Methods of Flow

Measurement

for Water and Wastewater






New ordinances (for billing, control and
supervision etc.) as well as construction of structures
and relief structures,
demand in peak time for quantity measurement
of raw sewage.



Riyaz Jiwani, M.Sc., P.E.
Steffen Lucas, Dip. Eng.




NIVUS GmbH
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Contents

1. Definitions................................................................................................... 4
2. Introduction ................................................................................................ 6
3. Measurement Methods................................................................................ 7
3.1 Measurement in Full-Filled Lines....................................................................... 7
3.1.1 Throttle Devices................................................................................................. 7
3.1.2 Measurement with Volume Meters.................................................................... 8
3.1.3 Magnetic-inductive Flow Measurement............................................................. 8
3.1.4 Ultrasonic Flow Measurement.......................................................................... 10
3.1.4.1 Ultrasonic Transit-Time Method ..................................................................... 11
3.1.4.2 Ultrasonic Phase Difference Measurement ...................................................... 12
3.1.4.3 Ultrasonic Doppler Method.............................................................................. 12
3.1.4.4 Ultrasonic Pulse Doppler Method.................................................................... 13
3.2 Measurement Partially Filled Pipes................................................................... 14
3.2.1 Measurement with Q/h-characteristics without mechanical Bracing.............. 14
3.2.2 Flume Measurement......................................................................................... 17
3.2.3. Weir Measurement........................................................................................... 19
3.2.3.1 Overfall Weirs .................................................................................................. 20
3.2.3.2 V-Notch Weir................................................................................................... 24
3.2.3.3 Special Measurement Methods for Overfall Weirs .......................................... 25
3.2.4. Magnetic-Inductive Flow Measurement in Partially Filled Pipes..................... 27
3.2.5 Ultrasonic Doppler Method.............................................................................. 28
3.2.5.1 Fan-like Beams with statistical average Value plotting.................................... 29
3.2.5.2 Fan-like Beams with V
max
Evaluation ............................................................... 31
3.2.5.3 Selective Flow Velocity Evaluation .................................................................. 32
3.2.5.4. Measurement Technique Installation............................................................... 34
3.2.6 New Measurement Methods Profiler............................................................. 36
4. Bibliography............................................................................................... 43
5. Selecting Measurement Devices for Flow Measurement in Wastewater.. 44
6. Flow Measurement Applications............................................................... 45

3
rd
Edition - 21.02.2002













3

1. Definitions
Flow Q is the volume flowing through a mathematically precise determined cross-
section over a certain time unit.

Q = =
Volume
Time
V
t


The most common measurement units are:

l/s ; m/s and m/h (metric)
cfs ; gpm and Mgd (imperial)

The same can be determined by the multiplication of the average flow velocity, v, with
the wetted cross-section area, A, vertical to the flow direction, known as the continuity
equation:

Q = v A


Volume V is the flow volume within a certain time interval.

V = Q t


Measurement units are most commonly l; m
3
(metric) or ft
3
; gal (imperial).

The average flow velocity
v
is the velocity determined within cross section A.



According to physics a laminar flow represents a layered flow. The separate water layers
are gliding one above the other unless they are getting mixed. Based on frictional
influences (wall roughness, medium viscosity) the flow velocity at the pipe wall is 0.
It reaches its maximum at various points within the cross-section, depending on the
level and the channel profile (round, oval, square).

4
In a full-filled pipe the velocity profile is rotationally-symmetrical and its maximum is
situated in the tube axis (see Fig. 1 and 2).



Fig. 1; laminar Flow Fig. 2; Velocity Profile



Within a turbulent flow an intermixing between the water layers occurs, and is not
influenced by the pipe roughness (see Fig. 3). Thus, the velocity profile is more uniform
(see Fig. 4).




Fig. 3; turbulent Flow Fig. 4; Velocity Profile



Transition flows are intermixings between laminar and turbulent flows. This form of
the hydraulic flow is unstable and sways. No defined, stable flow profile is developed.
The flow conditions arent predictable. (see Fig. 5)



Fig. 5; Transition Flow
5

2. Introduction
Flow measurements are a critical element for water resources monitoring for various
applications.

This booklet only gives a basic understanding in a short and concise form the various
problems encountered in flow measurement techniques. It doesn't claim to be complete
with reference to the described methods as well as the hydraulic boundary conditions.
For more extensive information, the bibliography listed at the end must be referred to.

For any questions, unsolved technical problems and unclear application solutions, our
applications engineers from our "Flow Team" at NIVUS is at your disposal. They have
extensive flow and hydraulic monitoring experience.

2.1 Potential Problems

Flow is usually monitored in open channels (gravity flow) and closed conduits
(pressurised flow in completely closed pipes).

Flow measurement in the wastewater field is always carried out under harsh sewer
conditions. Wastewater is polluted with sludge, solids, fibers, grease and oil, etc. as well
as sewer films and overlays. This causes the measurement methods often inaccurate or
even to fail.

According to structural conditions we often encounter difficult hydraulic flow
conditions. Not understanding the interrelation between the flow condition at the
desired measurement point and the choice of the proper measuring device sometimes
leads to a wrong determination of measuring point and method.

Test points where the best measurement techniques are used may deliver faulty or
useless measurement results.

The required measuring ranges represent a further problem. The range varies from
extreme low levels at night an in dry periods to extremely high levels in rain periods
with full-filled pipes and high flow velocities. Other circumstances, like high levels at
low flow velocities also occur often during backwater conditions.

6
3. Measurement Methods
Various techniques are available for measuring flow. Each one has its advantages and
disadvantages, and selecting a proper technique depends on its specific applications.
The following methods describe the most common methods and techniques used for
flow monitoring.
3.1 Measurement in Full-Filled Lines
For cross-sections of mostly full pipes, the wetted area is defined by its geometry and
dimensions and thus can be considered a constant. This means that the area
standardized flow velocity V must only be determined.

3.1.1 Throttle Devices
These measurings are classical measurement peocedures based on the differential
pressure principle. That is: a defined reduction creates a positive pressure before and a
negative pressure after the throttle device. The difference is a measurement of the flow
(see Fig. 6 and 7) . Examples of these devices are nozzles, blank faceplates and Venturi
pipes.

Due to its high failure vulnerability, these do not find any use for sewage measurement
techniques.



Fig. 6; Flow pattern
at a Measurement faceplate
Fig. 7; Pressure distribution at a
Measurement faceplate
1. Differential pressure 2. Loss of pressure

7
3.1.2 Measurement with Volume Meters
Motor meters are used for the volume measurement by a volume count, where the wall
of a room, either locked or not locked is replaced by the current or the pressure of the
medium. The covered distance or angle for piston, a drum or the wing of a winged wheel
corresponds to the volume to be measured.

Typical measurement devices: rotary-piston meter, oval wheel meter, winged wheel
meter, etc.

Example:


Fig. 8; Oval wheel meter


Oval wheel meter:
Consisting of a chamber (3) with influx (1) and drain (4) as well as two oval gear wheels
fitted in, (2 and 5). A sickle-shaped space arises between the wheels and the outer
chamber walls, by which the liquid reaches the run (4) under simultaneous drive of the
wheels of the finish (1) . The counter is set in movement by the wheels.

Due to the vulnerability to dirt this kinds of measurement are unsuitable for sewage
applications.

3.1.3 Magnetic-inductive Flow Measurement
The magnetically inductive flow measurement has a very strong position in sewage
applications for full filled pipes.

The measurement principle is based on Faradays Law of Magnetic Induction: a
homogeneous magnetic field is built up. An electrically conducting liquid flows through
this magnetic field . By the movement of the electrical conductor (liquid) a current gets
induced which is proportional to the average flow velocity and the magnet field
strength.

It is given by:

U
e
= B L
v


8
U
e
is the induced electromotive force. It is picked up by two electrodes contacting the
medium. The induced voltage B is the strength of the induction of the magnetic field .
This is produced by magnet field coils which are operated by alternating voltage or
pulsating direct voltage.
L represents the conductors length. By using the legitimacies of the magnetic-inductive
measuring principle this length is determined by the gap between the both measuring
electrodes.
v
is the average flow velocity.


1. Magnetic Field Coils
2. Pipe Boundary
3. Measuring Electrodes
dV Volume Element
B Magnetic Induction
v Flow Velocity
E Resulting Field Intensity

Fig. 9; Measurement Principle: Magnetic-Inductive Flow Measurement


The magnet field strength as well as the electrode distance are fixed values. This means
that the induced current is directly proportional to the flow velocity.

Prerequisites for Measuring
! minimum conductivity (oil, grease and similar cannot be measured)
! defined hydraulic conditions (5 - 10 x Diameter influx stage, 3 - 5 x Diameter
outflow stage)
! minimum flow velocities (usually 1m/s (3.28 fps), high-end devices require 30 -
50cm/s (0.98 1.64 fps) minimum flow velocity)
! full filling (special types of construction will be mentioned later).

Advantages
! high precision and consistency of measurement values at exact mounting conditions
! calibrateability
! wide range of diameters available (25 - 1200 mm; 1 - 48 in)
! high pressure resistance (up to 600 bar)
! no cross-section reduction
! independent of the mediums pressure or temperature


9
Disadvantages
! minimum conductivity necessary (> 1mS)
! electrodes sensitive to contamination by oil, grease and sewer films (zero point error
& measurement failure)
! high structural costs / siphon and bypass line necessary when sewers need to be
blocked and/or cleaned
! device costs increasing proportional to diameters to be measured
! minimum flow velocity required (1m/s; 3.28 fps, in exceptional cases 0,3 - 0,5m/s;
0.98 1.64 fps, below these limits, high increase in measurement errors)

3.1.4 Ultrasonic Flow Measurement
Ultrasonic flow measurement devices, like magnetic-inductive ones have a free passage;
this means, there are no mechanical or moving parts within the pipe.
Principally we distinguish between clamp-on technology (see Fig. 11) (transducers
fastened on top of the pipe with no medium contact ) and insertion technology (see Fig.
10) (transducers fitted to the pipe with direct medium contact).



Fig. 10; Ultrasonic Insertion Technology




Fig. 11; Ultrasonic Clamp-On Technology

10
3.1.4.1 Ultrasonic Transit-Time Method
The transit-time method is based on the physical legitimacy that a sound waves
propagation velocity within a medium in motion depends on its velocity.
1) 2)


Fig. 12; Ultrasonic Transit-Time Principle


V
R
= Sound propagation velocity in medium at rest
V
O
= local medium velocity
V
1
= sound propagation velocity in flow direction
V
2
= sound propagation velocity counter to flow direction
# = mounting angle between acoustic path and flow direction
L = gap between electroacoustic transducers

Result V
average

2 L cos #
V = (t - t ) m
VR
2
2 1


Prerequisites for measurement
! acoustic attachment/sound transmission within the medium necessary
! pipes must be filled up (or additionally a level measurement is required)
! acoustic path must be situated within the medium

Advantages
! easy mounting / demounting (clamp-on technology)
hydraulic disturbances within the acoustic path are taken into account in the
calculation
! insensitive to grease and oils
! no minimum conductivity necessary

Disadvantages
! incorrect measurement or failure in partially filled pipes
! measurement failure in liquids with high solid matter contents
! incorrect measurement / failure in incrusted pipes (clamp-on technology)
! no clamp-on technology measurement possible in pipes with inhomogeneous outer
jacket (concrete or similar)
11
3.1.4.2 Ultrasonic Phase Difference Measurement
The measurement is similar to transit-time measurement . Here, instead of the transit
time of the sound, the phase difference angle is used for the determination of the
average flow velocity. This is determined by the phase relationship between transmitted
and received signals against the flow direction. The determined phase difference angle is
proportional to the transit-time difference and is evaluated further as listed above.

3.1.4.3 Ultrasonic Doppler Method
The principle of the Doppler effect is based on transmitting a bundled ultrasound beam
with a defined frequency and a well-known angle into a liquid. A part of the ultrasound
energy is reflected by the solid particles or gas bubbles carried in the liquid.

Due to the movement of the particles a frequency distortion $F occurs. This distortion
is directly proportional to the particle velocity . It is given by:

C
$ = 2 V
cos #
0
p


= Transmission frequency
C
0
= Sound velocity within medium to be measured
V
P
= Particle velocity
# = Transmission angle between ultrasonics and flow direction



Fig. 13; Doppler Method Principle


At a constant transmission frequency, transmission angle and sound velocity one can
get the particle velocity from:

V
P
= K $
Due to the flow profile arising and a multitude of reflective particles of various flow
velocity a frequency spectrum results.
12
The various possibilities of the evaluation of this frequency mixture are explained in the
section ultrasonic measurements.

3.1.4.4 Ultrasonic Pulse Doppler Method
The ultrasonic Pulse Doppler Method represents a further development of the known
Doppler method as a new measurement technique.

Unlike the common Doppler method, using a continuous transmission frequency, the
Pulse Doppler transmits a short frequency bundle with a defined length. Due to the
defined transmission angle and the known sound velocity within the medium the
transducer after transmitting switches to receiving standby mode within a time t1. The
change of the sound velocity depending on temperature is considered and compensated
by an additional transducer-integrated temperature measurement. Thus, the scan slots
allocation for a received signal is possible. The frequency distortion of the transmitted
ultrasonic signal in a defined measurement window is a measure of the flow velocity
corresponding to that measurement window. Reflections of particles in other areas don't
have any influence on the velocity measurement.



Fig. 14; Pulse Doppler Method Principle


Putting this window onto V
max
(prerequisite: axially symmetrical flow profile), V
average

can be determined. From V
average
and the known diameter the flow Q is determined.

13
3.2 Measurement Partially Filled Pipes
There are basically two ways of measuring partially filled pipes.

One, the detection of level and average flow velocity, the other, a simple level detection
and based on mechanical/hydraulic conditions like roughness, slope, diameter variations
etc.

3.2.1 Measurement with Q/h-characteristics without mechanical Bracing

This method represents the most simple way of volume measurement:

Measurement principle:


Fig. 15; Nonpressure Channel Measurement

The MANNING Equation
This equation gives a rough estimation of the flow:

Q = 1.486/n . (A.e.1.667 S.e0.5)/P.e0.667

Where:
Q = Flow
A = Cross-sectional Area
P = Perimeter
n = Roughness Coefficient
S = Slope
e = exponent

Based on the above, many flow tables have been developed for various pipe diameters,
level, slope and the roughness coefficient.

This equation is not very accurate (10 - 30 %), but is acceptable when only an
approximation of flow measurement is allowed.

The flow Q is represented as a function of Q/h. The allocation of the level h to the flow
Q is based on channel geometry und channel dimensions (known and invariable), the
slope # (mostly known) as well as the roughness k between pipe walls and medium.

The roughness has been experimentally determined for various materials and may vary
according to different types of construction and material stress. It may further vary
during the measuring process (rinsed concrete = rougher, sewer film and grease
14
sedimentation = smoother) or it may vary depending on different grades of roughness at
different levels. Depending on the water level these conditions will change. Thus,
roughness represents a big instability factor ( Table 1).

Further sedimentation and backwater cause huge measurement errors.



Fig. 16; Measurement Error caused by Sedimentation



Fig. 17; Measurement Error caused by Backwater


Measurement Prerequisites
! no backwater
! no deposition/sedimentation
! channels in good structural condition
! constant slope

Advantages
! cheap
! easy mounting

Disadvantages
! extreme uncertanity in measurement
! not suitable for many measurement points
! preclarification of hydraulic conditions absolutely necessary
! high calibration and maintenance expenses (recalibration)
15

Flume Wall Qualities
M in m
1/3
/s k in mm
Glass, Piacrylics, polished Metal Surfaces > 100 0...0,003
Plastic (PVC,PE)
new Steel Plate with Protective Coating, smoothened
C t Plaster
% 100
0,05
0,03...0,06
Asphalt coated Steel Plate
Concrete from steel or Vacuum Formwork, no joints,
f ll
smoothened;
planed Wood, joint-free, new; Asbestos Cement, new
90...100 0,1...0,3
smoothened Concrete, smooth Finish
planed Wood, good joints
85...90
0,4
0,6
Concrete, good Formwork, high Cement contents 80 0,8
non-planed Wood; Concrete Tubes 75 1,5
hard-burned Brick; carefully joint
well-manufactured Ashlar Facing;
Concrete from joint-free Wood Formwork
70...75 1,5...2,0
rolling-cast Asphalt Finish 70 2
well-manufactured Ashlar Masonry; Steel Pipes moderately
incrusted; non-finished Concrete, Wood Formwork; Stones, squared
Wood, old and swelled, Cement Walls
65...70 3
non-finished Concrete, old Wood Formwork, Brickwork, no joints,
finished; Soil Material, smooth (fine-grained)

60 6
Concrete from Wood Formwork, old, corroded 55 10
rough Ashlar Masonry;
Paved Slopes, Sand or Gravel Bottom;
Concrete Plates; old Concrete with open Joints
45...50 20
Regular Earth Channels, no Shingle; moderate Gravel 40
Fine Gravel; sandy Gravel
Fine Gravel up to moderate Gravel
Moderate Gravel, broken Stone
30
50
75
Moderate to coarse Gravel; Earth Channels with slight Weed Growth,
moderate Bed Load and Potholes
35 90
Natural River Beds with coarse Shingle;
Rivers with heavy Bed Load; Earth Channels with plaiced Loam;
River Environs with Vegetation
30
Soil Material with moderate Bed Load,
Coarse Gravel to coarse broken Stone
...200
Mountain Stream with coarse Shingle, Earth Channels with heavy
Weed Growth, Soil Material plaiced and thrown up
25 ...400
Coarse Rock Filling;
refinished Rock Excavation
& 20
...500
(max. 0,4 R)
Mountain Streams with heavy Bed Load;
Random Rubble Stone
< 20
...650
(max. 0,4 R)
Collapsed Bed
< 20
...900
(max. 1,0 R)
Rock Excavation, medium coarse < 20
...1 500
(max. 0,4 R)
Collapsed Bed with heavy Bed Load;
Earth Channels with very heavy Weed Growth
<20
...1 500
(max. 1,0 R)
raw Rock Excavation, extremely coarse <20
...3 000
(max. 0,8 R)
* The absolute roughness values for these surfaces are currently incomplete.
s
m
o
o
t
h

m
o
d
e
r
a
t
e
l
y

r
o
u
g
h

r
o
u
g
h

v
e
r
y

r
o
u
g
h


e
x
t
r
e
m
e
l
y

r
o
u
g
h
*

Table 1: Roughness Types
16
3.2.2 Flume Measurement
Flume measurements are flow measurements in a specially shaped channel with defined
lateral narrowings. Within these narrowings, the flow velocity changes from streaming
to shooting.
Most commonly used, they are stationary channels made of concrete as well as
prefabricated pieces. According to the well-known measurement principle, the
geometric shapes vary over a wide range (such as Parshall channel, Palmer-Bowlus
channel and many special constructions by different manufacturers). In Germany, two
kinds of flumes are used: the Khafagi channel as well as the classical flume channel.
Both have been included in the DIN 19559 (German Industrial Standard). Based on
this standard, reference for mounting conditions, measurement ranges, accuracies etc.
will be made.

In North America, the most commen types of flumes are the Parshall and Palmer-
Bowlus flumes.

Parshall:
Commonly used in concrete-lined channels, for permanent monitoring applications.
The size of the flume is determined by its throat (narrowings) width.

Palmer-Bowlus:
Used in round channels, they measure flow over a narrow flow range. They are sized
according to the pipe diameter.

Basic Functional Principle:
Caused by the narrowing, a banking-up of the medium to be measured occurs in front of
the flume. It is here where the flow velocitys alternation from streaming to shooting
happens (point of alternation). This defined hydraulic state allows the flumes roughness
and slope to be ignored. Thus, the banking-up level in front of the flume represents a
proportional value for the flow volume.


Fig. 18; Section View of a Flume Channel

17

Fig. 19; Plan View of a Flume Channel

B = Channel width
b = Narrowing
h
o
= Upper water level
h
u
= Lower water level
L1 = Transducers distance to beginning of flume

When using flume measurements, the following should be taken into account:

The smallest measurable wastewater flow is 5l/s (79.26 gpm) approximately.
The ralation between Q
max
and Q
min
usually is 10:1; in specially shaped flumes, its
maximum is 20:1
It is absolutely necessary to avoid backwater when measuring. This means, that the
upper water level h
0
will not be influenced by the lower water level h
u
.
The transducer must be installed 1,5 - 2 x h
0 max
above the begin of the flumes
narrowing. If it is necessary to measure within the maximum possible flow volume
range, the distance should be increased up to 3 4 x h
0
.

The transducers zero point always is related to the flumes zero point, not to the
measuring points!!!


Fig. 20; Transducer Installation


Special attention must be paid to the inflow stage. It is absolutely necessary for the head
flow to be in laminar condition. If in turbulent condition, the transition to laminar
condition must take place at least 20 x B before the narrowings begin. Within the
range 10 x B before the flumes beginning the following points should be taken into
account:
18

! constant head of the whole inflow stage
! rectilinear run of the flumes and the inflow channels axial center
! constant channel cross-section
! no additional delivery pipes or drains
! no installations, salient or rebound unevennesses in pipe walls or channel bottom

Prerequisites for measuring
! no backwater
! no deposition/sedimentation
! sufficient banking distances
! high minimum water flow



Advantages
! no moving parts
! very suitable for polluted wastewater measurement
! good consistency of measurement values and measurement control
! easy to clean

Disadvantages
! high costs of construction
! large space required
! high cleaning expenses
! low measurement dynamics between Q
min
and Q
max
, usually factor 10 - 20
! minimum determinable wastewater flow Q
min
%5 l/s (79.26 gpm)

3.2.3. Weir Measurement
Measurement weirs, also called spillways or overflow weirs, are backwater constructions
(dam-like structures) that the water flows over. These constructions change the channel
bottoms run in such a way as to cause backwater in the upper stream.

Based on the defined hydraulic conditions and respective the constructions dimensions
and design, an interrelation between head water and overfall volume = flow volume can
be made.

19

h

= Head on weir
b = Overfall width


Fig. 21; Overfall Weir Measurement Principle

Q = (h ) k

k depends on threshold shape, threshold width, viscosity and more.

3.2.3.1 Overfall Weirs
Overfall weirs are mostly used in rain basins and separation constructions for the
removal of high rain water loads.
The formula for the overflow volume calculation is:

2
3
2
3
2
h g b Q ! ! ! ! ! ' (

represents the overfall coefficient. This coefficient is dimensionless and depends on
threshold shape and partially on the head on weir (see Tab. 2).
b is the weir width (overfall width).
h is the head on weir, also indicated as h
u
. The zero point of this height is situated
exactly on the overfall beginning point.
gis the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s)

20
The most commonly used weir crest shapes in rainwater treatment plants are:

round crest

or

broad crest

or

or sharp-edged


21
sharp edged Weir
with aerated jet
Weir Crest Type Overfall Coefficient
= 0,64
= 0,75
= 0,65 .... 0,73
= 0,79
for = 0,40 ( =0,06m) h

= 0,55 (for =0,45m) h

= 0,49 a)
= 0,52 b)
(valid for >0,06m; >0,01m; <0,8 ) w h h w

( , in ) h w

m
Log Weir
round Crest Weir
( = r Weir Crest
Radius)
cylindrical Weir
Broad Crest Weir
broad Overfall, completely rounded off
such as a
completely reversed
Fishbelly Flap
roof-shaped, Crest rounded off
overflown Dike
L
a
w
n
alternative Radius
when Crest is elliptical
r b =
r
+ - 0,573 ( ; (
4,75
2 +
b
a b
a
b 20
h

b
1
a) b)
h

w
w
w
w
w
d
1
:
0
.
.
.
1
.
:
1
= 0,605 + + 0,08
1
1000 h

w
= 0,49 (for >3) a)
for = 0,50 ( =0,10) b)
for = 0,55 ( =0,55) b)
b
1
h

w
h

w
The value valid for the sharp edged Weir is to be
multiplicated with
(
e
d / h

&
2
/
3
1,0
0,88
1,5
0,82
2,0
0,79
2,5
0,77
3,0
0,76

1,0
e
b
a
within the boundaries 6> >0,5
a
b
= 0,312 +) 0,3-0,01(5- )+0,09
h

r w
( > >0,02m; w r valid for )
20r
h

< 6- r
w r +3
= 0,55+0,22
h

w
h

w
(valid for 0,1< < 0,8)
90
1
:
1
5
approximate exact


Table 2: Overfall Coefficients
22
Due to its very exact overflow coefficient, it is easy to gauge and make supplementary
installation in existing, inexact round crest concrete weirs with sharp-edged weir crest
and is recommended as standard measurement weir according to ATV A111.

The weir must be dimensioned as follows:



Fig. 22; Dimensions sharp-edged Overfall Weir


The weir has to be adjusted horizontally and must be secured in order to avoid
unintentional moving.
The water must flow vertically against the weir and on the other side, no backwater is
allowed to occur. In case of an oncoming flow tending to backwater formation a single
head water measuring is not sufficient!

Prerequisites for Measurement
! no backwater
! precise horizontal overfall edges with defined overfall coefficient
! no additional coarse rakes (or similar)
! high flow volumes
! vertically oncoming flow

Advantages
! no moving parts
! existing basins uncomplicated to refit
! cheap measurement technology

Disadvantages
! suitable only for high flow volumes
! relatively inaccurate
23
! measurement errors due to wind pressure
! unsuitable for tangential oncoming flow and backwater in the ditch

3.2.3.2 V-Notch Weir

One more special weir shape is the V-Notch weir, also called Thomson Weir or Gourley
Weir. This weir features a weir plate standing vertical to the flow direction with a sharp-
edged triangular cutout.
The backwater level in front of the weir is directly proportional to the flow volume.

Due to its special cutout the V-Notch weir is especially suitable for small volume
measurement (0.05 l/s - 30 l/s; 0.79 - 475.59 gpm).
A polluted weir edge very strongly adulterates the measurement values. Thus, it is
primarily suitable for the evaluation of clean media like spring water, small sewage
plants drains or partially even for volume measuring of percolating waters in dumps (in
the latter case the prerequisite is that the dissolved components do not tend to
sedimentation, precipitation or incrustation at air access on the weir edge).

The following conditions should be payed attention to:



Fig. 23; V-Notch Weir Principle


! h

min
= 3 cm (1.18 in)! The jet is glued below this, measuring impossible.
! h

max
should not be more than 30 cm (11.81 in).
! The oncoming flow velocity should not be higher than 5 cm/s (0.16 fps). Eventually
baffles must be installated in order to avoid a direct oncoming flow.
! No backwater (absolutely necessary)!
24
Prerequisites
! no backwater
! low oncoming flow velocity
! no sedimentation
! clean media without slubs, fibers or similar

Advantages
! low costs for the needed measurement technique
! accurate measurement results (even at low volumes)
! easy to verify

Disadvantages
! partially high mechanical expenses needed to realize the necessary hydraulic
conditions
! no measurement in polluted or sediment carrying media
! no measurement of very high volumes

3.2.3.3 Special Measurement Methods for Overfall Weirs
The level measurement before the weir as well as the measurement results are
influenced by the ditch backwater (refer to ATV A 111). For an accurate measurement
under backwater conditions, therefore, either 2 components measurements (flow
velocity and level) in the main channel should be made; or the lower water level also
must be included at least in addition to the upper water level.



Fig. 24: Backwater Measurement

25
The relation between the lower water level and the upper water level results in the
reduction coefficient c.
n
h
h
c
o
u
) ( 1* '

n = 2 for sharp edged weirs
n = 3 for round crest weirs
n = 4 for rectangular weirs

Due to the need for better overfall value, always a sharp edged weir should be assumed
in reduction measurements!

The reduction coefficient c depending on the current backwater must be calculated and
fixed into the Poleni formula for rectangular overfalls.

5 , 1
2
3
2
h g b c Q ( '

All functions described above are already implemented in the NIVUS-
HydraulicCalculator. The two level measurements must be only established as analog
inputs.

The tangential oncoming flow of thresholds represents another special form. This
application is frequently found primarily in separation buildings in front of storm water
reservoirs.

The tangential oncoming flow of the overfall threshold results in shaping a parabolic
mirror line which is not parallel to the cast-off threshold. Determining a measurement
point for the average overfall volume is difficult, because this point is situated at various
places according to the water volume flowing through.

In this case, two measurements for the overfall threshold and a determination of the
average overfall level is necessary as well.

26


Fig. 25; Tangential Threshold OncomingFlow

The average overfall level h
-m
must be determined as follows:
) (
3
2
o u o m
h h h h * + '
*

The resulting value h
-m
must be integrated into the Poleni formula mentioned earlier.
This function also is already implemented in the NIVUS-HydraulicCalculator.

3.2.4. Magnetic-Inductive Flow Measurement in Partially Filled Pipes

Magnetic-inductive flow measurement in partially filled pipes is based on the same
principle like in fully filled pipes (see chapter No. 3.1.3). Unlike in fully filled pipes the
induced voltage is registered by multiple pairs of electrodes which are attached at
different levels.

U
E
= Measurement Voltage
B = magnetic Induction
D = Distance between
Electrodes
v = average
Flow Velocity
qv = Volume Flow
k = Correction Factor

U
E
~ B D v

qv =
4
2
, D
v k

U
E
k ~qv


Fig. 26; Principle magnetic-inductive Flow Measurement in partially filled Pipes
27

By transversing the magnetic field the current flow level is evaluated. The various
magnetic field characteristics at various levels are saved in the transmitters memory.
Depending on the current flow level, a signal proportional to the flow is produced by a
correcting method.

Prerequisites for Measurement
! good conductivity of the medium to be measured
! defined pipe cross-section with inflow and outflow stage
! minimum filling level more than 10% of the diameter

Advantages
! high accuracy at higher filling levels and not/low polluted liquids
! low sensitivity against asymmetrical velocity dissipation

Disadvantages
! high initial costs, especially from diameter > 300 (12 in), increasing proportional to
diameter
! minimum flow velocity 50 - 100 cm/s (1.64 3.28 fps)
! considerable higher conductivity necessary than magnetic-inductive flow
measurement in fully filled pipes (factor 10)
! no measuring possible below 10 % filling level
! measuring error increases excessively with falling level
! long-time drift caused by dirty electrodes in the sewage area (sewer films) may result
in total measurement failure after a certain time (obvious through constant discharge
indpendent of day or nighttime) = high cleaning and maintenance expenses in
wastewater

3.2.5 Ultrasonic Doppler Method
This method represents a two-component-measurement. The current flow level and
thus the wetted hydraulic radius is evaluated by ultrasonic or pressure probes. In this
case ultrasonic measurement represents the more accurate, maintenance- and drift-free,
non-contact gauging method.

The flow velocity is evaluated by the Doppler method (see chapter 3.1.4.1).

28


Fig. 27; Measurement Installation Ultrasonic Doppler Method


Evaluating the Doppler signal and the determination of the average flow velocity can be
achieved in different ways.

3.2.5.1 Fan-like Beams with statistical average Value plotting
Using this method, constant beams are transmitted into the liquid. The receiving
crystal, placed at the same angle and parallel, receiveses continuously all Doppler signals
reflected from the transmitted signal, spreading like a fan .


Fig. 28; Evaluation by average Value plotting

29

It is characteristic for this measuring method that, a spatial allocation of the received
signals is not possible. In clean liquids the transmitting signal is able to penetrate the
water surface. In highly polluted liquids the penetration depth is limited and not
defined.

The water surface represents an ideal plane of reflection whose propagation velocity,
under certain circumstances, is higher when waving than the flow velocity to be
measured. Since the statistic average value determined by all signals cannot represent
the average flow velocity it must be corrected with a calibration factor. A general
mathematical derivation of the calibration factor from other channel parameters isn't
known to the authors. Depending on the applications this factor (see VDE 2640 ) must
be determined empirically by comparative measurements.
For long time stationary measurements, a single, high calibration and putting into
operation, a single value acceptable. The calibration often isn't possible or outrageously
expensive for various channel operations.
30
3.2.5.2 Fan-like Beams with V
max
Evaluation
Transmitting beam and signal reception correspond to the method described under
3.1.4.1. The received Doppler signals are evaluated by frequency analysis (Fast Fourier
Transformation for example). The maximum flow velocity is evaluated in the frequency
spectrum consisting of many single velocities.



Fig. 29; Performance with v
max



The detected maximum velocity in the channel is multiplied with the reduction factor
(c <1) to get the average flow velocity.



This reduction factor within fully filled pipes (discharge pipes) is known.

a) laminary flow: c= 0,5 (BLASIUS)
b) turbulent flow (ideally smooth pipe and Re<45000): c=0,817 (ECK)
c) turbulent flow in rough pipes (practically always presesent):

C = 1 + 1,326
= 0,316/Re (fr Re< 10000)
= 0,0032 + 0,221 / Re
-
-
-
(PRANDTL)
(BLASIUS)
(NIKURADSE)
1/2
4
0,237


The extent of how far the reduction factors calculation can be applied to other channel
types or partially filled pipes is subject to further examination. The measured maximum
flow velocity cannot be allocated to a certain point in space even by this method.This is
why a plausibility verification only by using the frequency spectrum is difficult. As
mentioned in 3.2.5.1., influences like signal penetration depth as well as surface and
waving reflections may cause false informations.



31
3.2.5.3 Selective Flow Velocity Evaluation
By having cross-shaped order of the transmitter and receiver crystals an intersection
point is created close to the transmitting and receiving direction. At this intersection
point the highest reflection intensity occurs.
The size of the intersection point is defined by the crystal size (normally approx. 10 mm
of diameter) as well as an inexact determinable marginal zone. Therefore a "virtually"
dot-like flow velocity must be spoken of. The frequency moving measured in this area
sways with the velocity gradient appearing at the intersection point.



Fig. 30; selective Flow Velocity Evaluation


Via this local flow velocity, determined in the local area of the probe, using a coherence
formula, tha average flow velocity can be calculated.

V =
N g M In [N h ( )]
1,49 R V
P
6 0,031
n
P
1/16


(PARR, JUDKINS, JONES)


Assuming fully filled pipes according to NIKURADSE:
N = 29.7
M = 2.5

N = roughness according to MANNING
V
p
= point flow velocity (ft/m)
h
p
= point flow velocity level (ft)

Since the MANNING coefficient varies from one partially filling to the other, the
equation above was extended by the Maryland University in order to consider the
conditions within partially filled pipes too. Further the coefficients M and N were
determined anew. Basis for the change of the MANNING coefficient at partially filled
pipes is the relationship diagram according to CAMP.

32

Fig. 31; Relationship Diagram


To make this diagram, it was expressed as the following equation:

n
t
/n = 0.8194 + 2.0355 (h/D) 6.1305 (h/D) + 7.074 (h/D) - 2.991 (h/D)
4

n
t
= roughness coefficient according to MANNING in partially filled pipes

For M and N the following values were found:

pipes: M = 1.55 N = 3953.224 e
(-0 , 44xD)

rectangular channels: M = 1.3 N = 3300

Inserted into the equation above, it is possible to determine the average flow velocity
from a dot-like flow velocity measurement in the vertical axial center.


33
3.2.5.4. Measurement Technique Installation
Measurement Installation of the Pipe Measurement Section



Fig. 32; OCM Measurement Installation at Pipe MeasuringSection



A typical measurement and controlling section consists of:

- OCM with PID-Controller
- Level Measurement (NivuMaster)
- Power Supply
- Ex-Preamplifier DS4 (only necessary in Ex-Zone 1)
- Level Sensor P-06 (Ex)
- Insertion Velocity Sensor DER (Ex)
- Safety Barrier (only necessary in Ex-Zone 1)
- Pipe Measurement Section

Flanges, fixing pieces, slide valves and control valves are supplied by the plant operator.

34
Measurement Installation in open Channels





Fig. 33; Open Channel Measurement


Recapitulation
Ultrasonic Doppler devices need a certain minimum amount and size of reflecting
particles within the medium to be measured. Without these particles no reflection of the
ultrasonic signal occurs.

For NIVUS measurement technology even gas or air bubbles are sufficient. Applications
like sewage works effluents are measurable as well as return-sludge, wastewater in pump
stations and more.

On the other hand the Doppler method fails in clear water, boiler feed water or similar.

Prerequisites for Measurement
! minimum particle size and volume within the medium to be measured
! defined pipe cross sections with feeding and outlet stages
! correct building construction without setoffs or additional hydraulic disturbances

35
Advantages
! no channel constriction
! additional installation easily possible
! measurement can be carried out even at lowest possible levels (from 30 mm, 1.18 in)
and lowest possible velocities (3cm/s, 0.098 fps) (refer to: NIVUS device technique)
! drift free
! easy measurement even in grease and sewer film formation on the transducer
! maintenance free

Disadvantages:
! careful selection of the measurement point indispensable
! individual calibration for higher accuracy requirements or unfavourable hydraulic
conditions necessary
! no measurement possible in clean media

3.2.6 New Measurement Methods Profiler
The use of measurement principles which were regarded as unthinkable and not possible
a few years ago, can now be used because of the development of faster and more
efficient electronics and processors, as well as research in the area of the sensor
technique today.

NIVUS follows the path of consistent research and development and perfecting the flow
measurement techniques and actively promotes the use of new measurement principles.
A result of this this is the technical transition from theory into practice of a method
which offers completely new techniques of flow measurements, even under difficult
hydraulic conditions. NIVUS has brought this new method to the market through the
newly developed, user friendly and high-accurate OCM product line in the year 2000.
At the editorial deadline more than 100 measurement units were in use over a wide
range of hydraulic conditions.

Measurement Method
The NIVUS OCM Pro works with a completely new multi-purpose transducer
(combination sensor) which simultaneously determines flow velocity and level. This is
achieved by using two especially manufactured piezoelectric crystals which work
independent of each other as transmitter and receiver, and thus determine flow velocity
and level simultaneously.




Fig. 34; Schematic DiagramCombination Sensor Type Pro for Ground Level Installation


36
These particular piezoelectric crystals (Composite-Crystals) consist of a high amount of
parallel, small rod-shaped crystals which can be stimulated to oscillate simultaneously as
well as being switched to receiving mode for the reflected signals.



Fig. 35; Schematic DiagramTransmitter/Receiver Crystals


The special form of these piezoelectric crystals offers the advantage of precise
orientation and directivity of the ultrasonic signal (sonic beam lobe with 3 angular
aperture). Thus, very exact spatial positioning and high precision as well as a very short
die-down time (mechanical baseline overshoot of the crystal after transmitting pulses. A
certain time, t, must pass before the crystal is able to receive reflected signals) can be
achieved.

The very short die-down behaviour makes a dead-zone (the distance before the
transducer where measurement is not possible) of 20 mm possible. These small distances
are necessary when it comes to measuring low levels.

The horizontal transducer works as a level meter with the known ultrasonic transit-time
method. The time elapsed from transmitting a pulse and receiving it, reflected by the
boundary layer between water and air, is measured.
Since the pulse must cover the distance h
2
twice (up to the water surface and back to
the transducer) the result is:

2

2
l
t c
h '

c = Sound Travel Time
t
l
= Time Lapse between transmitting and receiving the Signal

37


Fig. 36; Measurement Principle Level Evaluation in Channels





Fig. 37; Speed of Sound Determination

The speed of sound in water is exact 1480m/s (4854 fps) at 20C (68F). It depends on
the temperature with a tolerance of 0.23% per Kelvin.

To achieve a millimetre-accuracy for level measurement, the medium temperature is
continuously monitored and the speed of sound is corrected accordingly.

The constant level value h1 determined by the transducer crystal installation is added to
the evaluated value h
2
. The result is the overall level h.

The advantage of ultrasonic measurement from below is that surface foam does not
influence the measurement results (for conventional air-ultrasonic measurements, foam
can distort the measurement results or lead to the failure of the measurement).
Installing the transducer in partially filled pipes can be easily made by welding a socket
into the pipe vertically from below and fixing the transducer by a pipe double nipple
with an O-ring.

38


Fig. 38; Measurement Principle Level Determination in partially filled Pipes


For velocity measurement, the piezoelectric crystal is inclined in a defined angle against
the flow direction and works as a flow velocity transducer. For the first time worldwide
in the field of wastewater measurement technique, the digital pattern recognition of
reflections is used, which allows, in conjunction with the correlation method an exact
spatial allocation of various scan window velocities by a defined acoustic path.

This measurement method is based on the following physical principles:

A short ultrasonic signal bundle is insolated into the medium to be measured in a
defined angle. All particles within the measurement path (air, dirt etc.) reflect a small
amount of the ultrasonic signal. This signal is received by the flow velocity crystal and is
transformed to a time-dependent voltage signal.

The result is a particular reflection signal, dependent on size an shape of each particle.
The multitude of the reflected signals result in a reflection pattern (see Fig. 39a), which
the crystal receives again and transforms it to voltage signal equivalent to this pattern.
This signal pattern is fed into an extremely powerful digital signal processor (DSP) and
stored.





39
Fig. 39a; Situation at first Signal Detection

After a defined period of time another ultrasonic impulse is insolated into the medium.

There are different hydraulic flow velocities in various level layers. The reflective
particles therefore have moved further depending on height since the previous
measurement. The result is a distorted image of the reflection pattern (see Fig. 39b).
Simultaneously slightly different reflections appear: some particles have been turned
around showing a different plane of reflection; some particles have been moved out of
the measurement range and some new ones have been moving into the measurement
range.




Fig. 39b; Situation at second Signal Detection


These two received reflection samples are checked mathematically in the digital signal
processor by means of the correlation method for their similarities. All available signal
differences are rejected in order to have two signal patterns similar to each other with a
temporal offset left to enable a velocity evaluation.

A large number of measurement windows are put over these samples depending on the
flow levels. Then in each window the evaluation of the time offset $t of each pattern
(see Fig. 40) is carried out.


Fig. 40; Echo Signal Images + Evaluation
40


Each scan windows position in vertical sense and size are known due to the flow level
measurement carried out simultaneously. As a result of insolation angle and the
ultrasonic signals speed of sound, each windows exact beginning and ending time point
is determined.

The accompanying flow velocity therefore can be determined based on the insolation
angle, the temporal distance of the two transmitted signals succeeding one another and
the difference of the signal pattern in each measuring window.

Mathematically stringing together the single calculated flow velocities yields the velocity
profile of the acoustic path.



Fig. 41; Evaluated Flow Profile within the Measurement Path


If the wave trap at the measurement point is large enough, a three-dimensional image of
the flow density spread can be generated based on the available geometric data of the
channel.

41


Fig. 42; Generated 3-dimensional Flow Profile

The transducer is constantly testing the received signals quality and level. In case of a
decreasing signal level (if contamination should occur for example) the transmitter
output will automatically be equalized. This results in very low sensitivity in case of
transducer contamination.

The depicted combination transducer has not been cleaned for more than 40 weeks and
thus documents this statement impressively.



Photo 01; dirty multi-purpose Transducer
42

Recapitulation
The Profiler Method opens new doors in the field of wastewater technique.

The method described above and the available measument technology captures with
high accuracy, exact verifiableness, easy installation in available profiles, extreme easy
and menu-driven operation, a high number of additional information (7-day-totalizer,
error-free memory, graphical representation of velocity values, control and flush
functions) measurement value memory, it is absolutely drift-free etc.

4. Bibliography
- ATV A 111
- DIN 19559 Teil 1 und 2
- Fachwissen des Ingenieurs, Band 5, FBV Leipzig
- Technische Hydromechanik, Band 1, Preisler / Bollrich, Verlag fr Bauwesen Berlin
- Abwasserhydraulik, W. H. Hager, Springer- Verlag Berlin & Heidelberg
- Durchflussmesstechnik fr die Wasser- und Abwasserwirtschaft, Heinz G. Erb, Vulkan
Verlag Essen
- Hydraulik im Wasserbau, Prof. Dr. -Ing. R. Rssert, R. Oldenburg Verlag
Mnchen/Wien




























43
5. Selecting Measurement Devices for Flow Measurement in
Wastewater








































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44
6. Flow Measurement Applications
Flow measurements are necessary for planning, water treatment, pollution control,
storm water monitoring and control, and billing purposes.

The following are common users of flow monitors for measurement purposes:

Cities and Municipalities
Water works engineers and municipal managers understand the hydraulic loadings
on their sewer systems and manage them. It helps them understand the capacity of
their sewers in wet weather conditions; why overflows and backup occur; where is
the worst I/I in the sewer system; amount flow entering lift stations; what part of the
sewer system needs to be fixed and what is their effectiveness after rehabilitation.

Wastewater Treatment Plants
For control of aeration, chemical feed, chlorination etc. based on amount of flow
entering the plant.

Storm water collection systems
RB controllers are used to monitor rainfall as well as flow and water quality in wet
weather conditions.

The following applications are briefly described:

Infiltration & Inflow (I/I) Analysis
Infiltration is the total extraneous flow entering the sanitary sewer eystem. It is
usually groundwater migration into a sanitary sewer.
Inflow is the extraneous flow entering a sanitary sewer during rainfall event, from
roof leaders, basement drains, manhole covers and storm sewer cross connections.
Flow monitoring allows the sewer system to be identified for sources of I/I and
remediation suggested.

Capacity Analysis
In areas where municipal and industrial growth is planned, capacity analysis studies
determine how much additional flows during dry and wet weather the sewer system
can handle due to growth.

Pre- and Post Remediation Studies
Most remediation work is done to eliminate I/I. Flow monitoring allows to know the
effectiveness of the remediation.

Billing
Many industries and municipalities have their wastewater treated by other treatment
plants and pay for these services based on portable usage, flat fees etc. These do not
take into account increased flows during wet weather, or illegal dumping.
Direct flow measurement is the only true way to bill according to wastewater
treated. This eliminates ambiguities etc.
45