengthening
of the bottom boom due to tensile strain.
5.1.2
Multi-bay
low
pitch
roof
Eaves
displacement
The
single
low
pitch
roof can be
extended
into
a series of similar
bays (Figure
5).
Alternate
stanchions in the
valley
can be
omitted,
the intermediate roof frames
being
carried on a
longitudinal valley girder, spanning
two
longitudinal
bays,
as indicated.
5.1.3
Single bay monopitch
roof
When the
slope
of the roof is low it is sometimes
advantageous
to use a
monopitch
roof
(Figure
6).
The extra roof
space
can be
compensated
for
by
the
saving
in
drainage
since a
gutter
is
required only along
one
edge
and not two.
Monopitch
roofs are
mainly
used for
relatively
small
spans.
8
Figure
3
Single bay
low
pitch
roof



/
Figure
4
"Kick out "effect
Figure
6
Single bay
monopitch
roof
5.1.4
Multi-bay
roof
In
combining
frames to obtain a
multi-bay system
alternate stanchions can be omitted
(Figure
7).
The roof is
supported
at the
apex
and the
valley by girders spanning
two
longitudinal bays. Alternatively
a
multi-bay
frame can be
provided using
a
multi-monopitch
roof
arrangement (Figure
8.)
It is
preferable
to ensure that a
valley gutter
is wide
enough
for an erector or maintenance
operative
to stand in.
In
the alternative case
using
mono
pitch
roofs
(Figure
8)
the lattice frames
all
slope
in
the
same direction. Extra
gutters
are
required
but
advantage
can
be
taken to introduce
lights
above the
valley gutters.
This
system
is
particularly
useful if direct
sunlight
into a
building
is
to be avoided. The
glazing
can then be
provided
in the north
facing slope
of the saw-toothed
roof.
Eaves
gutter
Ridge
Cladding
Side
cladding
Figure
5
Multi-bay pitch
roof
flashing
Side
claddi
bolts
Side
Ridge flashing
Longitudinal
girders
Stanchions at alternate
frames
Figure
7
Alternative
multi-bay pitch
roof
9
5.2 More
complex
forms
North
light
Cladding
Where
large
internal areas are to be
relatively
free of
stanchions,
a double
latticed
system
can
be
adopted.
Here, secondary
frames
in one direction are
supported by primary
frames
spanning
in the other direction between
widely spaced
stanchions.
These notes on lattice
framed construction would
not be
complete
without some
reference to
more
complicated
forms built
up
of lattice
frames or lattice
girders
and
trusses and of
space
frames.
5.2.1
Umbrella roof
In this form of construction
light
trusses are
slung
either side of
main lattice
girders
(Figure 9).
The
pitch
of the roof
must be sufficient to accommodate
the main
girders
which
in turn should be of sufficient
depth
to avoid excessive
flexibility,
bearing
in mind the
incidental
application
of
imposed
and wind
loading.
Care
needs to be taken to ensure
adequate provision
for
drainage
of rainwater.
The trusses
act as cantilevers with the
bottom chord in
compression
from
imposed loading
but
wind
loading may
cause a reversal of stress.
Since these
compression
members are not
laterally
restrained
(in
normal truss construction
the rafters are the main
compression
members
and
they
are restrained
by
the
purlins
etc.)
a
system
of inclined or horizontal
bracing
is
required.
Eaves
Ridge
cladding
Figure
9 Umbrella
roof
10
Figure
8 Alternative form of
multi-bay using
monopitch
roof
Roof

Stanchion

Cantilever trusses
Floor,
level
5.2.2
Space
frames
When
large
areas need to be covered
by
a
roof,
with minimum use of internal
columns,
a
possible
solution is to use a
space
frame.
Generally
these are formed of tetrahedrons as
shown in
Figure
10. In
principle, parallel
series of lattice booms
(top
and
bottom)
are
connected
by
a
system
of
diagonal
members to form a latticed
2-way spanning
plate
of
significant
stiffness.
Angle
section
upper
ch
bars
11
Tubular
Secondary
tie bars
Space
deck module
Figure
10
Typical space
frame
5.2.3
Butterfly
roof
The
butterfly
roof
(Figure
11)
is
unlikely
to have the
drainage problem
of the umbrella roof.
Since the lattice
girders
do not
directly
govern
the
slope,
the roof
can be flatter. The lattice
girders being placed
in the
valleys
do,
however,
call for
increased roof
space.
5.2.4 General
comment
These various
forms,
and indeed
many
others,
are
frequently adopted
to suit
the
requirements
of a
particular project,
but it must be remembered that
they
can increase
the unit cost of a
structure
compared
with the more
simple
forms.
Side
cladding
Figure
1 1
Butterfly
roof
5.3
Cladding
Cladding
to a
building (roof
and
walls)
has to be
provided
to
satisfy
aesthetic
and functional
criteria and to
satisfy
the economics
of the
project.
A
satisfactory appearance
is
accomplished by
selecting
the
appropriate
colour
and
shape
to
blend in with the remainder of
the
building
and
neighbouring
structures.
A useful "Product Selector" for
"Roofing
and
Cladding
in Steel" has been
produced by
BSC
Strip
Mills Products' '. This
provides
details of about 70 different
products.
Functionally,
the
system
has to
provide
resistance to
atmospheric
conditions,
sound
transmission,
and
light
reflection.
It is essential to ensure that both roof
and walls are
watertight
under all
conditions,
wind causes no
damage
to either
cladding
or
structure,
and
adequate
insulation is
provided against
heat and
cold.
Structurally, cladding
has to be
of
adequate
strength
and stiffness to resist induced stresses
and excessive deformation. Profiled
sheeting
is
commonly
used since it satisfies
these
requirements
and is
additionally light,
durable and
easy
to erect
quickly.
Coated steel sheets are
extensively
used
for
cladding
all
types
of industrial
buildings. They
are available in a wide
range
of
profiles
(rib depths)
and colours.
Many proprietary
cladding
products provide integral
insulation
systems,
making
use of
expanded polystyrene
or similar
insulation material. Double skin metal
systems
are available and are considered
by
some
designers
to be the best
type
of
cladding. Clearly
where
composite cladding systems
are used
there is
only
one
operation
for the erectors.
12
Roof
Eaves
ci
H.D.
bolts
In
general
a
single
skin is used for
stores where heat retention is not a
significant
factor
e.g.
timber stores
etc.
In
factories and offices where the
envelope
is
dependent
on the "U'
value,
double skin
cladding
is a sensible solution.
However, lining
sheets
may
be a critical
factor in the
design
for wind suction.
Sheets,
supported by purlins (Figure 12),
are available in
long lengths.
Where
possible,
sheets are lifted
into
position by
cranes to
provide
better
safety
conditions for the fixer.
Hence the number of
laps
should be minimised in order to reduce the
possibility
of water
ingress,
particularly
on shallow
slopes.
It is
possible
to
vary
the
spacing
of
supports
for
cladding depending
upon
the thickness and
shape
of the
profile.
Three factors
generally
control the
spacing.
The first is
purlin
size and the second is the limitations of
lining
supports.
Often
the
length
of the inverted 'T' sections used to
support lining panels
is limited
to about 1.8
m,
consequently
purlin
centres are restricted
to that dimension.
Finally purlins
are often used to
provide
lateral restraint to the rafters or frames. All of these factors need to
be considered
to determine the most economical solution to the
roofing
system.
Aluminium
sheeting
is similar to steel
sheeting,
although
it tends to be
lighter.
The
aluminium
coating
may provide
better resistance
to industrial
atmospheres, greater
solar heat
reflection and
brighter appearance.
Natural
lighting
can be
provided
by
the introduction of translucent sheets
(which
structurally
can be
very weak),
or stretches of
patent glazing.
The latter is
clearly
more
expensive
and is
often limited to
slopes greater
than 12.
Translucent sheets can be moulded to the
profile
of
the main
cladding
and would use similar
fixings.
Care must be taken in
positioning
roof
lights.
It is
generally necessary
to have a metal or
similar main
cladding
sheet at the
top
and bottom
of the roof
light
in order to
provide
adequate strength
to the
system.
When
lights
are
placed
near to the eaves and/or
ridge
there
may
be
inadequate support.
Cladding
can be fixed
by
the use
of self
tapping
screws or hook bolts. Self
tapping
screws
may
have recommended
torques.
An
aspect
to be
carefully
considered is the thickness of the
purlin.
It is essential to ensure there
is sufficient thickness of metal to accommodate self
tapping
screws. If there is
any
doubt it is advisable to check with the
cladding
and
purlin
manufacturers of the
adequacy
and
safety
of
the
composite system.
Screw sizes
vary
and their
strengths
are
dependent
on their
"pull-out" capacity.
In
checking
these the screw
manufacturer has to take into account the
high
"local" wind suction effects.
Often
gutters
are
placed
inside at eaves level to
provide
enhanced
appearance.
However,
this
advantage
needs to be
weighed against
the
difficulties
which
may
be encountered in the
repair
and maintenance of the
gutter.
With this
system
the use of overflow weirs should be
considered
to allow for blocked
pipes
and freak storms.
5.4 Purlins
Purlins are
required
to
support any
of the
types
of
cladding
available. Cold formed sections
have been
developed
to
provide
elements of
adequate strength
and stiffness which also allow
maximum
speed
of
erection.
If the
design
criteria is such
that cold formed sections are
inappropriate
then use can be made
of hot
rolled sections.
13
For frame
spacings
between 6.0 m and 10.0 m a
propped purlin system
can be
adopted
constructed from either
light
angle,
tee or channel sections
or
structural hollow
sections,
as
shown in
Figure
12. For even wider frame
spacing
the
use
of lattice
purlins
should be
considered.
They
can be made
up
in
many ways, e.g.
using
flats with rod
lacing
or small
structural hollow sections.
(Cold
formed lattice
purlins
are also
available).
Castellated beams
have been used on occasions.
It should be noted that both
propped
and lattice
purlins
can be useful for
providing
restraint to
the bottom of the main
supporting
frames.
As
indicated
in
Section 5.3 on
cladding
it
may
be
necessary
to limit the
purlin
centres to
1.8 m
(generally
fabricators
prefer
1.7
m to
1.9
m).
Of
particular
consideration is the location of the
purlins
relative to the node
positions
of the
lattice frame. If
they
coincide with the nodes then the
top
boom would
only
transmit axial
loads.
If
they
are located between nodes then
bending
is induced in the boom member in
addition
to
axial forces.
The
span
of
purlins may
be controlled
by
a fixed
specification
for the main frame centres.
Alternatively
frame centres
can be determined
by selecting specific purlins
which
may
have
limiting spans.
Cold formed
sections are
normally
available in
lengths up
to 10 m and
depths
from 120 mm to 300 mm.
Normally spans
are of the order of 4.5
-
6 m. To enhance the
lateral stiffness of the
purlins
it
is
sometimes
necessary
to use
anti-sag
bars
-
Figure
16.
This,
however,
can increase labour
costs and therefore their use should be
weighed against larger
purlins
or closer frame
centres.
An
aspect
to
be considered concerns the
design
for snow loads. Cold formed
purlins
have
generally
been
developed
on the basis of tests carried out
using
uniformly
distributed loads.
Snow
loading may
be
trapezoidal
and care is
required
in the
interpretation
of the
manufacturers' literature.
A further
design
criteria which has
implications
on
purlin
size is the
incorporation
of a
dominant
opening
in the side of a
building.
This can
significantly
increase the
uplift
due to
wind.
Purlins are often
used to
provide
lateral restraint to the
compression flange
of the
main
supporting
frames,
and to transmit wind loads to the
bracing system.
If
this is the case
combined
loading
needs to be considered when
selecting
the
appropriate purlin
i.e. it could be
subjected
to the maximum dead
plus superimposed (snow) loads,
which induce
bending,
and
additionally
axial
load from wind effects.
Eaves
purlins
are
also available which have a
sloping top flange.
Various
types
of
purlins
are
shown in
Figure
12.
5.5 Side
rails
In
general
the comments
provided
in the
previous
Section on
purlins
are
applicable
to side
rails. The loads
acting
on these will be different since
vertical forces are induced
by
the self
weight
of the
cladding
which acts
perpendicular
to
the wind loads.
Sheeting
rails are often
fixed at about 1.8 m.
Generally,
a
limit of 2 m is
placed
on their centres.
Anti-sag
rods
are
more
easily
fixed to stiffen
these elements.
14
Asbestos
cement
sheets
Self
tapping
screws
Steel
sheets i
5)L
S%iRaft:):;;:ul:tion
Cold formed Z
(Anti-sag
bars
required
for
spans
over 4.5
m)
'Structural hollow section
(circular or
rectangular)
Propped angle purlin
Sheeting
and insulation
Lattice
purlin

Roof
girder
Figure
12
Types
of
purl/n
15
Purlin
Lattice
girder
Purlin
stays
Hook bolts
Hook
Sheeting
Rafter
Angle
Insulation
Rafter
Roof
girder
Props
to bottom of roof
girder
6. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
Before consideration is
given
to the method of
analysis
and
design
to be
adopted
certain
decisions have to be
taken,
which
may
later be modified as the
design progresses.
The effect
of
any
modifications
clearly
can alter the detailed
design
and alterations to calculations would
ensue.
There are
four
principal components
of a
light
industrial
building
i.e. the
cladding,
the
cladding supports,
the main frame and the foundations.
Early
decisions are
required
on
type(s)
of
cladding
and
type
of
purlin
and
sheeting
rails.
Since these are all
supported by
the main frame.
If the frame
is considered as a
simple portal, Figure
13,
it is
necessary
to decide on the
type(s)
of
fixity
to be
provided
at the
base,
eaves
and
ridge. Generally,
the columns to the
frame will be of I or H
section,
unless the
building incorporates
a
high capacity
overhead
travelling
crane when a
composite
column
might
be
required.
If the rafters are to be latticed structural steelwork it is
possible
to use different
layouts
of the
internal
members, Figure
14.
However,
since the
diagonals
are
likely
to be
subject
to stress
reversal,
due to wind
effect,
the warren
type
truss is
generally preferred.
In
selecting
the
layout
it is
necessary
to decide on the
position
of
purlins.
If these are located at node
points
then local
bending
in individual
top
boom members are avoided. In
principle,
forces in all of
the members are either direct tensile or
compressive,
with
bending
and shear effects
being
secondary,
as a result of deformation of the truss.
Analysis
of the framework can be carried out
by
hand
calculation, drawing
or
computer.
In
the first two
methods,
it is essential to assume that all
joints
are
pinned
and
preferably
end
support
conditions to the rafters are such that the truss is
statically
determinate.
When a software
package
is used there are a number of
options,
three of these are:
(i)
assume all
joints
of the truss and the connections to the columns are
pinned;
(ii)
assume full
rigidity
of all
joints;
(iii)
assume the internal
bracing
members are
pinned
to the booms
which are
considered
to
be
continuous
and
therefore
rigid.
In
adopting
(i)
or
(iii)
it is
necessary
to consider the
possible
effect of
secondary
stresses
caused
by:
(a)
loads
applied
between the truss
nodes;
(b)
moments
resulting
from the actual
rigid joints
and truss deflections.
Additionally,
in all cases care needs to be taken in
member
layout,
since
secondary
stresses
can be induced
by eccentricity
at the connections.
(Specific
reference should be made to
BS 5950: Part
1,
Clause 4.l0' and Structural Steel
Design'2 by Dowling,
Knowles and
Owens),
Dowling
et al
suggest secondary
stresses should be calculated for
heavy
trusses used
in industrial
buildings (e.g.
those
supporting
overhead
cranes)
and
bridges.
It
is
traditionally
recognised (e.g.
in British Steel
Publication,
Design of
SHS Welded Joints'
3))
and Dowl
ing
et
al also
suggest
that latticed structures are
assumed,
for
design
purposes,
to have
pinned
joints.
This
may
lead to
higher
defiections than those induced in a
rigid jointed truss,
but in
practice
16
this is
unlikely
to be
significant
with the
exception
of
girders supporting
crane beams.
The
design example
illustrated uses a
package
hut initial hand calculations are used to
ascertain member sizes. These are useful for the software data
input.
Generally
a decision will be taken
early during
the
conceptual design process
on the
type(s)
of
member(s)
to be used for the latticed frame. There are
many options:
(a)
Hollow sections
-
circular or
rectangular.
(b)
Traditional sections
-
angles, tees, channels,
UCs.
(c)
Combination of
(a)
and
(b).
The selected truss should reflect the need not
only
to
produce
the
lightest
frame but also to
minimize the cost of fabrication and erection.
Rigid
Pinned Pinned
Pinned
Rigid
Fully rigid
Pinned
Figure
13 Basic
arrangement
for
portal
frames
'Pratt' or
'n'
truss
'Warren' truss
Figure
14
Typical arrangement
for latticed
girders
17
Rigid Rigid
An
example
of
composite
form is shown
in
Figure
15 where the booms are of UC section and
the internal members RHS. The UCs enable
easy
connection of services to the truss and
easy
connection to columns. Also
bracing
in
the
plane
of the roof can be
provided using simple
in
plane
members and
simple
connections,
or
by using
the relative stiffness of an I or
H
section.
When hollow sections are used with welded
joints
reference
should be made to the British
Steel
Publications,
listed in Section 7.5. It
is essential to ensure that it is
possible
to make a
full weld. Difficulties can arise
where
large
booms and small internal members are used
which
may
require joint
stiffeners. These
may
be
expensive
and it is
likely
to be
prudent
to
increase the member size. The
designer
must be aware
of
problems
which can arise in the
detail
design
at the
joints.
The
specific advantages
of hollow sections
(and tubes)
when
compared
with traditional
sections
(UBs,
UCs, Channels,
Angles
etc.)
are the
high strength
to
weight
ratio,
maximum
efficiency
in
tension, efficiency
as
struts,
good
torsional
properties, appearance
and
maintenance. In
deciding
to use CHS or RHS the
designer
should remember that some
fabricators are not
fully equipped
to use circular hollow section.
Their main
disadvantages
can be the
higher
cost of connections
especially
at nodes
involving
overlapped
CHS
bracings
and
chords,
the relative difficulties of
making
on site connections
for services
(electrical etc.)
and
higher
basic costs than traditional
sections on a
tonnage
basis
(overall,
however,
lighter weight
frames are
produced).
Relevant to the
design
code BS 5950: Part 1(1) is the consideration of section classification
(Fable
7
of
the
code).
Tees cut from UBs are
generally slender,
hence a reduced
yield
stress
has to be used.
Tees cut from UCs are not affected in the same manner.
In
designing
the
joint
it is
necessary
to examine whether
high
local stresses will be induced
by
the selected
arrangement
and member sizes. These
high
local stresses
may
even occur when
member axes intersect.
The relative
slopes
of the internal members are relevant to the
detailing
for the fabrication
process.
If
they
are
parallel
to each other then the
angle
of cut at each
end is identical for all
members.
The final decision
on the
type(s)
of
member(s)
to be used
may
be influenced
by
aesthetics and
not cost.
CHS
UC UC
RHS
OHS
RHS RHS RHS
CHS UC UC
RHS
Figure
15 Alternative lattice
girder
layouts
18
7.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
The
design
of all the steelwork for low rise lattice framed
buildings
should
satisfy
the "aims
of
economical structural
design"
and "limit state"
philosophies
outlined
in
the
appropriate
Codes of Practice.
Basic
design assumptions
are made as to the
behaviour of the various units which make
up
the
structure.
7.1
Purlins and side rails
Purlins and side
rails can be
designed
to
satisfy
the
strength
and deformation
requirements
of
the
appropriate
codes or
they
can be
designed using empirical
rules
given
in
Clause 4.12 of
BS 5950: Part 1' and Section 9 of BS
5950: Part 5(2)
It is of note that the
empirical
rules are based on unfactored loads and also that the tables of
section
properties (A
checklist
for
designers'6 published by
the
SCI)
do not list
plastic
moduli
for
angles.
Purlins are
generally designed
as continuous
members,
over two or more
spans,
supporting
uniformly
distributed
loads.
In
this case connections have to be made to transmit
shear and
bending.
Cold formed
sections can be selected from manufacturers'
catalogues
where
it is
guaranteed
that the
carrying capacity
of the various
systems
is based on the results of extensive research
and
development.
Continuity
is obtained
by
the use of
sleeves,
and the effective
length
of
purlins
are reduced
by
the use of
anti-sag
bars
(Figure
16).
When
applied
loads are not
uniformly
distributed
e.g. trapezoidal
snow
loading
or when
purlins
are used
to
support
ventilation
systems
etc. then
original
calculations are
required.
These will
make use of BS 5950: Part 5 and section
properties
for cold
formed
purlins
provided
in
manufacturers'
catalogues.
7.2
Lattice framed roof
girders
As indicated in Section 6
the
design
will
be based on the
assumption
that
joints
are
pinned,
rigid
or
a
combination of the two.
The
girder
will
support
vertically applied
dead
and
superimposed
loads
plus
wind loads. The
latter is
likely
to induce stress reversal in the
members. The rafter will also transmit the
horizontal wind loads from the
vertical
cladding
and
may
act to transmit wind loads in the
plane
of the roof.
Typical
load directions are shown in
Figure
17.
7.3 Stanchions
When
pinned
bases are
adopted
then moment
fixity
is
required
at the column head. The
column will be
designed
for
axial and shear forces
only
at the bottom but for
axial,
shear and
bending
in the
upper length.
Use of fixed bases enables the stanchions to be
designed
as
propped
cantilevers,
although
it should be noted that
simply
linking
the
top
of the stanchions
with
the roof trusses does not
provide
a
fully rigid propped system.
The column heads and
19
girders
can all move
together.
It is of note that the relative
stiffness of the rafter and column
are
significantly
different
(possibly
of the order of
4 to
1).
Also
changes
in the overall
depth
of the rafter can
significantly
increase or decrease
the stiffness of that member.
The stanchion
size is controlled
by
its effective
length,
which is
likely
to differ about
orthogonal
axes. Care is
required
in the selection of end and intermediate
fixity
conditions.
Reversible
wind loads
Figure
17 Frame loads
20
rail
Cleat (behind)
rafter
Figure
16 Sleeved
purlln system
I
I
\
Dead &
I
Vertical
imposed
loads
Reversible
wind loads
I
Vertical
cladding
(dead)
load
7.4
Bracing
Bracing
must be
provided
to
accommodate wind loads on the
gable
columns. This can be
used to facilitate
plumbing
and
squaring
the
building
during
erection.
It can also
provide
essential
stability
to
the steelwork
during
erection.
Bracing
normally
consists of
diagonal
members between columns and
trusses both in the walls
and
plane
of the roof. The
bracing
can be
single diagonal
or cross
members
(Figure 18).
If
the former
system
is
adopted
the members are
designed
to
support compressive
and tensile
loads. When cross
members are used
only
the members in tension
are assumed to be
effective,
those in
compression
are
designed
to
satisfy
the
slenderness
criteria,
Clause 4.7.3.2
of BS 5950: Part 1: 199O'.
When
masonry
is used
as all or
part
of the vertical
cladding,
it
is feasible to use that element
as
part
of the
bracing system.
/\NN/7NNNN
Single
diagonal
roof
bracing
><
><
x
><
Cross
member roof
bracing
Figure
18 Roof
bracing
7.5
Connections
A
very important aspect
of
design
using any
material is the
design
of
connections. Structural
members are
designed
to
carry
axial
loads,
shear
force, bending
moment and
torsion.
Consequently
connections
must be
designed
to transmit these
forces from one element to
another without
inducing
excessive stresses or
deformations.
To
produce
a
good design
of a
complete
structural
assembly
it is essential for the
designer
to
clearly
state at an
early stage
the basic
methods
by
which various members are to
be
joined.
Sophisticated
methods of
analysis
are now available to determine to a
good degree
of
accuracy
the forces and deformations
throughout
both
simple
and
complex
structures.
This
degree
of
sophistication
is not however
generally
available in connection
design.
The stresses induced
by
connections are often
indeterminate and their distribution
throughout
a
joint
is not
always
consistent even in
identical conditions. Stress is
always
a
function of deformation and the
latter
can
vary
with the
irregularities
of the
properties
of the members
being connected,
the
type
of
fasteners,
the
quality
of
workmanship
in
making
the connection and "built in" stresses
in
the
parent
members.
21
Most
connection
design
is,
at
present, only approximate.
The essential aim is to
provide
the
type
of connection
stipulated by
the
designer
which is
efficient,
economical and
aesthetically
pleasing.
The latter is not
always
essential. Use
will be made
principally
of the basic laws of
statics i.e.:
EX =EY =EZ
=0
=
EM
=
EM
=
0
i.e. all
joint
behaviour will be considered to be
statically
determinate. The distribution of
internal forces in a connection has to be assumed and either elastic or limit state
design
may
be
appropriate.
The fabrication of
connections
is
particularly
labour intensive and therefore in order to
keep
overall
costs down
it
is
necessary
to
try
to
produce simple
but efficient methods of
joining
members,
by welding
or
bolting.
In
general
the
design
of connections will follow the
recommendations
given
in
BS 5950:
Part 1:
1990,
Section Six. Connections.
In the case of the
following design example using
hollow section the
design
is carried out
using
as references the
following publications produced
by
British Steel viz:
Design
of SHS Welded Joints TD 338'
Jointing
TD
325
Welding
ID
328'
Hot finished structural
hollow
sections;
sizes,
properties
and technical data TD
167
Useful
reading
in the first instance is TD 325 which
provides
an indication of the wide
spectrum
of
application
of RHS.
Publication
TD
338
provides
a clear method of
Designing
SHS Welded Joints. As indicated
in Section Six of BS 5950: Part
1,
it is common
practice
to
carry
out the
analysis
on the basis
of
pin-jointed
frames with members in direct
compression
or tension and the centre lines of
members
intersecting
at the
nodes,
as shown in
Figure
19. Often it is
necessary
to
provide
a
gap
or
overlap
as shown in
Figure
20. Joints
may
take
a
variety
of
geometric
forms as shown
in
Figure
21. TD 338 details
the method of
establishing
the
joint's design capacity
in limit
state
terms, compatible
with
BS
5950 and Eurocode 3.
It should be noted that fillet
welds
generally provide
the most economic method of
connecting
members in
structures
subject
to static load.
Clearly
one
exception
is the case of end to end
connections where butt welds can be
provided
to
develop
the full
strength
of the sections
connected. In this
case with RHS sections internal
backing
members are
provided,
which are
formed from
strips
20-25 mm
wide and 3-6
mm
thick.
Of note is the recommendation in a
paper by
N
Yeomans,
New
Developments
in the use
of
Structural Hollow Sections17:
"Because of the influence of member and
joint
geometry
on the
joint behaviour,
it
is
important
that
engineers design
the
joints
when
determining
member
sizes;
with
SHS
design
this
job
should not be left to the detailer".
22
Figure
19
Noding joints
a)
Gap joint
with
positive eccentricity
Figure
20 Definition of
eccentricity
b) 100%
overlap
joint
with
negative
eccentricity
X
joints
I and Y
joints
/
/
N
and K
joints
with
gap
N
and K
joints
with
overlap
I
/
oy[1%e2
-*
-
/
Figure
21
Joint
geometries
23
a
/
,es
Y-------k-
8.
EXAMPLE
-
DESIGN
BRIEF AND APPROACH
8.1 Brief
The client
requires
a
single storey, single bay
industrial
building
to be used as a
light
machine
shop.
It is to be sited on an industrial estate on the
outskirts of Leicester.
Main dimensions
-
30
m
wide
x 48 m
long
x 6.7 m to eaves
Cladding
-
Colour
coated steel sheets to
roof,
sides and
ends with 20%
natural
lighting provided by
translucent sheet inserts.
Insulation
-
A
lining system
to be
provided
to wall and roof
sheeting.
Access
-
A roller shutter door 4 m
X 4 m
is to be
provided
in both
gable
ends with
personnel
doors 1 m
x 2 m
adjacent
and
along
the
side walls.
Note:
The
possibility
that the roller shutter doors would
be
open
during
a severe
storm was discussed with the client.
The final
decision was
that the
design
should be based on the
assumption
that both
doors would be closed
during
a severe storm.
Services
-
Allowance
was to be made to
support
set-vices from the
roof
structure. Mechanical
handling
was not
required.
General
-
It was
agreed
that:
(a)
The roof
pitch
would be set at 50
(b)
The roof to be of hot rolled hollow section
latticed
framework.
(c)
Hot rolled
I
sections
would be used for the columns.
The outline of the
building
based on the above brief is shown
in
Figure
22.
Selection
of RHS for the roof structure is based on its
enhanced
efficiency
and the cost
effectiveness of
joints
which
will,
in
general,
be
quite simple.
The
girders
will be
shop
fabricated in two
halves,
approximately
15 m in
length
and 1.2 m
deep.
Hollow sections can be used
in
simple,
semi-rigid
and
rigid design
and can
adequately
carry
axial
(tensile
and
compressive)
loads, bending,
shear and torsion.
8.2
Cladding
Since the decision
has
already
been made to use colour coated steel
sheets with insulation
lining
and translucent sheet
inserts,
it is
only necessary
to settle
upon
the most
suitable
thickness and
profile
of
sheet to be
adopted.
This need not be the same for both
roof and
sides and
they
are therefore considered
separately.
24
5
pitch
Cross section
Roller shutter
door
/
E
0
/
I
I
0
(5.;
4,
>.
(5
co
/
30.Om
Plan
-
Centre lines of frames
End
elevation
Figure
22 General
layout
of
building
25
8.2.1 Roof
sheeting
The
span
of the roof is 30 m and with a 5
pitch
the
length
of one
slope
is
marginally
over
15 m. Not all manufacturers
produce sheeting
of such
length
and it
may
be
necessary
to
use,
say,
2/8 m sheets
lapped
at the centre. The
laps
should be bedded in sealant because of the
low rise.
A suitable
spacing
for the
purlins
will be 1.85
m,
which on a
slope length
of about 15
m,
divides the rafter
of
the
roof frame into
eight panels.
A
typical sheeting system
would be the
"Warmclad
1000R",
with
lining,
manufactured
as
a
BSC Profile
(Reference 6),
this is suitable
for roof and walls.
8.2.2 Wall
sheeting
The
height
from
the floor
to the eaves
is 6 m
hence
sheeting
rails can be
spaced
at 1.5 m c/c.
To achieve a different architectural effect to the
building
either a different sheet and/or an
alternative colour could be
adopted.
Figure
23 shows a cross section of the
building.
6.0 m
0.7m
,1
Figure
23 Cross section
26
Lined roof
cladding
and translucent sheets Ridge
tie
Lined wall
cladding
'Weathering
curb
ground
level
15.0 m
Half
span
9. DESIGN OF STEELWORK
9.1
Loading
The
loading
for which the steelwork must be
designed
is in four
parts:
(1)
Dead load
-
from
cladding
and
structure,
assessed from the mass/unit of the
various items
(Reference 4).
(2) Imposed
load
-
(Reference 5).
(3)
Service load
-
allowance for
trunking
etc.
required by
client.
(4)
Wind load
-
(Reference 6).
The first three
loading
conditions can
be calculated as the
design proceeds
but the assessment
of the wind load
requires
consideration of the
complete
structure at the outset.
9.1.1 Load factors
Table 2 of BS 5950: Part iW
.yf
Dead load 1.4
Dead load
restraining uplift
or
overturning
1.0
Dead load
acting
with wind and
imposed
loads 1.2
Imposed
load 1.6
Imposed
load
acting
with wind load 1.2
Wind load
1.4
Wind
load
acting
with
imposed
load 1.2
Forces due to
temperature
effects 1.2
9.2
Assessment of roof load
BS 6399: Part 3 : 1988
provides
the detailed
method of
evaluating
minimum
imposed
roof
loads
(Clause 4).
With no roof access
the load is taken as the
greater
of:
(a)
the
uniformly
distributed snow load.
In this case
Figure
1 in
the code
provides
the "basic snow load on the
ground",
say
0.6 kN/m2
=
s0.
The roof snow load
Sd
=
j s
where 0.8
(Figure
4 in the
code).
Hence
Sd
=
0.48 kN/m2
27
(b)
a
uniformly
distributed
load
(u.d.1.)
of 0.6 kN/m2
For
simplicity
in this
example drifting
has been
ignored
and the roof snow
load is therefore
taken as 0.6 kN/m2.
9.3 Assessment
of wind load on structure
CP3 :
Chapter
V : Part 2 : 1972(6)
gives
a detailed method of
calculating
the
design
wind
loads on a structure. The code was
prepared
following
extensive
investigation
at the
Building
Research Establishment.
The
dynamic
pressure q
exerted
by
the wind is
found in the formula:
q
=
kV2
N/rn2
where:
q
=
dynamic pressure
k
=
constant
having
a value of 0.613
V
design
wind
speed
=
V x
S1
x
S2
x
S3
where
V
=
basic wind
speed
for
geographical
location
S1
=
topography
factor, usually
taken as
unity (except
where conditions are
abnormal)
=
ground roughness,
building
size and
height
above
ground
factor
S3
=
building
life
factor,
usually
taken as
unity.
S3
is a factor inserted in the formula to enable account
to be taken of
any
special
circumstances which
may justify
a variation
in
the
design
wind
speed.
For a
factory
located in the Midlands the basic wind
speed
V,
from the
map
in the
code,
is
44 rn/sec.
Then,
if
unity
is
accepted
for
S1
and
S2
the
design
wind
speed,
V
V
x
S2.
A wide
range
of values
for
2
are
given
in Table 3 of the code.
These are divided into four
groups
related to
the
surroundings
of the
building
under
consideration,
and each
group
is
divided into three classes
relating
to
cladding
or structure and its size. The value
of
2
also
varies with the
height
above
ground
level,
stepped
at intervals.
The
building
in this
example
is located on an industrial
estate where it will be surrounded
by
other
buildings. Group
3 is thus
applicable,
with Class
A factors for the
cladding
and,
since
none
of the main dimensions exceeds 50
m,
Class
B
factors
for the structure.
Table 3
gives
values of
S2
at
heights
of
3,
5 and
10 m above
ground.
As the overall
height
from
ground
level to
ridge
is
say
8 m the value of
S7
for the
structure at that
height may
be
obtained
by
interpolation
between the tabulated
values at 5 m and at 10 m and this
results in a
value of 0.70. The values of
S2
are therefore
as shown in
Figure
24.
(For
more detailed
information on the values of
S,
reference should
be made to Wind
loading
handbook
published
by
BRE7).
28
Figure
24 Values of coefficient
S2
Using
these values for
2'
the
design
wind
speeds
and
dynamic pressures
over the two
height
ranges
are as tabulated below:
Table
1
Wind
speeds
and
dynamic pressures
Height
range
m
Cladding
Structure
S2 V
q
rn/s N/rn2
S2 V,
q
rn/s N/rn2
(a)
Oto3
(b)
3 to 8
0.64 28.16
486
0.75
33.00 668
0.60 26.40 427
0.70 30.80 582
The
design
wind loads on either the
cladding
or the structure are found
by multiplying
the
dynamic pressure, q, by
the area
applicable
and
by
a further coefficient
C,
in the case of
externally applied
forces and
C
for the internal
effects
i.e.
internal
pressure
or suction which
depend
on the
permeability
of
the
building
shell.
Values for the external
pressure
co-efficient,
C
,
are related to the
shape
and dimensions of
the
building
and are
given
in
Tables
7
and B orc3 :
Chapter
V: Part 2: 1972(6).
For the
building
under consideration the relevant information is:
Width of
building,
w
=
30.0 m
Length
of
building,
1
=
48.0
m
Height
to
eaves,
h
=
6.7 m
Then hiw
=
6.7/30
=
0.22 < 0.5
and 11w
=
48.0/30
=
1.6
i.e. between 1.5 and 4.
From Tables 7 and 8 of the code
the values of
C
are:
(a)
wind on side
of
building
Windward side
=
+0.7
Leeward side
=
-0.25
Windward roof
slope (5)
=
-0.9
Leeward roof
slope (50)
=
-0.4
Either
gable
end
=
-0.6
(b)
Wind on end of
building
Windward
gable
=
+0.7
Leeward
gable
=
-0.1
Both roof
slopes
=
-0.8 maximum
Either side
=
0.5
The
following
calculations are
based on the
assumption
that the doors will be closed
during
a
severe
storm,
which has
validity
and also
simplifies
the
design process
for this
example.
Hence
C
is taken as the more onerous of +0.2 and
-0.3.
29
However,
it should be
noted,
as stated in
Appendix
E to CP3:
Chapter
V: Part
2:
1972,
that
the value taken for the internal
pressure
coefficient,
must be
related to the
permeability
of
the
cladding
and the
presence
or otherwise of
large openings.
It is
necessary
to ensure the
correct decision is taken
concerning
the
permeability
of a
building
which is constructed with
one or more
large
doors. It is
often,
quite incorrectly,
assumed that the
door(s)
will
always
be closed
during
a severe storm. In
reaching
this decision no account is
taken of
loadings
which will arise
during
the construction
period
when it is
very likely
the door
will
not be
in
position.
Nor does it take into account the use of the
building
which,
during
its
lifetime,
is
likely
to be such that the door will be
unavoidably opened.
An
argument
also
put
forward is
that in the event of the door
being open during
a severe
storm,
the
sheeting
would
probably
"blow
out" before
damage
to the structure occurred.
The
various
coefficients to be used to determine wind loads on sides and roof of the structure
only
are shown
diagrammatically
in
Figure
25.
As far as
general stability
i.e.
overturning,
is concerned internal
pressure
has no effect since
the horizontal forces on the sides and horizontal
components
of the forces on
the roof all
cancel each other. For the
design
of individual members and for
deciding
on the minimum
anchorage required,
the most adverse conditions
are taken from
(e), (f), (g)
and
(h)
of
Figure
25.
0.7f}225
o[_'b}.5
Wind
on side
Values of
c1
Wind on end
Pressure Values of
c,,
Suction
0.5
4TfO.45
0.
0.7
(C)
-
( 0.2)
(C,,)
-
( 0.2)
1.0
TIj..o.os
0.
(C)
-
( 0.3)
(C)
-
C 0.3)
Figure
25 Evaluation of total
pressure
coefficients
(Cpe
and
C,,1)
30
The
following
calculations are made
using
the values of
q applicable
to the structure. The
cladding
and its
fixings
must be
capable
of
resisting
the
higher
values shown in Table
1,
adjusted
by
the values of
C
and
Cr1.
The areas
adjacent
to the
eaves,
ridge
and
verges,
and
the corners of the
building
are
designed
using
the local coefficients in Tables 7 and 8 of the
code,
which are aimed at
avoiding
local
damage.
These local coefficients for the
fixing
of
claddings
are
significantly
different to those shown for the
structure,
but these are not included
within the
scope
of
this
publication.
This is information which would be
required by
the
manufacturers of
cladding
and
fixings.
9.4
Design
of
purlins
These
may
be either cold rolled or hot rolled sections and both a cold rolled zed section and a
hot rolled
angle
are
designed
for
comparison.
The
purlins
have a
span
of 6 m and are
spaced
at 1.85 m centres.
9.4.1 Cold rolled Z
purlin
Normally
a cold rolled
purlin
can be selected from a manufacturers'
catalogue (e.g.
Metsec'8)
where safe
distributed
loads are
given
for various sizes and
shapes.
No further
design
checks are
necessary
if these have been
designed
to BS 5950: Part 5: 1987(2).
Dead
load, sheeting
and
lining, say
0.19 kNIm2
Imposed
load
QQ
kN/m
Total dead and
imposed
loads 0.79 kNIm2
Self
weight, say
kN/m2
Total load
0.82 kNIm2
Using
a load factor of 1.6 the
design
load due to dead and
imposed
is 1.6
x
0.79
=
1.27
kN/m2. Purlin
design
is based on a normal load
acting
on the member. The dead and
imposed
loads are
gravitational.
However the difference between
gravitational
and normal
loads for a low
pitch
roof is not
significant.
From a manufacturer's
catalogue
a 202 x 65 x 60 x 1.8 mm thick Z
purl
in
(Figure
26)
will
carry
an allowable
(unfactored)
load of 1.29 kN/m2
(excluding putlin
self
weight
of
5.01
kg/rn).
The
maximum
wind
uplift
on the roof
will
be 0.582
x
1.1
=
0.64 kN/m2
(see
Table
1
and
Figure
25(e)).
In
selecting
an
appropriate purlin
it is
necessary
to consider the effect of
using
the
purlin
as
part
of the
bracing
to transmit wind loads in the
plane
of the roof. See Section 10.7.1.
Gross
uplift
on a
purlin spanning
6 m at 1.85 m centres
=
(0.64
-
0.22)
x
6
x
1.85
=
4.44 kN. With a factor of 1.4 the
design
wind
uplift
=
4.44
x
1.4
=
6.3 kN.
According
to the manufacturer's
catalogue
the Z
purlin
selected is
capable
of
resisting
a wind
load of 9.2 15 kN. To
support
this load no
anti-sag
bars are
required.
Use 202 x65 x6Ox
1.8
31
H 65b
1 ______
1.8
Figure
26 Z
purlin
9.4.2 Hot rolled
purlins
(I) Anti
sag
rods
Purlins
(and rails)
can be
designed
in accordance with Clause 4.2' i.e. as
beams,
or
empirically (as
in this
example) using
the rules detailed in Clause 4. 12.4'. The elements are
designed assuming
the
cladding provides
lateral restraint to the section.
Clearly
the
cladding
and
fixings
have to be
capable
of
providing
the
necessary support
(in
particular
care is needed
in areas of
high
local wind
effects).
Anti-sag
rods
may
not be
required
when hot rolled sections are used for
purlins spanning
less
than 6 m.
They may
however be used to
provide stability during
erection.
This
will
reduce
deflections in the
plane
of the
cladding.
(ii)
Angle purlins (Figure
27)
Rafters
@
6 m c/c
Dead +
imposed
load
=
0.8 kN/ir?
(refer
to Section
9.4.1)
However the minimum
imposed
load
(Reference
1 Clause
4.12.4.3)
should be taken as
0.75 kN/m2. Hence
load/purlin
=
0.95 x 1.85
=
1.76 kNIm.
32
wp
wp
Figure
27
Loading
on
purlins
For self
weight
first consider:
=
6000
=
133
45 45
B L6000_100
6O
Minimum
section to
satisfy
D
and
B
would
be
200x
lOOx 10
angle.
This
weighs
23
kg/rn.
Total load
=
Wp/m
=
1.76 +
0.23
=
1.99 kN/m.
Hence
W,
=
1.99
x
6
=
12.0 kN
(note
-
unfactored loads are
used).
WL
12x6000
Therefore Z
1800 1800
40 cm3
This will be satisfied
by
the 200x100x10x23
kg/rn angle (Z
=
93.2cm3).
(ii!)
RHS Purlins
The
limiting
factors
in
this
case
are:
WL
1800
say
40 as before

600040
Minimum section to
satisfy
D
and B is a 100x50x6.3
RHS,
this
weighs
13.4
kg/rn
and
Z
=
40.5
cm3,
or consider lOOx6Ox5x 11.7
kg/rn
RHS,
Z,
=
38.5 cm3.
Thus
W,
=
(1.76
+
0.12)6
=
11.3 kN.
zi
11.3
x
6000
37.7 cm3
1800
Section is
satisfactory.
Of note is the
significant
difference in
weights
of the cold formed Z section
(5.01
kg/rn),
the
hot rolled
angle
section
(23
kg/rn)
and the hot rolled R}IS
(11.7 kg/rn).
Unless
special
conditions dictate it is
highly unlikely
that other than a cold rolled section will
be used
for purlins.
Of
note is
the
possibility
that tubes with
open
ends
may
be
subject
to internal corrosion.
It
is
recom,nended that hollow sections are sealed.
33
9.4.3
Design
of side rails
These
may
be cold or hot rolled. Side rails
span
of 6 m
horizontally
and are at 1.5 m c/c
vertically.
From
Figures 25(f)
and
(g)
and Table 1 the characteristic wind loads are:
Pressure 1.0
x
0.582
=
0.582 kN/m2 Factored
pressure
=
1.4 x 0.582
=
0.815 kN/m2
Suction 0.7
x
0.582
=
0.407 kN/m2 Factored suction
=
0.570 kN/m2
(I) Cold rolled Z rail
From manufacturer's
catalogue
a suitable section is 142 x 54 x 49 x 1.8 mm thick Zed
sleeved
system, using
one row of side rail
supports.
(ii) Hot rolled
angle
rail (BS 5950: Part
1,
Clause
4.12.4)
Using
weight
of
sheeting
and
lining
of
0.2
kN/m2,
the
vertical load
on
a
rail
=
0.2
x
6
x
1.5
=
1.8 kN. Allow for self
weight
of 0.2 kN/m. Hence
W1
=
1.8 +
(6
x
0.2)
=
3.0 kN
(Figure
28).
W2
=
3.0
kN
1
W1=5.24kN

-Y
Figure
28 Side rail
arrangement
W1L
(0.582
x
1.5
x
6)
x
6000
-
5.24
x
6000

17
5
cm2
1800
1800

1800

where
W1
is the unfactored
horizontal load
Z,
17.5 cm3
W2L 3x6000
3
1200 1200
15cm
L 6000
D

134mm
B
6000100mm
A 150x 150x 10x23
kg/rn angle
satisfies
(Z
=
56.9,
Z,
=
56.9
cm3).
Check D since
Z1
provided
is
greater
than minimum
Z1 required
from Table
30
and Clause
4.
12.4.4(d)(').
34
6000 17.5
D'..
= __
x=41
tmi
45 56.9
ButD B
hence check a 120x120x8x14.7
kg/rn angle
(Z1
=
Z2
=
29.1
cm3)
In
this case the
controlling
factors are
Z1
=
17.5 cm3 and
Z2
=
15
cm3,
which are
satisfied.
Check D
x
=
80
mm,
which is satisfied.
Use 120
x
120
x
8 x 14.7
kg/rn angle.
(iii) Hot rolled RHS
Z1
17.5 cm2
Z2
15 cm3.
O857
B
A 100x60x3.6x8.59
kg/rn
RHS
would
satisfy. Adjustment
can be made for D i.e.
6000 17.5

D1..
x___52
70 29.3
In this case
there is no available
lighter section,
a thicker walled section
might
be
preferable.
Use
142
x54 x49
x
1.8 Zed sleeved
system
with one row of
anti-sag
bars.
9.4.4 Eaves detail
At the eaves a
possible
solution when
using
a Zed
purlin system
is to use a cold formed eaves
beam. A
typical
section is shown in
Figure
29.
Figure
29
Special
eaves
purl/n
35
9.4.5
Design
of
gable
rails
These will be of different size to the side
rails
since, although
the vertical
spacing
will be set
at 1.5 m
c/c,
the
spans
are 7.5 m. Consideration could
be
given
to
maintaining
the
spans
at
6 m. Side rails would then be of the same
size
throughout.
The
loading
is the same as the side rails i.e.
pressure
0.582 kN/m2 and suction 0.407
kN/m2.
From manufacturer's
catalogue
a suitable section
is 202
x
60
x
60
x
1.6 mm thick Zed
single
span
system,
using
2 rows of side rail
support.
It should be noted the
gable
rails are
single
span,
whereas the side rails are
sleeved. The latter are used
providing
there are two or
more
spans.
The
gable
end
is broken
by
the
provision
of the
large
roller shutter
doors.
Use 202 x60 x6Ox
1.6 Z.
9.4.6
Typical system
Typical arrangements
for a
building
which
incorporates
Z
purlins
and Z side
rails are shown
in
Figure
16.
9.5
Design
of main roof
frame
In order to
design
the members it is
necessary
to decide on the
method(s)
of
analysis
to be
used to obtain member actions
(forces,
moments
etc)
and deformations. In this
example
it is
initially
assumed,
in order to determine
preliminary
member
sizes,
that the frame is a
portal
as
shown in
Figure
30,
where:
(a)
the columns are
pinned
at the
base;
(b)
the
girder
is
initially
treated as a "beam with
partial
restraints at the end". The
bending
moment and deflection at the centre
can then be
evaluated;
(c) Having
deduced the
bending
moment in the
girder
the
joints
of the latticed
truss are
assumed to be
pinned
(this
complies
with Clause 4.
lOW).
Figure
30 Lattice
girder/pinned
portal analogy
9.5.1
Preliminary design
-
joints
of latticed truss
pinned
Span
30
m; spacing
6 m.
To
proceed
with the
design
it is
necessary
to estimate
the
self
weight
of the
girder. Initially
assume that the self
weight
will
approximate
to 50% of the
weight
of the
cladding.
36
The frame
adopted
is a lattice
girder (beam).
As such there are two main
design
criteria to be
considered
namely strength
and deflection.
In the case of
strength, assuming
use is made of Grade 43
steel,
the maximum
yield
stress
allowed is 275 N/mm2
(Table 6(1)).
Allowance has to be made for slenderness and member
classification in order to determine the
design strength (p
for struts
(Tables
7 and
27(1)).
The
reduction can
vary
from 2% to 75% of the full member
compressive capacity.
Generally
the smaller the member cross section the
larger
the
percentage
reduction.
With
respect
to deflection limitations are not
specified,
in fact Table (1)
particularly
excludes
pitched
roofs. However
experience
has shown that a deflection limit of
span/200
is a useful
guide
for such a shallow
pitch.
If the
girder
is assumed to
be
subject
to a
uniformly
distributed
load
(as
distinct from 17 No.
purlin
loads) then,
say,
deflection
limit is
384 El 200
where W
(kN)
is the unfactored
imposed
load and L is in metres.
(Note:
deflection for a
simply
supported
beam
supporting
a
udl
(14')
is
5WL31384
El and
for
a
fixed ended beam
it is
IVL3/384
El.
Hence for
partial
restraint
assume deflection is
214L3/384
El).
Taking
E
=
205 kN/mm2 and
re-arranging
the
required
I
=
0.51
WL2
cm4.
Preliminary
calculations are thus carried out
assuming
the self
weight
of the
girder
approximates
to 50% of the
weight
of the
cladding,
the
compressive
stress in the boom is
250
N/mm2,
in the
diagonal
strut 220 N/mm2
and
I
required
is
0.51
yp2 cm4.
9.6
Preliminary
calculations
9.6.1
Loading (excluding
wind)
-
based on full
sheeting
width
say
30.6 m
kN
Dead load
(characteristic)
Sheets and
lining
30.6 x 6 x 0.2
=
36.8
Purlins 18
No. x
6
x
0.04
=
4.3
Self
weight
of
girder, say
=
18.4
Services
load,
say
=
1L
Total
=
71.0
Imposed
load
(characteristic)
30.6
x
6 xO.6 110
kN
Design
load
(Table
2 of BS 5950: Part
1)
F=(1.4x71)+(1.6x 110)=276kN.
37
9.6.2
Initial member size
(i)
Main booms
a)
Assume
maximum
bending
moment
(BM)
in the
girder
=
WL
=
276
x
30
=
5l8kNm
16 16
The assumed BM of WL/16
takes into account the
partial
restraint
produced
on the
whole
girder by
the connection to the columns
i.e. BM at the centre lies between
WLI8
for a
simply
supported
beam and WL/24 for a fixed
ended beam
(both subjected
to a udl
of
WkN).
b)
Since the
girder depth (d)
is 1.2
m the
approximate
force in the
top
and bottom boom
members is 518/1.2
=
432 kN.
c)
Using
an assumed
compressive
stress for the
top
boom,
of
say
250 N/mm2 the area
required
=
432x10
2
______
=
17.3cm.
250
d)
The
designer may
chose to
incorporate
the slenderness
criteria
provided
in
Clause 4.10(1). These limitations have not
been
brought
into this
design
since it is
considered that
secondary
stresses
in
this
"lightly
loaded" truss will not be
significant.
(This
is checked in Section
11.0).
Use a 120x80x5.0X
18.4
kg/rn
RHS
(A
=
18.9 cm2) for top boom.
Whilst the bottom boom will be
subject
to tension
and
compression (the
latter at the
support)
select its
preliminary
size on the basis
of a tensile force of 432
kN,
at the
centre.
For
bottom
tie area
required
=
432
x
10
=
15.7 cm2
275
Use
a 120x60x5x 13.3
kg/rn.
(A
=
16.9 cm2) for
bottom boom.
e)
Deflection
Requiredl=0.51
x
110x302=5.0X
Considering
area of
top
and bottom booms
as 16.9 cm2.
I
provided
is
approximately
equal
to 2A
(d/2)2
=
0.5Ad2.
=
0.5
x
16.9
x
1202
=
12.2 x
cm4,
which is
satisfactory
(and
indicates that
deflection
will not be
critical).
38
-
(ii)
Diagonals
Total load
=
276
kN.
Hence shear
in
end
panel
=
say
138
kN.
The
diagonal
slopes
at an
angle approximately tan'(1.2/0.925)
=
52.4and has a
length
of
1.52 m.
Force in
diagonal
=
138/sin 52.4
=
175 kN
(tension
and
compression).
Hence area of strut
=
175
x
10/220
=
8.0cm2.
Use 60x40x5x6.97
kg/rn
RHS. (A
=
8.88 cm2)
for
diagonal
struts.
Area of tie
=
175
x
10/275
=
6.4 cm2.
Use 60x40x4x5.72
kg/rn
(A
=
7.28 cm2) for
diagonal
ties.
Ciii)
Check Self
Weight
Self
weight
=
30.6
(14.8
+
13.3)
+
16
x
1.52
(5.72
+
6.97)
=
1169
kg
11.7kN
(compared
with the assumed value of 18.4
kN).
Hence
figure
used
in
the final calculation
could be reduced.
Say
self
weight
=
13.4 kN
(i.e.
reduction of 5
kN).
(iv)
Final
loads, excluding
wind
Dead,say
=66kN
Imposed
=
110 kN.
(v)
Columns
(preliminary sizing)
The columns which have
pinned
bases are
subject
to axial
load, bending
moments and shear.
The combination of axial load and
bending
affects are assessed
using
the
equations given
in
Clause 4.8 of BS 5950: Part 1.
Consequently
a
simplified approach,
based on axial loads and
moments,
is much more difficult to define.
A
useful
guide
to the size of the column is to
consider the second moment of area 'F. The ratio of
'girder:
'column
normally
lies between
4:1 to 1:1. A further
guide
is to use the
relationship
'c"g
=
3h/2L.
Hence
1c
=
'g
X
3
X
6.7/(2
x
30)
i.e.
say
=
Jg/3.
Since
'g
=
12.2 x i04 cm4 then assume Ic
=
4 x i0 cm4. A suitable section for the
column would be 457 x 191 x 89 UB
=
4.1 X i0
cm4).
(vi)
Preliminary
member sizes
The
preliminary
member
sizing
is assumed to be as calculated and the relevant
section
properties
have been
incorporated
into the
computer analysis.
39
9.7
Loading
Cases
(for
characteristic
loads)
DEAD
(see
9.6.1
(iv))
Dead load on
girder
=
66.0 kN
Load/purlin
=
66/16
=
4.13 kN
IMPOSED
Imposed
load on
girder
=
110 kN
Load/purlin
=
110/16
=
6.87 kN.
WIND
CASE
I
(refer
to
Figure 25(e)).
Slope
area of
sheeting
=
6 x 15.4
=
92.4 m2.
Load/purlin,
left hand
slope
=
1.1 x 0.582 x
92.4/8
=
7.4
kN
(uplift).
Load/purlin, right
hand
slope
=
0.6 x 0.582 x 92.4/8
=
4.04 kN
(uplift).
Load on left hand column
(rail
area
=
1.5 x 6
=
9
m2),
allowance needs to be made for
say
300
mm
sheeting overhang
to
top
and bottom rails i.e. area
supported
=
6 x 1.05
=
6.3 m2.
Lower rails
=
(0.5
x
0.427
x
9)
Upper
rails
=
(0.5
x
0.582
x
9)
Load on
right
hand column
Lower rails
=
(0.45
x
0.427
x
9)
Upper
rails
=
(0.45
x 0.582 x
9)
=
1.92 kN
(pressure)
=
2.62 kN
(pressure).
1.73 kN
(suction).
=
2.36 kN
(suction).
WIND CASE II
(Refer
to
Figure
25
(fT))
Load/purlin,
both sides
Lower
rails,
both columns
Upper
rails,
both columns
=
6.72 kN
(uplift)
=
2.69 kN
(suction)
=
3.67 kN
(suction)
WIND
CASE Ill
(refer
to
Figure
25
(g))
Load/purlin,
left
hand
slope
Load/purlin, right
hand
slope
Lower
rails,
left hand side
Upper
rails,
left hand side
Lower
rails,
right
hand side
Upper rails, right
hand side
9.8
Analyses
=
4.04 kN
(uplift)
=
0.67 kN
(uplift)
=
3.84 kN
(pressure)
=
5.24 kN
(pressure)
=
0.19 kN
(pressure)
=
0.26 kN
(pressure)
The
general
frame
layout
is shown in
Figure
31.
For "hand"
analysis
the sizes of
respective
members do not effect the calculations of
pin-jointed
frames.
40
C
'1

v
i

F
i
g
u
r
e

3
1

G
e
n
e
r
a
l

l
a
y
o
u
t

o
f

f
r
a
m
e

\

(
5
9
)

-

M
e
m
b
e
r

n
u
m
b
e
r

2

2
8

-

J
o
i
n
t

n
u
m
b
e
r

P
i
n
n
e
d

b
a
s
e

J

3
O
.

For the
computer analysis
the
properties
of the
following
member sizes are used:
Top
boom 120x80x5 RHS
Bottom boom 120x60x5 RHS
Diagonals
-
struts 60x40x5 RHS
-ties 60x40x4 RHS
Columns 457x191x89 UB
For the
computer analysis
the columns are assumed to have
pinned
bases and are continuous
from base to eaves
e.g. joints 2, 3, 4,
and 5 are
rigid.
The
joints
of the lattice
girder
are
assumed to be
pinned including
the
connections to the columns at
joints 5, 6,
39 and 40. The
girder
acts as a brace to the two
pinned
columns. The
respective
tension and
compression
in
the
top
and bottom booms
provide
an
effective moment at the
top
of
the
column
providing
an
analogous pinned portal,
as
shown
in
Figure
30.
This
is Frame
Type
No. 1.
In
Section
11
alternative frame
analyses
are considered.
The
positioning
of the
purlins
at node
points
removes the effect of local
bending
between
joints
in the case of the
pin-jointed
truss.
In
practice
it is
possible
the number of
panels
would
have been reduced from
8
to
say
6.
In
this case
bending
would be induced in the rafters.
Design
could then have been in accordance with Clause
4.10(c)
of BS 5950: Part
1,
incorporating
a BM of WLI6 with the axial forces or
using bending
moments obtained from
the
computer analysis.
Typical loading diagrams
are shown in
Figures
32 and 33. These were used in the
respective
computer analyses.
The results of the
analyses
are listed in Tables 2-5.
42
I
n

2
.
2
2

k
N

I
m
p
o
s
e
d

3
.
f
i

k
N

1
5

x

4
.
4
4

k
N

1
5

x

6
.
8
7

k
N

D

(
5
8
)

(
5
q
)

2
.
2
2

k
N

(
3
)

3
.
4
4

k
N

I

.
1

3
0
.

O
m

I

F
i
g
u
r
e

3
2

V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

l
o
a
d
i
n
g

d
u
e

t
o

d
e
a
d

a
n
d

i
m
p
o
s
e
d

l
o
a
d
s

o
n

g
i
r
d
e
r

I
t
,

U
,

I
n

0

7

x

1
.

k
N

0
.

3
.
7

,
.

2
.
0
2

c
'
J

0

(
5
6
)

c

7

x

4
.
0
4

k
N

(
6
0
)

(
6
1
)

(
6
2
)

(
6
5
)

(
6
6
)

2
.
0
2

k
N

(
6
1
)

3
0
.
O
m

1
.
3
S

k
N

1
.
1
3

k
N

2
.
3
6

k
N

2
.
0
5

I
c
N

1
.
1
3

k
N

0
.
8
1

k
N

F
i
g
u
r
e

3
3

L
o
a
d
i
n
g

o
n

c
o
l
u
m
n
s

a
n
d

g
i
r
d
e
r

d
u
e

t
o

w
i
n
d

c
a
s
e

1

I
,

I

Table
2 Axial forces
(kN)
and
bending
moments
(kNm)
in columns
F M
F M F M F M
Notes: ye
BM
indicates tension
on inside of column face.
ye Force indicates
compression.
+ve Force indicates tension.
Wind Case Ill has not been tabulated
-
examination of
computer print-out
indicated that the loads
were not
significant.
* *
Members
highlighted by
two asterisks are critical members for
subsequent design.
45
MEMBER DEAD IMPOSED WIND I WIND II
1
-33.0 0 -55.0 0 +50.4 0
+54.6 0
2 -33.0 28.5 -55.0
47.4
+50.4
-51.6 +56.6 -38.9
3 -33.0 57.0 -55.0 94.9 +50.4 -100.3 +54.6
-81.8
* *
-33.0 85.5 -55.0 142.3 + 50.4 -145.6
+
54.6 -129.5
* *
-23.8 104.6 -39.5 173.9 +35.6 -173.3
+39.4 -164.3
73 23.8 104.6 39.5 173.9 +26.4 -116.0
+39.4 -164.3
74 -33.0 85.5 -55.0 142.3 +37.2 -91.7 +54.6 -129.5
75 -33.0 57.0
-55.0 94.9 + 37.2 -58.2 + 54.6 81.8
76 -33.0 28.5 -55.0 47.4 + 37.2 -27.8
+
54.6 -38.9
77 -33.0 0 -55.0 0 +37.2 0 +54.6 0
Table 3 Axial forces (kN)
in
top
boom
Truss Members Pin Jointed
MEMBER DEAD IMPOSED WIND I WIND II
6
+64.9
+
107.3
-107.8 -98.7
7 +21.8 +36.2 -37.3 -30.1
8 -14.5 -24.1 +21.6 +27.9
9 -44.3 -73.7
+
68.8
+
75.3
10 -67.6 -112.5 +104.4 +112.2
11
-84.4 -140.4 128.2 +138.5
12 -94.8 -157.7 +140.5 +154.2
*
-98.7
-164.1 + 141.1
+154.2
14
-98.7 -164.1 + 135.0
+
159.3
15 -94.8 -157.7 +124.8 +154.2
16 -84.4 -140.4 +108.3 +138.5
17 -76.6 -112.5 +85.3 +112.3
18 -44.3 -73.3 +56.0 +75.5
19
-14.5
-24.1
+20.4 +28.1
20 +21.8 -36.2 -21.7 -29.9
21
*
64.9 -107.3 -70.1 -98.4
Notes: ye BM indicates tension on inside of column face.
ye Force indicates
compression.
+
ye Force indicates tension.
Wind Case III has not been tabulated
-
examination of
computer print-out
indicated that
the loads were not
significant.
* *
Members
highlighted by
two asterisks are critical members for
subsequent design.
46
Table 4 Axial forces (kN)
in internal boom members
Truss Members
Pin Jointed
MEMBER DEAD
IMPOSED WIND I
WIND II
*
22
*
*23
*
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
+ 35.6
-38.8

30.6
-33.3
+
25.6
-27.9
+
20.6
-22.4
+ 15.6
-16.9
10.5
-11.5
+5.5
-6.0
+0.5
-0.5
+ 13.9
-0.5
+ 0.5
-6.0
+5.5
-11.5
+ 10.5
-16.9
+ 15.6
-22.4
+
20.6
-27.9
+
25.6
-33.3
+
30.6
-38.8
+
35.6
+
59.3
-64.6
+ 50.9
-55.5
+ 42.6
-46.4
+ 34.2
-37.3
+ 25.9
-28.2
+ 17.5
-19.1
+9.2
-10.0
+0.8
-0.9
+ 23.1
-0.9
+ 0.8
-10.0
+ 9.2
-19.1
+ 17.5
-28.2
+ 25.9
-37.3
+ 34.2
-46.4
+ 42.6
-55.5
+ 50.9
-65.5
+ 59.3
-58.6
+ 63.9
-49.6
+ 54.0
-40.6
+ 44.2
-31.6
+
34.4
-22.5
+ 24.5
-13.5
+ 14.7
-4.5
+ 4.9
+ 4.6
-5.0
-18.9
+5.6
-5.2
+ 11.0
-10.1
+
16.4
-15.0
+ 21.7
-20.0
+ 27.1
-24.9
+ 32.5
-29.8
+
37.9
-34.8
+ 43.2
-39.7
-56.8
+ 61.8
-48.6
+
52.9
-40.4
+44.0
-32.2
+ 35.1
-24.0
+ 26.2
-15.8
+ 17.2
-7.6
+8.3
+0.6
-0.6
-20.0
-0.7
+0.6
+8.3
-7.6
+ 17.2
-15.8
+
26.1
-24.0
+
35.0
-32.2
+44.0
-40.4
+ 52.9
-48.6
+ 61.9
-56.8
Notes: ye BM indicates
tension on inside of column face.
ye Force indicates
compression.
+ve Force indicates
tension.
Wind Case
III has not been tabulated
-
examination
of
computer
print-out
indicated that the
loads were not
significant.
* *
Members
highlighted by
two asterisks are critical
members for
subsequent design.
47
Table 5 Axial forces (kN)
in
bottom
boom members
Truss Members Pin Jointed
Notes: ye BM indicates tension on inside of column face.
ye Force indicates
compression.
+ve Force indicates tension.
Wind Case Ill has not been tabulated
-
examination of
computer print-out
indicated that
the loads were not
significant.
* *
Members
highlighted by
two asterisks are critical members for
subsequent design.
48
MEMBER DEAD IMPOSED
WIND I WIND II
*55*
-106.6 -177.2 +170.8 +175.2
*
56
*
60.6
-100.8 +95.2 + 101.9
57 -21.1 -35.1 +31.1 +39.2
58
+12.0 +19.9 -21.2 -13.0
59 +38.5 +64.0 -62.0 -54.5
60 +58.6 +97.4 -91.0 -85.5
61
+72.2
+120.0 -108.5
-105.9
*62*
+79.3 +131.8
-114.2
-115.7
*
63
*
+ 79.3 + 132.9 -108.4 -115.0
*
64
*
+79.9 + 132.9 -108.4 -115.0
*65*
+79.3 +131.9 -101.7
-115.7
66 +72.2 +120.0 -88.7
-106.0
67 +58.6 +97.4 -69.3 -85.6
68 +38.5 +64.0 -43.6 -54.7
69 +12.0 +19.9 -11.4 -13.1
70 -21.1 -35.1 +27.1 +39.0
71 -60.6 -100.8 +71.9 +101.6
72
106.6
-177.2
+123.2
+174.9
10. FINAL DESIGN
Use Grade 43C steel
throughout.
10.1
Top
boom
From the tabulation of forces it is noted that members 6 and 13 are the most
heavily
loaded
elements.
Maximum axial loads
(to
3
significant figures) (Table 3)
Member 6 Member 13
Dead 65 kN
(T)
99 kN
(C)
Imposed
107 kN
(T)
164 kN
(C)
Wind 108 kN
(C)
159 kN
(T)
Maximum
compression
due to dead and
imposed
loads
(member 13).
F
=
(1.4x99)+(1.6x164)=4OlkN(C)
Maximum tension due to dead and
Imposed
loads
(which
is
significantly greater
than the
compression
due to dead and
wind), (member 6).
FT
=
(1.4
x
65)
+
(1.6
x
107)
=
263 kN
(T)
Effective
length (BS
5950: Part
1,
Clause
4.10(e))
=
1.85 m
Referring
to the
preliminary design
it is
appropriate
to
try
a 120
x
80
x
5 RHS
D
=
120 mm B
=
80 mm t
=
5.0 mm
A
=
18.9 cm2
r
=
4.43 cm
ry
=
3.21 cm
Design strength (Table 6,
Reference
1),
p,
275 N/mm2 since t
<
16.0 mm.
Design
as a
Compression
Member in accordance with Clause 4.7
(Reference 1).
Section classification
(Clause 3.5)
= =
1
(Table 7,
Reference
1)
py
From
Figure
3
(Reference 1)
The
possible
effect of
secondary
stresses in the section can be reduced
by placing
the 80 mm
side
in
the vertical
plane,
as shown
in
Figure
34.
Hence
x,'
0.85 185
=
40 < 180 < 50
(Clauses
4.7.3.2
and 4.10 of Reference
1).
=J8!
=42<180
4.43
49
This is also a better
way
for the section when
considering
connections to the internal
bracing
members and
purlin support
cleats.
b 120-3x5
b
=
B

3t therefore

= __________ =
21.0
t 5
d
=
D

3t therefore
d
=
80

3 x
=
13.0
r 5
Hence from Table 7
(Reference 1)
< . <
39 section is NOT SLENDER
t t
i.e. section
capacity
will not be reduced
by
local
buckling (Clause 3.6,
Reference
1).
120
-
fxs
80
Figure
34 Section
through top
boom
Compressive strength
=
AgPc
where,
according
to Table 25
(Reference
l)
is obtained from Table
27(a).
For
p,
=
275 N/mm2 and X
=
49
(say)
=
252 N/mm2
(Note
this is an 8%
reduction).
Hence
=
18.9 x 252
=
476 kN > 401 kN
10
SECTION IS SATISFACTORY IN COMPRESSION.
Check for tension Clause 4.6.1
Tension
capacity P
=
A
Py
Since
Ae
=
A then
=
18.9
x
275
=
520 > 263 kN
10
SECTION IS SATISFACTORY IN TENSION AND IN FACT THIS SHOULD BE
OBVIOUS SINCE
p,
>
p
and
F> F1.
50
As an alternative
to the above detailed calculation use the
SC!
publication
"Steelwork
Design
Guide to BS 5950
Vol. 1, Section
properties
member
capacities
For a 120x80x5 RI-IS
this shows
P,
446 kN when
Le'
2.0
i.e.
>
1.85 m and
P
=
520 k/V.
lop
boom use
120
x
80 x5
RHS,
80 mm size vertical
(the
reader should check to determine
whether a
lighter
section would be
satisfactory).
10.2 Bottom boom
Examination of
the force
analysis
tables and
considering
member,
and therefore effective
lengths,
it is clear that there are several
members
in
the bottom boom which need to be
considered.
(a)
Members 62 and
63
Maximum axial loads
(Table 5):
Member Member 63
62
Dead
80
kN
(T)
80 kN
(T)
Imposed
132 kN
(T)
133 kN
(T)
Wind
(Case II) ll6kN(C)
115 kN
(C)
Maximum tension due
to dead
plus imposed
loads
FT
=
(1.4
x
80)
+
(1.6
x
133)
=
325 kN
(1').
Compression
effects are low in
comparison
with members
adjacent
to the
column.
(b)
Members 55 and 56
Maximum axial loads
Member 55 Member 56
Dead 107 kN
(C)
61 kN
(C)
Imposed
177 kN
(C)
101 kN
(C)
Wind
(Case
II)
175 kN
(T)
102 kN
(I)
Maximum
compression
in
member 55
=
(1.4
x
107)
+
(1.6
x
177)
=
433
kN.
Maximum
compression
in member 56
=
(1.4
x
61)
+
(1.6
x
101)
=
247 kN
From the above the
controlling
load is 433 kN
(C)
in member 55. Since the
maximum tensile
load in the boom
(325 kN)
is smaller than the
maximum
compressive
load
(433 kN)
the
bottom boom has
only
to be
designed
for
compression.
51
Try
the assumed
size of 120 x60x5 RHS.
D
=
120 mm
B
=
60 mm t
=
5.0 mm A
=
16.9
cm2
r
=
4.24 cm
ry
=
2.43
cm.
Provide a
purlin
brace from
joint
8 as shown in
Figure
12.
Also
place
60 mm side
vertically.
Check
section classification
b
=
120(3x5)
=
21
d
=
45
=
- 5
t 5
then
< . <
2&,
hence section is
plastic
(Table 7,
Reference
1).
Hence
r'
=
r
=
2.43 cm
r'
=
r
=
4.24 cm
Lex1
=
92.5 cm
Ley'
185 cm
=
. x 0.85
=
33 < 50
2.43
=
---
=
44
4.24
Hence
p
=
257 N/mm2
(Table 27a,
Reference
1).
=
257 x 16.9
=
434 kN > 433 kN.
10
Hence section is
satisfactory.
The
purlin
brace,
at an
angle
of 45 would be
approximately
1.2
=
1.7 m
long.
Load
in
the brace is 2% of load
in the boom
(Clause
4.3.2')
i.e. 43.3kN.
Assuming
an effective
length
of 1.7 m a suitable brace
would he a 40x40x3 RHS
(Reference 19).
Use of
sheeting
brace.
Occasionally
it
may
he
advantageous
to
brace node 7 of the bottom
boom to the
sheeting
rail. In that case
Ley'
=
92.5 cm. The reader should
check the effect
of the
bracing.
Bottom boom use 120 x60x5 RHS (60
side vertical), braced to nurlin at node
8
using
40x40x3 RHS.
52
10.3 Internal members
Diagonal bracing
-
Members 22 and 23
Note
-
Member 22
is
a tie and
Member
23 is a strut.
Maximum axial loads
(Table 4):
Tie
(22)
Strut
(23)
Dead 36 kN
(T)
39 kN
(C)
Imposed
59 kN
(T)
65 kN
(C)
Wind 59 kN
(C)
64 kN
(1)
10.3.1 Tie
design
(22)
Maximum tension due to dead +
imposed
load
=
(1.4x36)+(1.6x59)
=
145kN(T)
Maximum
compression
due to dead
plus
wind
(1.0x36)-(1.4x59)=47kN(C).
Member
length
=
1.59 m
Selecting
member size for tensile
force,
hence area
required
=
145
x
10
=
5.3 cm2.
275
Try6Ox4Ox3RHS
A
=
5.60 cm2
=
1.59 cm
Check for
compressive strength.
Xy
=
x 0.85
=
81
(See
Reference
1,
Clause 4.10 allow for some end
fixity).
p
=
201 N/mm2
(Table
27a of Reference
1)
=
201 x
5.6
=
113 kN
>
45 kN
C
10
Diagonal ties 60x40x3 RHS
53
10.3.2 Strut
design
(23)
Maximum
compression
due to dead
+
imposed
load
=
(1.4
x
39)
+
(1.6
x
65)
=
159 kN
(C).
Maximum tension
due to dead + wind
=
-(1.0
x
39)
+
(1.4
x
65)
=
52 kN
(T)
Clearly compression design
will
control.
Try
80 x 40 x 5 RHS
A
=
10.9 cm2
r
=
1.55 cm
X. =ix0.85=84
1.55
=
194
N/mm2
(Table
27a Reference
4)
=
194 xlO.9
=
211 kN > 159kN
Diagonal
struts 80 x 40 X S RHS
10.4
Comparison
of member sizes
It is
perhaps
useful to
compare
the assumed sizes of
the
girder
members used in the
analysis
and the calculated values of the RHS sections.
Member Assumed section
Designed
section
Top
boom 120x80x5
120x80x5
Bottom boom 120x60x5 120x60x5
Diagonals:
Struts
60x40x5 80x40X5
Ties 60x40x4
60x40x3
i.e. The basis for assumed section sizes is
basically justified.
Note:
Using
the
top
and bottom
boom with the 120 mm horizontal side is convenient for
welding
the
diagonal
strut.
The reader could
easily
check the
possibility
of
using
a 90x50x3.6
RHS
(Reference 19)
which is
lighter
and which could be a suitable
member.
In Section 9.6.2
(e)
it was stated that
deflection would not be critical. From the
computer
analysis
the maximum deflections
in
the
girder
occurs
at
joint
23.
Dead load deflection
=
35.3
mm
Imposed
load deflection
=
58.8 mm
Ratio of
imposed
load
deflection/span
=
58.8/30000
=
1/5
10,
which is
satisfactory.
54
10.5 Column
design
-
members
1
to
4
and 5
Axial loads and moments
(Refer
to Table
2)
Member
1
to
4
Maximum axial loads Maximum
BM
Dead 33 kN
(C)
86 kNm
Imposed
55 kN
(C)
142 kNm
Wind 1 50 kN
(C)
-146 kNm
Wind 2 55 kN
(1')
-129 kNm
Design
load: dead +
imposed
=
(1.4
x
33)
+
(1.6
x
55)
=
134 kN
(C)
Dead BM: dead +
imposed
=
(1.4
X
86)
+
(1.6
x
142)
=
348
kNm
Design
load: dead + wind I
=
(1.0
x
33)
-
(1.4
x
50)
=
37 kN
(T)
Design
BM: dead + wind I
=
(1.0
x
86) -(146
x
1.4)
=
118 kN.m.
Hence worst effect in column is due to dead and
imposed
load effects.
Selection of the effective
length
for the column
provides
an
interesting problem.
About the
XX axis member 1 to 5 is restrained in
position
at the base but not in direction. At the
top
it
is
partially
restrained in
position
and direction. This condition does not relate to
any
of the
standard cases in Table 24 or
Appendix
D of BS 5950: Part 1. Reference to the
computer
frame
analysis provides
the horizontal and rotational movements. The
figures
for the
separate
dead
and
wind load conditions indicate
points
of contraflexure in the column occur between
joints
3
and 4. Assume contraflexure occurs at
joint
4 which is 4 m above the base. Then the
corresponding
effective
length
of an
analogous pin-ended
strut would be 8 m. As a ratio of
the member
length,
this
provides
an effective
length
factor of 8/5.5
=
1.45.
Figure
17 of
BS 5950:
Part 1 indicates
Lex
=
1 .5L for a fixed base.
However,
the connection effect of the
latticed
girder
is
clearly
stiffer than that
provided by
the roof connection
shown,
but the
(partial) fixity provided
at the base is not the same as that used in
Figure
19 of BS 5950:
Part 1.
The above discussion indicates the careful consideration
which must be
given
to the selection
of an
appropriate
effective
length
factor. When
in
doubt it is essential
to use a conservative
value i.e. in this case 2.OL
=
2.0
x
5.5
=
11 m.
About the YY axis the base is restrained in
position
and direction and the head of the
column
is restrained
in
position,
but not direction
(by
the eaves rafter and first rafter
purlin).
Hence
as in
Figure
17, (Reference 1)
assume
Ley
=
0.85L
=
0.85
x 6.7
=
5.7 m.
Lex
=
11
m,
Ley
=
5.7 m.
55
In
selecting
a column size a useful
starting point
is item
(v)
of Section 9.6.2
i.e.
try
the
457x191x89 UB.
D
=
463.6 mm B
=
192.0
mm
t
=
10.6 mm T
=
17.7 mm d
=
407.9 mm
bIT
=
5.42 dIr
=
38.5
41000 cm4
r
=
19.0 cm
r
=
4.28 cm
=
1770
cm3
S,
=
2010 cm3
A =114cm2 x =28.3
Since 40
> T>
16
mm
then
=
265 N/mm2
(Table 6(1))
Hence:
=
s/275/265
=
1.02
Section Classification
(Table
7 and Clause
3.5.4W).
Examine the "outstand
of
the
compression flange"
and "web
generally".
For the
flange
bIT
=
5.42
<
8.5E,
hence
flange
is
plastic.
The web is in combined axial and
flexural
compression (Figure
35).
Determine the
position
of the neutral axis and check
footnote to Table 7(1)
192.0
Figure
35 Stress
diagram
Check section classification
for
"web
generally".
Length
of web
subjected
to direct axial load
=
'<
47.7
mm
From
Figure
35 the
plastic
neutral axis is
(47.7/2)
=
23.85
say
=
23.9
mm from the XX
axis.
The footnote to Table 7(1) indicates that a
=
d
In
this case
y
=
(463.6/2)
+
23.9
=
256 mm
a
=
2 x 256/407.9
=
1.26
56
'I
cv,I
(0
(V)
(0
1
t*17.7
yc
-
3.854
x
79
=
79
x
1.02
=
70 >
=
38.5
0.4
+
0.6a 0.4
+
(0.6
x
1.26)
t
Hence
web and
flange
are
plastic.
Two checks are
required
for the
design:
Local
capacity
and
overall
buckling.
(a)
Local
capacity
(Clause
4.8.3.1')
F
M M
__
+__
+_Li
AgPy
M
M
NowM
=
0
For
plastic
section
=
S,p
=
2010 x
265
x
i0 532.7 kNm
or
l.2p,,i'
=
1.2
x
1770
x
265
x
i0
=
562.9
kNm
Hence
134
x
10
+
348
=
0.044 + 0.653
=
0.697
<
1.0
114
x
265 532.7
Section
satisfies local
capacity
check.
If
use is made of the
relationship:
M
M
+
Mrx
M
thenZ1
=
2.0
=
1.0 and
M
=
0.
i.e.
M2
__f_
i
M
Now
Mrx
=
Srx
Jy
where
S,
=
K!

K2
(n)2 (Reference 19).
n
=
F/A
.p,
=
134 x
10/(1
14 x
265)
=
0.044
K1
=
201f
K2
=
3070
Srx
=
2010
-
3070
x
442
=
2004 cm3.
Mrx
=
2004 x
265/1000
=
531 kNm.
M2
=
=0.43
531
This
provides
a much
more conservative answer than 0.697
obtained above.
57
(b)
Overall
buckling (Clause 4.8.3.3.1")
F
mM mM
____ + + _2
1
AgPc
Mb
Compressive strength, p
>x
=
Lex/rx
=
1100/19.0
=
58
=
Lc,/r,,
=
570/4.28
=
133
From Tables
25,
27a and 27b Reference
1,
i'
=
234 or 90 N/mm2.
Usep
=
90 N/mm2
Buckling
resistance moment
Mb.
Use the conservative
approach
(Clause 4377(1))
From Table 10
(Reference 1)
on the basis that the base
is restrained
laterally
and
torsionally
and the
top
of the column has a lateral restraint to the "tension
flange",
assume:
Le
=
0.7L and m
=
1.0
Take n
=
0.94
(Table 20w).
X
=
0.7 x 550 x 0.94/4.28
=
85
Whenx
=
28.3 and X
=
85
=
184 N/mm2
(Table l9a')
Mb
=
S,(p
=
2010
x
184/1000
=
370 kNm.
The interaction
expression
134
x
10

l.Ox34.8
=
0.131 + 0.941 > 1.0
Therefore,
lower section
of column is not
satisfactory
if the
simplified approach
is used.
There are four
options:
(i)
use full calculation to obtain
Mb
(see
Clause 4.3.7 Reference
1)
(ii)
increase size of column
(iii) provide
a restraint to the
compression flange
from the
sheeting
rail,
say
at
joint
4.
(iv)
use the more exact
approach (Clause 4.8.3.3.2(1))
i.e. check the interaction
equation
58
mM
1
M
where
M
is taken as the lesser of:
Pcx
or
Mb
(1

F/P)
0.5F
1+
Pcx
=
265 x
2010/1000
=
533
kNm
(Clause 4.25').
F
=
134
kN
P
=
Ag
=
114
x
234/10
=
2668 kN
Mb
=
370 kNm
=
Agp
114 x 90/10
=
1026kN.
Hence
M
=
533 x

(134/2668)]
=
494 kNm
[1+(0.5
x
134/2668)]
or
=
370
(1

(134/1026))
=
322 kNm
Hence
M
=
322 kNm.
To obtain 'm' use Table 18 of Reference 1
=
0,
since the
moment at the base of the column
is zero. Hence m
=
0.57.
Therefore
?nM
=
0.57
x
348
=
0.62
< 1
322
The more exact
approach appears
to indicate
that the column can
adequately support
the
applied
load and
bending
moment. However the footnote
to Clause 4.8.3.3.2 states
"In
cases
where
M
or
M
approaches
zero the more exact
approach
may
be more conservative than the
simplified approach.
In such situations the values
using
the
simplified approach y
(should?)
be used". Clause 4.8.3.3.2
probably
should
only
be used for bi-axial conditions. In this
solution
provide
a column/rail
restraint.
Check member
5.
Maximum effects
due to dead and
imposed
loads
(Table 2)
Axial load
=
(1.4
x
24)
+
(1.6
x
40)
=
98 kN
Bending
moment
=
(1.4
x
105)
+
(1.6
x
174)
=
425 kNm
59
Checking
local
capacity.
98
x
10
+
425
=
0.032 + 0.8
=
0.832
<
1.0.
114
x
265 532.7
A check is also made on the overall
buckling capacity
of
member
1-5, using
the more exact
method.
=
533 kNm F
=
98 kN
M
=
425
kNm
=
2668 kN i.e.
using
the value
determined for the column section 1-4.
Mb
is evaluated for X over the full
height
of column.
i.e. X
=
0.7 x 670 x 0.94/4.28
=
103.
Hencep
=
154 N/mm2
(Table
19a' for x
=
30).
Mb
=
2010 x 154/1000
=
310 kNm.
is evaluated for
=
0.85
L/r
(Table 24').
i.e.
=
0.85
x
670/4.28
=
133.
Hence
p
=
90N/mm2
(Table
27b').
=
90
x
114/10
=
1026
kN
(Note
it is coincidental that this is the same value as
that
evaluated for the column
length
1-4).
Hence M
=
533
x
(1(98.2668))
=
504
kNm.
(1
+
(0.5
x
98/2668)
or
=
310
(1
-
(98/1026))
=
280 kNm.
Hence
M
=
280 kNm.
mM
087
x
425
Therefore
____
.
0.87 < 1.
M
280
Hence overall
buckling
of column
length
1-5 is satisfied.
Check horizontal
deflection
Deflection at
Deflection at
Joint 4 Joint 39
mm mm
Dead
-5.0 +1.5
Imposed
-8.2 +2.5
Wind 1 +11.9 +3.5
Wind 2 +7.3 +3.4
Maximum deflection at
joint 4,
due to dead and
imposed
loads
=
5.0
+ 8.2
=
13.2 mm 13.2/4000
=
1/303
60
Maximum
deflection at eaves
=
1.5 + 2.5 + 3.5
=
7.5 mm
=
7.5/6700
=
1/893
BS 5950: Part 1 does not
provide guidance
for
portal
frame,
however
Table 8.1
in
Reference
20
specifies
a
limiting
deflection of
height/100
at the
eaves,
which is satisfied.
The selected section satisfies all
design
criteria. The interaction
equations,
for local and
overall
buckling,
clearly
show the main
design
criteria are
bending
effects. This
justifies
the
use of a universal beam section.
Use
457x 191
x89 UB for column.
10.6 Gable steelwork
There are a number of alternative methods of
design
of the
gable
steelwork.
Gable columns can be considered
as
pinned
or fixed at the base.
Normally they
will be
designed
as
pinned
at the
top being supported
in this
position by
the
gable
rafter and/or
"wallbracing"
and
purlins
and/or roof
bracing. Consequently gable
columns are
designed
as
propped
cantilevers or
simply supported
beams.
Figure
18 shows
typical
roof
bracing
arrangements.
It should be noted that the
props
at the head of
propped
cantilever
gable
columns are not
fully rigid.
The wall and roof
bracing
can be
single diagonal
members or
cross
diagonals.
In the
former the members need to be
designed
to transmit direct tension and
compression (normally
due to wind
loads).
With cross
bracing
the members in
compression
are
ignored,
the
members
in
tension are assumed to transmit all of the load
(to
the foundations
in the case of
wall
bracing
and into the roof in the case of roof
bracing).
In the
following
design
single bracing
is used. Purlins need to be checked for the
additional axial load since
they
are
providing
the
propping
reaction.
10.6.1 Gable rafters
These are
simply supported
on a
span
of 7.5 m
between stanchions.
They
are held in
place
and loaded
by
the
purlins
at 1.875 m c/c
(Figure
36).
The
loads
will
be
dead,
imposed
and
wind
(uplift)
loads on the roof
together
with some end
sheeting
vertical load.
W/2 W W
W/2
4 x 1.875
=
7.5 m
Figure
36 Gable rafter
loading
61
Loading
(see
Section
9.7)
Load/purlin
Dead 4.13/2
=
2.07 kN
Imposed
6.87/2
=
3.44 kN
Wind
(Uplift)
7.4/2
=
3.70 kN
Vertical
Sheeting, say
0.2
x
1.88
x
1.5/2
=
0.3 kN
Maximum
downward load
(W)
=
1.4
(2.07
+
0.3)
+ 1.6
(3.44)
=
8.8kN
Hence reaction
=
8.8
x
2
=
17.6 kN
Maximum
uplift
=
1.0
(2.37)
-
1.4
(3.7)
=
-2.8kN.
Maximum
bending
moment at C due to 'W' 1.5W
x
3.76
-
W X 1.88
=
3.76W.
Max. BM
=
3.76
x 8.8
=
33.1 kNm.
Allowing
for self
weight,
design
say
for 34 kNm.
The rafter should be
designed
as a
laterally
restrained
beam,
clearly
with low shear.
(Clause
4.2.5').
Try
203x102x23
UB
=
5.46
=
32.6
T
=
9.3 mm
t
t
r
=
2.37 cm
S,
=
232 cm3 x
=
22.6
=
206 cm3
=
2090 cm4
p,
=
275 N/mm2 From
Table 7
(Reference 1)
section is
plastic.
Moment
capacity M
=
S
p,
232 x 275
x
i0
=
63.8
kNm < 1.2 Z
> 34kNm
Buckling
resistance,
using
the conservative
approach
(Clause 4.3.7.lW).
Mb=pbSX
m=1.0
As an
approximation
assume
n
=
1.0
X
=
Leiry
188/2.37
=
79
"Rounding up"
to assume X
=
80, x
=
25 then
Pb
=
201 N/mm2
(Table
l9bW).
Mb
=
201
x
232
x
i0
=
47 kNm
>
34
kNm
Note:
Reference 19 indicated that
Pb
46 kNm for
n
=
1.0
and
Le
=
2m. This is
satisfactory.
62
The reference also states section is
"plastic".
Clearly
wind
uplift
will not create a critical situation.
Deflection check.
Assume total
imposed
load of 6.88 kN acts as a central
point
load then
central deflection is
wi.
3/48E1.
=
6.88
x
753
X
i05
=
14.1
mm
C
48x205x2090
This
provides
a
deflection/span
ratio of 14.1/7500
=
1/532. Hence
showing
that deflection is
not
significant,
even when the loads are considered as a
single
central
point
load.
Use 203
x 102 x23 UB for
gable
rafter.
10.6.2 Gable columns
These
support
the
gable
rafters,
which induce vertical
load,
and
gable
rails which transmit the
wind
load,
as shown in
Figure
37.
Assume
gable
columns are tixed at the base and
pinned
at the
top
therefore consider as a
propped
cantilever. The central column
is
say
8 m
high.
Sheeting
Load from
load gable
rafters
______
Roof
bracing
acts as
prop
Assume uniform
wind load
8
m
I//I
Figure
37 Loads on
gable
columns
Dead
plus imposed
load reactions
=
2
x
17.6
=
35.2 kN.
Sheeting
self
weight
(Section 9.4.3)
=
0.2 kN/m2.
Rail
weight
=
0.2 kN/m
(5
No. at 7.5
m
long).
Total
weight
from
sheeting
and rails
=
(0.2
x
7.5
x
8)
+
(0.2
X 5 X
7.5)
=
19.5 kN.
Design
vertical load
=
35.2 +
(1.4
x
19.5)
=
62.5 kN
say
65
kN,
allowing
for self
weight.
63
Wind load
(Section 9.3)
and Table 1.
On
end
=
(Cpe

C)
=
1.0.
As a conservative
design
assume wind load over the full
height
of the
gable
is 0.582 kN/m2.
Total
design
load from wind
=
1.4
x
1.0
x
0.582
x
8
x
7.5
=
49
kN.
Maximum
bending
moment in a
propped
cantilever occurs at the base and
equals
WL/8.
Max.
BM
due
to wind
=
49 x 8/8
=
49 kNm.
Ignoring
wind
uplift, design
the
gable
column for vertical load of 65 kN and
BM of 49 kNm.
It will be noted that
bending
is
the
controlling applied
action.
The reaction at the
pinned
end of a
propped
cantilever is:
W=x49
=
18.4kN
8 8
This
will be the load transmitted to the wind
(root) bracing.
In
considering buckling
effects:
For axial load
design
the slenderness should be limited to 180
(Clause 4.7.3.2')
Lex
0.85L
=
0.85 x 8
=
6.8 m
(propped
cantilever Table
24(1))
Ley
=
0.85
x
8
=
6.8 m
(Appendix D').
For lateral torsional
buckling design,
the effective
length
is
again problematical.
Consider the
deflected
shape
for a
propped
cantilever
subject
to a
uniformly
distributed
load. Zero
slope
occurs at
a
point
0.42 15 L from the free end i.e. column head.
Allowing
for some movement
of the
prop
it is
appropriate
to
suggest Le
=
2
x
(0.5L)
=
1 .OL. Hence
LE
=
L
=
1.0 x 8
=
8 m
(Table 9(1))
In
designing
for
buckling
use is made of
Table 19 and Clause 4377(1)
To
initially
assume a section size either use Reference 19
(Axial
Load and
Bending Tables)
or
assume a value for
Pb
For low loads and moments
with L
=
8 m the use of Reference 19 is
not
applicable.
Hence assume a value for
Pb
=
150
N/mm2.
Then
S
=
M/p
=
49
x 10/150 327 cm3
Also if X < 180 then
r
< 680/180
=
3.78 cm.
Try
305
x 165 x 40 UB.
D
=
303.8mm
B
=
165.1 mm t
=
6.1mm T
=
10.2mm
bIT
=
8.09 d/t
=
43.6
=
8520 cm4
r
=
12.9 cm
=
3.85 cm
=
561 cm3
3
S,
=
624 cm x
=
31.1 A
=
51.5 cm
Note:
dit
=
43.6 > 39
(Table 7(1))
64
However the latter
is used for webs
subject
to
compression throughout.
Whilst this is the
situation when
considering
dead
plus
imposed
loads it does not
apply
when the
bending
due to
wind effects are
present.
As will be seen the axial effects on the column
are small and
therefore a reduced value of
p
(Clause 3.6(1))
has not been considered.
Since
T < 16 mm then
p
=
275 N/mm2.
Using
the
approach
outlined
in Section 10.5 it will be deduced that the section
classification is
plastic. Fable
7(1))
Local
capacity
check
(Clause
4.8.3.1(1)).
Whilst it is
suggested
the
relationship:
M M
+
__2. should be checked for
plastic
sections,
use
is made of:
M,.),
F M
M
AgPy
+
M
+
being
a
simplified
(conservative) approach
in
this case.
=
0
= =
624
x
275
x
1O
=
172
kNm
(Check
Reference
19)
F
+
M
65x10
+
AgPy
M
51.5
x
275
172
=
0.041 + 0.285
=
0.326 < 1
Section satisfies local
capacity
Overall
buckling
check
(Clause 4.8.3.3.1(1)).
Compressive strength, p
>
=
680/12.9
=
53
k,
=
680/3.85
=
177
<
180
From Tables
25,
27a and 27b
(Reference 1)
p
=
55 N/mm2.
Buckling
resistance moment
Mb
X
=
800/3.85
=
208.
From Table 19(1)
Pb
=
75
N/mm2
(say).
Mb=SJb=624
x75 x 103=46.8kNm
<M=49kNm.
Hence
buckling
is not satisfied
using
the
simplified approach.
65
The critical condition has been induced
by
the
high
slenderness
value,
when
considering
buckling.
The
option
used in this case is to examine the exact
approach
Clause 4.8.3.3.2(1).
mM
i.e. 1
M
where
M
is the maximum
buckling
moment about the
major
axis in the
presence
of axial
load and is taken
as the lesser of:
________
F
or
Mb
1
-
-
0.5F
1+_
Pcx
In this case the moment at the
top
of the column is zero hence
=
0
(Table
18(1)),
therefore
m
=
0.57,
M
=
172
kNm.
For
X
=
53 then
=
248 N/mm2
(Table
27a').
=
248
x
51.5
=
1278kN.
10
For
=
177 then
p,
55 N/mm2
(as before)
=
55
x
51.5
=
283 kN.
10
1-
65
1278
=
172
_______________
=
159 kNm
0.5F 10.5x65
1+__c_
1278
Mb
1
-
-L
46.8 1
-
=
36.1 kNm
283
Hence take
M
=
36.1 kNm.
mM
=
0.57
x
46.8
=
M
36.1
i.e.
section is
satisfactory.
The
significant
difference between the
simplified
and exact
analysis
is due to the reduction in
the
applied design bending
moment i.e. the effect of 'm'.
Use 305x 165 x40 UB for
gable
columns.
66
10.7
Bracing
10.7.1 Roof
bracing
(at
both ends of
building)
Figure
38 Use of cross
bracing
The wind load at the
top
of the central column
=
18.4 kN. At the
top
of the intermediate
columns
=
18.4
x
7.35/8
=
16.9 kN.
(i.e.
in
proportion
to column
height).
At the
top
of
the corner columns
=
18.4
x
6.71(8
x
2)
=
7.7 kN.
If cross
bracing, Figure
38,
is used the members
in
tension are assumed to
carry
all of the
load;
compression
members need
only satisfy
the slenderness criteria
(Clause 4.7.3.2(1)).
i.e.
350 where
member
length
is 9.6 m. For ease of construction
single bracing
is
used,
Figure
39.
33.8 33.8
kN
1
/N
I I
16.9
18.4
16.9 7.7 kN
Figure
39 Use of
single
or tension
bracing
Maximum tension occurs in member
(a)
=
(33.8

7.7)
x 9.6/6
=
42
kN.
Since
single
bracing
is used the
member
will
be
designed
for
compression forces,
noting
the
load will be smaller
since it is
only necessary
to
design
for suction
pressure
coefficients
(Cpe

Cr1)
=
(0.6

(+ 0.2))
0.8
(see
Section
9.3),
instead of 1.0.
33.8 33.8 kN
1'
7.7
16.9 18.4
16.9 7.7 kN
6m1
1
I,
4x7.5m
67
Design
load
=
0.8 x 42
=
34 kN and slenderness
criteria
=
250
(Clause 4.7.3.2').
Using
circular hollow
section,
required
area
of section
=
34
x
10/275
=
1 .24 cm2.
Required
radius of
gyration
960/250
3.84 cm.
Try
114.3
x
5 CHS
A
=
17.2 cm2 r
=
3.87 cm
I
=
257 cm4 S
=
59.8 cm3
Dit
=
114.3/5 23
<
40
(Table 7(1))
hence section is
plastic.
Need to
satisfy P
=
Ag
P
X
=
960/3.87
=
248
<
250.
1
'1'
Hencep
=
31 N/mm
(Tables
25,
27a'
').
P
=
17.2
x
31/10
=
53 kN > 34 kN.
Note a check
needs to be made on the self
weight
deflection
(Clause 4.7.3.2(1)).
Self
weight
deflection
=
5WL31384E1
=
5
x
0.135
x
9.6
x
10/(384
x 205 x
257)
=
28.3 mm.
Since this is
greater
than L/1000
=
9.6 mm the effect of
bending
must be considered.
(Clause 4.8.3).
Self
weight
bending
moment
= =
0.135 x 9.62/8
=
1.6 kNm.
MCX
=
p
S
(Clause 4.2.5)
=
275
x
59.8/10
=
16.5 kNm.
In
the
interaction
equation
F
+
M
34
x
10
+
=
0.07 + 0.1
AgPy
M
17.2
x
275 16.5
=
0.17 < 1
i.e. local
capacity
is satisfied
Check overall
buckling.
Buckling
resistance
Mb
= =
16.5
kNm.
In the interaction
equation
F
mM
34 16
__ +
X+....064+010074<1
AgPy
Mb
53 16.5
Hence
bending
criteria
is satisfied.
68
The
disadvantage
of
having
to use a
larger
member for the
single bracing system
(as
compared
to smaller
members for cross
bracing)
is
outweighed by
the
savings
in
connections and
erection costs.
Use 114.3 x5 CHS for roof
bracing
in
plane
of
top
chord.
Check also the
end
purlin
for the effect of
transmitting
axial load
(gable
column
reaction)
of
18.4 kN.
From Section 9.4.1 it is noted the
proposed
202x65x60x1.8
mm
thick Z
purlin
will
support
a factored load of 1.29 kN/m2. The
applied
total factored load is 1.27 kN/m2. Hence there is
little reserve for the axial load effect.
It would be
necessary
to check with
the manufacturer on the effect of axial load
plus bending,
since their literature does not
normally
consider combined
loading.
It is also noted that
generally
the load tables listed
by
manufacturers for their
cold rolled sections were obtained
by testing.
A
possibility
will be to use a
thicker section for the end
bays only.
10.7.2
Gable
bracing
(at
both ends of
the
building)
6.7 m
Member
(a)
is 10.lm
long
(Figure
40)
and has to resist a wind load
say,
F
=
[Yj
(Cpe
-
C
)
q
A/2J
where
(C

Cr1)
=
1.0,
q
=
0.582 kN/m2
(see
Section
10.6.2)
andA
=
3
x
6.1= 20.1 m2.
F
=
(1.4
x 1.0 x 0.582 x
20.1)/2
=
8.2 kN
Force in member
(a)
8.2 x
10.1/7.5
=
11.1 kN.
Radius of
gyration
1010/250
=
4.04 cm
Use
139.7 x5 CHS for
gable
brace
(Reference 19)
10.7.3
Longitudinal
side wall
bracing
(at
both ends of the
building)
Member
(b)
is 9 m
long (Figure 41).
The
wind force at the eaves level is 33.8 kN
(Figure
39)
Hence force in
(b)
=
9/6 x 33.8
=
50.7 kN.
Radius of
gyration
900/250
=
3.6 cm.
Use 114.3
x5 CHS
(Reference 19).
69
Figure
40 Gable
bracing
7.5m
Figure
41
Longitudinal
side
wall
bracing
10.8 Column
Base
(Reference
1.
Clause 4.13)
The basic
assumption
in the frame
analysis
was that the connection at the
column base would
be
pinned.
The connection has to be
capable
of
transmitting
axial
compression,
shear and
uplift
as shown in
Figure
42.
Axial
compressive
force
F
=
135 kN
Axial tensile force
(uplift)
F
=
44 kN
Shear
F
=
80
kN
457 x 191
x 89 UB
t
=
20mm
bleed holes
Concrete
grade
20
Length
of
holding
down bolts
will
depend
on
type
used
o
e.g. expansion
bolt or
bolt
set
in
clearance holes which
are
grouted (using
mortar or
epoxy)
Bolt
edge
distance is
satisfied
(Cl. 6.2)
Figure
42
Baseplate
details
A
simple
slab
baseplate
will be
used,
welded to
the column.
To
comply
with current
safety
requirements
it is
necessary
to
provide
four bolts to ensure
stability
of the columns
during
erection. These 4 bolts can
be
positioned
closely together,
as
shown in
Figure
42.
Keeping
the bolts close to the axis of the
column will ensure that
any
moment restraint effect
will
be
kept
to a minimum.
70
6.7
m
71111/
7i,i1/i YiJ/
k
6m
6m

I 'I
I
8
/
a
/
Loading
(Fable 2)
Unfactored loads
(kN)
Maximum vertical dead load
=
33
Minimum vertical
imposed
load
=
55
Maximum wind
uplift
=
55
Shear in
conjunction
with the loads
(computer analysis)
Dead =19
Imposed
=
32
Wind,
with max
uplift
=
26
Vertical
design
loads
Due to dead +
imposed
=
(1.4
x
33)
+
(1.6
x
55)
=
135
Due to dead
+
wind
=
(1.0
x
33)
-
(1.4
x
55)
=
-44
uplift
Shear
design
loads due to dead and
imposed
=
(1.4
x
19)
+
(1.6
x
33)
=
80
Shear
design
loads due to dead and wind
=
(1.4
x
19)
+
(1.4
x
26)
=
63
10.8.1
Baseplate
Only
the
design
of the main frame
baseplate
and
plate
are detailed within this text. These
being designed
to resist vertical load and
shear
only.
For the
gable
post
bases reference should be made to Reference
21,
Steelwork
Design
Guide
to BS 5950: Part I
. 1990 Volume 2 "Worked
Examples".
This details the
baseplate design
for
shear,
vertical load and moment.
Assume concrete to base to have a 28
day
cube
crushing strength
(f)
of 20 N/mm2.
Use an
allowable
bearing
stress of
0.4f.
=
270 N/mm2
(Clause 4.13.2.2(1)).
135x
Hence area
required
=
__________
0.4
x
20
Minimum size
=
16,875
mm2
This is
impracticable
for the size of column.
Try
a
baseplate
600
x
400
mm,
area
240,000
mm2.
Hence actual
baseplate pressure
=
135
X
10
=
0.57
N/mm2
600
x
400
71
Due to a concentric
force the minimum
baseplate
thickness
(Clause 4.l3.2.2W)
t
=
. w
(a

0.3b2)
pyp
In this case a
=
(400
-
192)/2
=
104
b
=
(600
-
463.6)12
=
68 mm
t
=
x
0.57(1042

0.3
x
682)]
=
7.1mm
This is
again impracticable.
Match the base
plate, approximately
to
the
flange
thickness
(T
=
17.7
mm)
i.e. use 20
mm base
plate.
(Clause
4.13.2.2').
Baseplate
600x400x2Omm.
10.8.2
Holding
down bolts
These bolts
(4 No.)
are to be
designed
to resist the tension due to
uplift
and
accompanying
shear
(Clause 6.3.6.3)
and
positioned
to
satisfy
Table 3l'.
Assume bolts are M20 where tensile
stress area
=
245
mm2,
Grade 4.6.
Shear
capacity
(Clause 6.3.2).
=
=
160 N/mm2
(Table 32W).
(Reference 19,
Bolt
Capacities).
=
4 x 160 x 245
x
i0
=
157 kN.
Tensile
capacity (Clause 6.3.6)
=
pA1
=
4 x 195 x 245
x
i0
=
197 kN.
Combined shear
and tension
(Clause 6.3.6.3).
F F
+

1.4
PS P1
+
=
0.63 < 1.4
157
197
Hence use 4 No. M20 Grade 4.6
holding
down
bolts.
72
10.8.2 Welds
(Reference
1,
Clause
6.6)
It is
likely
that a fillet weld would be
provided
around the full
perimeter
of the UB to avoid
the formation of corrosion
pockets
between the column and base
plate.
Weld
strength
=
215 N/mm2
(Table 36').
It is
suggested
that for
practical purposes
the weld should be
at least 6 mm
leg length.
Total
perimeter
is
approximately
(2 xd)
+
(4
x
7)
=
(2 x407.9)
+
(4
X
192)
=
1584 mm.
The shear
capacity
of
say
a 6 mm fillet weld is 0.7 x
6
x
215
x
i0
=
0.903 kN/mm.
(See
Reference
19).
Hence shear
strength
of weld
=
0.903
x
1584
=
1430 kN
which is far in excess of
any
forces to
be transmitted.
Generally
it is
recommended,
web weld 0.5t and
flange
weld 0.5T.
However,
it should be noted
the cross-sectional area
(and
therefore relevant
cost)
of welds is
proportional
to
the
square
of the
leg length.
Hence use 6 mm f.w. for web and 8mm f.w. for
flange.
10.9 Foundation
The foundation has to be
capable
of
transmitting
the vertical and horizontal loads to the
supporting
soil and to resist
uplift
(Figure
43).
Maximum vertical load
=
135 kN
and
uplift
=
44 kN
(both factored)
135
kN
52
kN
450
55O
900
Figure
43 Mass concrete foundation
73
1500
7/
1500
To
prevent uplift
isolated foundation
pad
needs to
weigh
at least
44
kN.
Using
a
concrete
weight
of 24 kN/m2 then volume of concrete
=
1.84 m3. A base 0.9
m
thick
and 1.5 m
square
will be
adequate.
This size needs
checking against magnitude
and distribution of
ground
pressure
under
serviceability
load conditions.
Vertical service load
=
(33
+ 55 + self
weight)
=
137
kN
Horizontal service load
=
52 kN
Taking
moments about a bottom corner of the
foundation,
position
of resultant vertical
load is
at
(137
x 0.75
-
52
x
0.9)/137
=
0.408
m,
hence
eccentricity
=
1.5/2

0.408
=
0.342 m.
As this falls outside
the middle third the linear distribution of
ground pressure
is
triangular
on
a base of
(3
x
0.408)
=
1.224 m.
Maximum
ground pressure
=
2
x
137
=
149 kN/m2 for which the soil
must be
1.224
x
1.5
adequate
to sustain.
Factor of
safety
against overturning:
Overturning
moment
=
52
x
0.9
=
46.8 kNm
Restoring
moment
=
137 x 0.75
=
102.8 kNm
Hence factor of
safety against overturning
102.8
. .
=
46 8
=
2.2 which is
satisfactory.
A check should be also
required
for the factor of
safety against sliding.
Use foundation 1.5 m
square
x
0.9
m
deep.
Grade 20
concrete.
74
11. ALTERNATIVE FRAME
ANALYSIS
As indicated in Section 9.8 two alternative
systems
were to be considered for the frame
analysis:
(a)
assuming
base is
pinned
and all
joints
of the latticed truss are
pinned (Frame
Type
1).
(b)
assuming
base is
pinned
and all
joints
of the latticed frame are
rigid
(Frame
Type
2).
Two members of the
top
chord are checked for
these two frame
systems.
Frame
Type
1 was used for the
design
in
Section 10.
MEMBER
6
Load
Type
FRAME
TYPE
Number I Number 2
Max. axial load
(kN)
Max. axial load
(kN)
Max. BM
(kNm)
Dead 65
(1')
64
(T)
0.70
Imposed
107
(1')
107
(T)
1.16
Wind
108
(C)
107
(C)
1.15
It is noted the
("rounded off")
axial loads are identical for this
member,
Frame
Type
No. 2
includes a small
bending
moment.
Consider the effects of this
bending
moment.
Design
tensile load
(dead
+
imposed)
=
(1.4
x
64)
+
(1.6
x
107)
=
261
kN(T)
=
(1.4
x
0.70)
+
(1.6
x
1.16)
=
2.84 kNm
=
(1.0
x
64)
-
(1.4
x
107)
=
-86
kN(C)
=
(1.0
x
0.70)
+
(1.4
x
1.16)
=
2.32 kNm.
Design bending
moment
(dead
+
imposed)
Design
compression
load
(dead
+
wind)
Design bending
moment
75
MEMBER 13
Load
Type
FRAME TYPE
Number I Number
2
Max. axial load
(kN)
Max. axial load
(kN)
Max. BM
(kNm)
Dead 99
(C)
99
(C)
0.35
Imposed
164
(C)
164
(C)
0.58
Wind 159
(T)
159
(T)
1.55
Design compressive
load
=
(1.4
X
99)
+
(1.6
X
164)
=
401 kN
Design bending
moment
=
(1.4
x
0.35)
+
(1.6
X
0.58)
=
1.42 kNm
Comparing
the forces and moments of the two members a check is made on the
compressive
capacity
of Member
13
and then
on
the tensile
capacity
of Member 6.
Check Member
13,
120 x 80 x5
RHS,
for axial
compression
and
moments, considering
local
capacity
and overall
buckling. (Clause 4.8.3').
Local
Capacity
Check
The clause indicates the
use,
for
plastic sections,
of the
relationship:
M
Mrx
where
Mrx
is the reduced moment
capacity
in the
presence
of axial loads obtained from
published
tables. These values are not
generally
available for RHS hence use is made of:
F
M
____ + _..L
where F
=
401 kN M
=
1.42 kNm
AgPy
M
X
is obtained from Clause 4.2.5 i.e.
M,
=
S but 1.2
pZ
where S
=
75.4 cm3
Z
=
61.7 cm3.
However 5,7
=
1.21 i.e. > 1.2.
From footnote to Clause 4.2.5 it is noted that the value
1.2 is
replaced
by
Factored
Load/U nfactored Load ratio
=
say
1.4.
i.e.
=
275
x
75.4
x
i0
=
20.7 kNm
or
=
1.4
x
275
x 61.7 x i0
=
23.8 kNm
i.e. Use
=
20.7
kNm
(See
Reference
19).
Hence in the interaction
equation
401 X 10
+ =
0.77 + 0.07
=
0.84
< 1
18.9
x
275 20.7
Local
capacity
is satisfied
(notice
the effect of the moment is
relatively
small).
76
Overall
buckling
check
(Clause 4.8.3.3W).
Simplified approach
F
+mMx1
AgPc
Mb
In
considering
the
buckling
resistance moment
Mb
reference
is made to
Appendix
The footnote indicates that if X
=
Le/ry
< co
(for
DIB taken as
1)
then lateral
torsional
buckling
need not be
checked.
PbPy
andMb=SXpY=20.7kNm
Hence,
p
=
476 kN
(as
in
Section
10.1).
In the
interaction
equation
assume m
=
1.0.
Clearly
for
secondary
moment
design
'm' will
be
less than
unity
and a value from Table 18'
could be used with
advantage.
401
+ =
0.842+0.069
=
0.911 < 1
Satisfactory. Again
the effect of
the moment is small.
Check
Member 6 for the axial tensile load and
moments
(Clause
4.8.2).
F
M
_____ +
where F
=
263
kN,
M
=
2.84 kNm.
AePY M
X
263
x
10
+
=
0.51 + 0.14
18.9 x 275
20.7
=
0.64 < 1
This is
satisfactory.
Similar checks can be made on other
members of the framework.
It is
apparent
that the basic
assumption
to use
pinned joints
in
the
analysis
and
rigid joints
in
the
built structure for the lattice truss is
justified.
The use of
pinned joints
for the
analysis
and
design process
leads to a
simpler
and
therefore
quicker
solution to the
problem.
It is of
note that relative to the
slenderness limitation of 50
stipulated
in Clause 10(1)
that members 55
and 72 are
significantly
below that value. It is
suggested
that the
reader checks these
members for the
secondary
stress effects.
77
12. JOINT DESIGN
A useful
guide
for the
arrangements
of connections is the British Steel/CIDECT Publication
Construction with Hollow Steel
Sections22.
A check is made of
joint
8
(Figure 44) following
the method
given
in
design example
No 3
(p 52)
in TD 338'.
Figure
44
Joint 8
(K
gap)
Member
6
7
78
23
24
Dead
65kNcI')
22 kN
(T)
39 kN
(C)
3lkN(T)
Imposed
107
kN
(T)
36 kN
(T)
65 kN
(C)
51 kN
(T)

80
=
0.67
)
i.e. all
satisfactory
-i
b0

120
to

5
=
24.0 35
Member 7
kN
80mm
Total
(Factored)
262
kN
(T)
88 kN
(1')
159 kN
(C)
125 kN
(1')
Member
6
172 kN
80 x 40
15
104
Member 23
x 3 RHS
Member
24
A
bracings,and
b0
>
h0
hence refer to Table
11
of
This is a
K-Gap
Joint
with RHS
Chords and
Reference 13.
12.1
Application
limit check list
H1
b1
h2

b2

60
=
=0.5
)
0.5
=0.67
)
2.0
Bracing angles O
=
02
=
52.3
90,
30.
=-
=
1635
5
= =
0.67 0.35
120
= =
0.50.35
120
= =
0.33
<
0.35
120
Member
6
172
kN
104
kN
Member
7
58kN
0mm
x 40 x 3
RHS
Figure
45 Joint 8
(overlap)
As above
h
h1 h2
0.5

_, ,
2.0
b0 b1 b2
Bracing angles
900
02
30.
b1
=
80
b0
120
=
0.67 0.25
79
to
b1
b2
b0
b0
Hence this criteria is not satisfied
using
a
gap joint.
Note: The 90x50x3.6
RHS
suggested
as an alternative in Section 10.4 would
satisfy
the
criteria for a
gap joint.
For the 80x40x5 RHS
try
an
overlap
K
joint,
Table 13(13)
(Figure
45)
where:
0.55
h0
e 0.25
h0.
80 x 40
x 5 RH
mber 23
82
kN
4
b2
=
60
=
0.5 0.25
=
h
=
40
=
0.33 0.25
Chord
h0
=
80
=
1640
b0

120
=
2440
RHS
bracing
in
compression
(p
=
275) (E
=
205
kN/mm2)
b1
=
80
=
16
30 where
30
=
1.1
/E/p1
RHS
bracing
in tension
b2
=
60
=
1635
All limits are satisfied.
Use of tabulated allowable
loads
Pyo
=
Pyi
=
Py2
(i.e.
chords and
bracings
have same
design strength).
b1
80
BracingsO.8<

=
133> 125
Hence use
following equation:
Allow 30 mm actual
overlap.
=
Actual
overlap
sin 0
<
Then
percentage
overlap
Chord h
=
30
sin 52.3
________ x
100
=
59%
40
Hence
overlap
50
<
59
>
80%
80
Therefore the allowable
joint capacity
is
given by:
1
+
sin(0
+
0,)
N
=
pyj
ti (2h1

4t1
+
be
+
be(ov))
2 sin
(0
+
02)
inn
p
.t
where
b
=
.

.
b
b01t0
p,1
.
and

10.0
Pyj.tj
OV
h/t
,
I
jj Pyi
I
Note
-
suffix 'ov' refers to
overlapped
member
Therefore b
=
10
x
80
x
275
x
5
x
5
=
333
e
120x275x5

10x275x5x80x5

50
be(ov)

80
x
275
x
5

N1
=
275x5
[2x40)-4
x
5)+33.3+50)]
x
[(1+sin
104.6)1(2
sinlO4.6)J
x
i0
N1
=200kN.
Since
N1
=
200 kN >
bracing compression
load
(104 kN)
the
joint
is
satisfactory.
The reader should
carry
out checks on other
joints,
as considered
necessary.
It is feasible that
bottom boom
joints might
not be
satisfactory.
These calculations have indicated the effect of
the member size and orientation.
12.2 Joint welds
Design
of welds to lattice
girder
is carried Out
using
limit state
design
and Reference
15,
SHS
Welding.
Note: use is made of an Amendment to Reference 15
-
Revised Text for
Pages
26 and 27.
The minimum fillet weld throat size is taken as the
larger
value of:
(i)
a
=
Applied factored
load
pw
x s
or
(ii)
a
=
ffl)
X
f(w)
x t
81
Where:
pw
=
weld
design strength (Table
on
page 24')
and
equals
215 N/mm2 for Grade 43
steel.
s
=
intersection
length (Table 2B'5).
t
=
thickness of branch member
andf(7)
is a function
equal
to the
higher
value of:-
Actual
applied
factored load
Member tension
capacity
or
Actual
applied
factored load
Joint
capacity
The
functionf(w)
is the ratio of material
strength
to weld
strength.
For Grade 43 steel:
f(w)
=
275/215
=
1.28.
Design
of weld for member 23.
This is a
single
'T'
joint,
at 52.3.
When the fusion faces at the toe of the branch member
is,
at
127.7,
greater
than 1200 it is
necessary
to
prepare
and make the
bracing
toe connection as a butt
weld,
as shown in
Figure
46.
/.
/'\
=
30to6O
Figure
46
Preparation
of
bracing
member
Bracing
member is a
80x40x5
RHS
carrying
a factored load of 159 kN
(Section 10.3.2).
The factored tension
capacity
of the brace
=
AePy
10.9 x 275 x 10
=
300 kN.
The chord is a 120x80x5 RHS with an unfactored
joint
capacity
(Section 12.1)
of 200 kN.
Assume a load factor of
1.5
then
design joint capacity
=
200
x
1.5
=
300 kN.
Total
intersection
length
for
52.3
angle,
s
=
283mm.
(Table 2B)5,
b1
=
80 mm.
82
Hence:
(1)
a
=
159
x
10
=
2.6
mm
215 x 282
or
(ii)
a
=
f(7)
X
f(w)
x
t
f(7)
=
159/300
=
0.53
or
f(l)
=
159/300
=
0.53
Hence
usef(1)
=
0.53
Thus a
=
0.53
x
1.28
x
5
=
3.4 mm.
Therefore the minimum throat size
=
3.4
>
2.6 mm.
Hence the minimum
leg length
=
3.4/0.7
=
4.9 mm.
Use a 5 mm fillet weld.
83
0
q)
(I)
ci'
N
0,
U-
13. FINAL FRAME LAYOUT
Layout
of the
building
steelwork is shown in
Figures
47 to 50.
Finally
a check must be made of the self
weight
of the
girder,
as estimated
against
actual.
The
designer may
need to decide whether a new
analysis
is
required.
4-.
E
E
a,
I
U)
x
Eo
gco
.Q
X
a.O
o c'1
I-'--
U
4-.
0.
0
In
(I)
I
Em
ox
(0
x
0
C.,'
U,
)<
0
(0
'C
In
CD
'C
c'l
0
C'IN
U)
I
IC)
'C
0
x
1
C
w
e
4-.
0;
CO
OC .C
0
<a,
V
C.-
'4- C
o
o
D
o
b
.0
C
C
w
0
04-
U)
'C
0)
1
'C
U)
'C
a,
C
0
V
0
U)
0)
U)
'C
I-
0)
x
U)
> a,
C
U,
U.
wgL'wgL
W
9.
W
8
0
V
84
3O'x 165 x
UB
.
gable
column
Figure
48 P/an of roof
stee/work
/
0
CD
/
0
(0
/
0
CD
/
0
CO
/
0
CO
0
CD
/
0
CD
/
85
r
Om
F'
7
/
-7
0
CO
J-I
457 x
191 x 89
UB
/
Column
Lattice roof truss
.4
/ E
co
/
114.3x 5
CHS
Wind
girder
in
plane
of
top
chord
142x54x49x 1.8
Z side rail
Wind
girder
in
plane
of
top
chord
\
18 lines of
202 x 65 x
60 x 1.8
Z
purlins
at 1.85 m
c/c
/

1
1
4
.
3

x

5

C
H
S

W
i
n
d

b
r
a
c
e

1
4
2

x

5
4
x

4
9

x
l
.

8

s
i
d
e

r
a
i
l

4
5
7

x

1
9
1

x

8
9

U
B

M
a
i
n

c
o
l
u
m
n

1
3
9
.
7

x

5

b
r
a
c
i
n
g

4
5
7

x

1
9
1

x

8
9

U
B

c
o
l
u
m
n

A
n
t
i
-
s
a
g

b
a
r
s

7
,

_
_
_

I
,

I

N

7
,

N

T

\

.
N
.

I

I

N

I

2
0
3

x

1
0
2

x

2
3

U
B

g
a
b
l
e

r
a
f
t
e
r

3
0
5

x

1
6
5

x

4
0

g
a
b
l
e

c
o
l
u
m
n

F
i
g
u
r
e

4
9

E
n
d

e
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
;

g
e
n
e
r
a
l

a
r
r
a
n
g
e
m
e
n
t
o
f

s
t
e
e
l
w
o
r
k

g
a
b
l
e

b
r
a
c
e

2
0
2

x

6
0

x

6
0

x

1
.
6

r
a
i
l

n
t
i
-
s
a
g

b
a
r
s

REFERENCES
1.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION
BS 5950: Structural use of steelwork in
building
Part 1:
Code of
practice
for
design
in
simple
and continuous construction: hot
rolled sections
BSI,
1990
2.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION
BS 5950: The structural use of steelwork in
building
Part 5: Code of
practice
for
design
of cold formed sections
BSI,
1987
3. BRITISH STANDARDS
INSTITUTION
BS 5502:
Building
and structures for
agriculture
Various
parts
4. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION
BS 6399:
Loading
for
buildings
Part 1: Code of
practice
for dead and
imposed
loads
BSI,
1984
5. BRITISH STANDARDS
INSTITUTION
BS 6399:
Loading
for
buildings
Part 3: Code
of
practice
for
imposed
roof loads
BSI,
1988
6. BRITISH
STANDARDS INSTITUTION
CP3:
Chapter
V:
Loading
Part 2: Wind loads
(This
will be
superseded by
BS 6399: Part
2)
BSI,
1972
7.
BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT
The
designer's guide
to wind
loading
of
building
structures
Part
1;
Butterworths,
1985
Part
2;
Butterworths,
1990
8. THE BRITISH
CONSTRUCTIONAL STEELWORK ASSOCIATION / SC!
National steelwork
specification
for
building
construction
(2nd Edition)
BCSA/SCI,
1991
9.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION
Handbook 22:
Quality
assurance
BSI,
1990
10. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION
BS 5750:
Quallty systems
Parts 0 to 3
BSI,
1987
11. BRITISH STEEL STRIP PRODUCTS
Roofing
and
cladding
in steel
-
Product selector
BS
Strip Products,
1987
87
12.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION
BS 4360:
Specification
for weldable structural steels
BSI,
1990
13. BRITISH STEEL TECHNICAL MANUAL
TD 338/5E/91R
Design
of SHS welded
joints
BS Welded
Tubes,
1991
14. BRITISH STEEL TECHNICAL MANUAL
TD
325/1OE/89
Jointing
BS
Welded
Tubes,
1989
15. BRITISH STEEL TECHNICAL
MANUAL
TD 328/10/90
Welding
BS Welded
Tubes,
1990
16. THE STEEL CONSTRUCTION INSTITUTE
A check list for
designers
SC!,
1987
17.
YEOMANS,
N.
New
developments
in
the use
of structural hollow sections
SCllBritish Steel
Conference,
December 1989
18. METAL SECTIONS LIMITED
Zed
purlins
technical manual to BS 5950: Part 5
Metsec,
1988
19.
THE
STEEL
CONSTRUCTION INSTITUTE
Steelwork
design guide
to
BS 5950: Part 1: 1990
Volume 1: Section
properties
and member
capacities
SCI,
1992
20. THE STEEL CONSTRUCTION INSTITUTE
Steetwork
design guide
to BS 5950
Volume 4: Essential
design
data for
designers
SC!,
1991
21. THE STEEL CONSTRUCTION INSTITUTE
Steelwork
design guide
to BS 5950: Part 1: 1990
(Revised Edition)
Volume 2: Worked
examples
SCI,
1991
22. BRITISH STEEL GENERAL STEELS WELDED TUBES
In
conjunction
with CIDECT
Construction with hollow steel sections
First edition 1984
88
BIBLIOGRAPHY
In addition to the
publications
listed in the
text,
reference has been made to
catalogues
produced
by:
METAL SECTIONS LIMITED
Building products
Birmingham
Road,
Oldbury
Warley
West Midlands B69 4HE
SPACE DECKS
LIMiTED
Chard
Somerset TA2O 2AA
Reference has also been made to:
BRITISH STEEL TECHNICAL MANUAL
TD 16716E192 Hot finished structural hollow
sections; sizes, properties
and technical data
BS Welded
Tubes,
1992
89
RECENT SCI
PUBLICATIONS:
P062 Steel
Designers'
Manual
-
5th Edition
Sc, & Blackwell
Scientific Publications Ltd
P079 Steel Construction Yearbook
-
1993
Thomas
Telford Directories / SC!
P083
Design
of
Composite
Trusses
Skidmore 0
wings
Merrill / SC!
P101 Curtain Wall Connections to Steel Frames
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Interfaces
A G
Ogden
P114 Steelwork
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to Eurocode 3: Part
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Introducing
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J C
Taylor,
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P123 Concise Guide to the
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P124 Technical
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The Fire Resistance of Web-Infilled Steel Columns
G M Newman
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P206 Joints in
Simple
Construction Volume 2: Practical
Applications
BCSA & SC!
For further information
please
contact:
The Publications
Department,
The Steel Construction
Institute,
Silwood
Park,
Ascot, Berkshire,
SL5 7QN.
Telephone:
0344 23345 Fax:
0344 22944
cto
Typeset
and
page make-up by
The Steel
Construction
Institute, Ascot,
Berks.
Printed and bound
by Burgess
Science
Press,
Basmgstoke, Hampshire.
1500/3-1993
o&.