Academic Skills U Ws

Academic skills guide
Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney

University of Western Sydney

Fourth Edition: February 2007

Published by
Student Learning Unit
University of Western Sydney
Locked Bag 1797
Penrith South DC NSW 1797

Contributions to this evolving workbook:
Clare Power, Neera Handa, Helen Farrell, Erst Carmichael, Leighana Thornton, Paul
Parker, Robyn Heath, Penny Shore, Kristine Brown and Rosalie Goldsmith
Edited and adapted for online delivery by Maria Inglis

Acknowledgments:
These materials draw primarily on the following works developed by John Grierson:
Unistart: Academic Literacy 1 (2000) Distance study guide
Unistart: Academic Literacy 2 (2002) Resource book
Academic writing for postgraduate students in public health (2002) Study guide
Material has also been adapted from:
An introduction to writing at university, originally published by the Academic Development Unit at the
University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury in 2000; reprinted by the Student Learning Unit in 2002.
Reaching for Success resource booklet compiled for the Academic Preparation Program, 2003; a
joint publication of the Counselling Service and Student Learning Unit, Student Services, UWS.

This resource has been adapted for online delivery from print materials used in
the academic literacy component of UniStep, 2007.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without prior permission.

In memory of
John Grierson

Table of Contents
Introduction
What this guide contains
How to use this guide
Who we are
Chapter 1: Beginning university studies
Introduction 1
Adapting to university 1
Studying as an adult student 2
Expectations 2
Your expectations 2
Lecturers' expectations 3
Expectations of UWS 4
University survival kit 5
Identifying skills and potential 5
Rules for survival 6
Stress management 7
Time management 9
The time management matrix 10
Combating procrastination 13
Modes of learning 14
Learning in lectures 14
Learning in tutorials 18
Self-directed learning 19
In conclusion... 21
Answers to activities 22

Chapter 2: Managing your writing
Introduction 24
Purposes of written work 24
Writing helps learning 25
Learning can be assessed through writing 25
Writing skills are an important university outcome 26
Planning the writing process 26
Making sense of a unit outline 27
Getting more information 41
Planning your study time 42
Presenting your assignment 49
Word processing 49
Presentation 50
Security 51
Meeting deadlines 51
In conclusion... 52
Chapter 3: Understanding the task
Introduction 56
Checking your understanding of the task 56
Clarifying the task 57
Identifying the audience 65
Establishing the purpose 65
In conclusion... 66
Chapter 4: Thinking critically
Introduction 70
A critical thinker is... 71
The process of critical thinking 72
Knowledge 73
Comprehension 73
Application 73
Analysis 74
Synthesis 74
Evaluation 74
How to develop critical thinking skills 77
Reading and listening 77
Writing 84
Critical thinking materials available at UWS 88
In conclusion... 88

Chapter 5: Reading and notemaking
Introduction 94
Reading 95
Reading effectively 97
Reading for understanding 99
Reading for research 108
Note making 120
Strategies for note making 120
Methods of note making 123
Using quotations, paraphrases and summaries 129
In conclusion... 132
Chapter 6: The academic essay
Introduction 137
Recognising the structure of texts 138
Structure and purpose of academic texts 138
Writing style 140
The academic essay 143
Structure 144
Introduction 144
Body 149
Conclusion 152
Variations in essay structure 154
Marking criteria 154
Chapter 7: Other academic genres
Introduction 170
Research report 170
Format 171
Critical review 179
Understanding the assignment 179
Format 180
Annotated bibliography 187
Format 187
Reflective journal 189
Structure 189

Chapter 8: Academic argument and evidence
Introduction 196
Academic argument 197
Constructing your argument 198
Using the language of argument 199
Using evidence 205
Using published sources as evidence 205
Analysing and synthesising sources 212
Integrating evidence with your comments 213
Using note making to achieve a balance 215
Incorporating evidence with quotations, paraphrases and summaries 221
Quoting 221
Paraphrasing 227
Summarising 229
Plagiarism and your own voice 232
Avoiding plagiarism 233
Referencing 234
In-text references 234
The reference list 236
Referencing systems 237
Chapter 9: Features of academic writing
Introduction 246
Paragraph writing 246
Topic sentences 246
Ways of organising and developing paragraphs 249
Cohesion 258
Connective words 259
Pronoun reference 264
Formal language 271
Guidelines for writing in a formal academic style 271
Specialised vocabulary 272
Scholarly vocabulary 272
Formal forms 274

Chapter 10: Grammar in academic writing
Introduction 284
Grammatical terms 285
Sentence construction 288
The role of punctuation 288
Comma misuse creating ambiguity 289
Punctuation in sentence construction 292
Overview of phrases, clauses, and sentences 292
Sentence fragments 298
Punctuation overview 300
Apostrophes 301
Agreement and consistency 304
Subject and verb agreement 306
Consistency in point of view 311
Consistency of tense 313
Consistency of mood 314
Recognising grammatical errors 315
Chapter 11: Editing, proofreading, and receiving feedback
Introduction 323
Editing and proofreading 324
Revising initial ideas 324
Editing for content and structure 325
Checking the validity of content 327
Proofreading for grammar, punctuation, and spelling 327
Receiving feedback on your assignment 329
Lecturer expectations 330
Marker comments 331

Chapter 12: Tutorials, oral presentations, and group work
Introduction 335
Tutorials 336
Tutorial participation 336
Assessment of tutorial participation 337
Oral presentations 337
Preparing your presentation 338
Organising your presentation 340
Creating your visual aids 341
Assessing oral presentations 343
Group work 345
Developing a team 345
Addressing the task 350
Writing collaboratively 352

Introduction
This guide has been developed to help you in your transition to tertiary study as.
It focuses specifically on the skills and strategies you need to adapt to the univer-
sity environment. It specifically focuses on understanding and preparing assess-
ment tasks, which often require you to write in a particular way. Sometimes, new
students find this process to be overwhelming; our hope that this guide will reduce
the anxiety you may feel.
What this guide contains
The guide is structured to loosely follow the process of writing an assignment from
beginning to end. The writing process is much more than simply sitting down at
your computer to produce a text; it involves the research you do, the notes you
make from the reading you encounter, the format you choose and much, much more!
To help you better understand this process, this guide contains explanations,
examples, models, and activities to acquaint you with the basic skills you will
need to succeed at university study.
How to use this guide
You may have received this guide in conjunction with a university preparation
course at UWS. While this material can be used to support classroom activities, it
is also valuable as a stand-alone resource. You can work through the entire book
from beginning to end doing so will give you a complete picture of what the writing
process and other study activities at university entail. However, you may also find
it useful to come back to certain sections as a reference when the need arises.
Many activities in this guide have suggested answers at the end of each chapter.
In most cases, the answers we provide are one of several possibilities. When there
is more than one way to accurately respond to a question, this will be indicated in
the answer key.
Other activities do not have a set of answers for you to refer to. These activities are
designed to stimulate your thinking about a topic or an idea and there is often not
one correct answer. Take advantage of this opportunity to exercise your own thought
processes. It will still be worthwhile to consider the questions raised on your own.
Who we are
This book was produced by the Student Learning Unit at the University of Western
Sydney. We aim to enhance your academic achievement through development of
your academic language, mathematics and learning skills. We work with under-
graduates and postgraduates through our collaborations with lecturers and other
student and educational services.

Chapter 1
Beginning university studies

Academic skills guide: Chapter 1

2006, Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney 1
Introduction
Deciding to study at university will change many aspects of your life. The
information in this book is designed to help you adjust to those changes, and to
give you the tools you need to succeed in this new environment.
The early chapters will focus on general aspects of university study; later
chapters will discuss how to deal with specific writing and study situations.
By the time you have finished this chapter, you will be able to:
Identify the expectations (both yours and others) surrounding university
study
Identify your personality traits and strengths that will help you manage
your studies
Describe different techniques to deal with stress and to manage your time
Define how lectures and tutorials relate to each other and describe how
you can participate successfully in both
Examine ways you can direct your own learning.
Adapting to university
Often students who enter university experience a kind of culture shock. You will
have to set yourself new goals, develop effective ways of managing your time,
and develop effective reading and note-making strategies. You might not be used
to writing essays, or you might be intimidated by academic language.
Whatever challenges you face, you are not alone. Most students share the doubts
and excitement you feel. The following sections of this chapter will help you to
understand some of the demands of university studies, and respond appropriately
to them.

Studying as an adult student
Whether you are returning to study as a mature age learner, or beginning university
immediately after completing high school studies, you are taking a major step in
your life. Full or part time study will probably lead to great changes in the way you
spend your time, in your relationships, your goals, and your attitude to yourself
and to social issues.
Strategies
If you take your studies seriously, use your time effectively, read carefully,
participate in tutorial discussions, complete all assignments on time, get feedback
on your progress and act on this advice, you are well on the way to becoming a
successful student.
Whatever your age, you are probably studying because you want to. Even though
lecturers set readings and assignments, you need to be self-motivated and self-
directed. Question your tutors and ask for feedback. Get involved in study groups,
and build up networks of friends who can discuss lectures and assignments and
support each other in difficult times.
Don't think that success at university depends only on intelligence, or on the ability
to recall, analyse and use knowledge. Your success also rests on the wisdom and
understanding you have developed during your life, and on being creative and
imaginative in solving problems beyond conventions and predictable answers.
Expectations
You will be surrounded by expectations during your university studies the
expectations you have of your study experience, the expectations your lecturers
have of you, what you can expect from your university.
The more you understand about what is expected from you, and what you can
expect from others, the better equipped you will be to manage those expectations.
Your expectations
What do you expect to gain from your university studies? To be challenged and
intellectually stimulated? To acquire new and useful knowledge? To gain a
'passport' to a better career? High grades? Greater self-confidence? A more
interesting social life?


Your answer to this question will be different from the answer another student will
give. A mature age student and a student straight out of school, a working and an
unemployed student, a student who has had recent study success and a student
who has not studied for a long time, might all answer this question differently. Not
one of the answers will be wrong, but your expectations might change as you
continue your studies.
Some students are constantly excited and stimulated by university. It meets and
exceeds their expectations. Other students are sometimes disappointed. They
might not get the results they hoped for, or the attention or support they feel they
need.
On the other hand, the university itself might not live up to their expectations.
They might think a course is not as practical or as intellectually stimulating as
they had hoped. If this happens, you need to consider what you have to accept,
and what you have the power and willingness to change. Lecturers are often
responsive to students who ask for more tutorial discussion, clearer guidelines for
assignments, or more explicit feedback on their progress. Students do not need
to passively accept poor teaching (just as lecturers may demand more active,
thoughtful learning from their students).
Lecturers' expectations
Students often say they do not know clearly enough what their lecturers expect of
them. In first year studies, this uncertainty might be unavoidable. With experience,
you learn what standards are expected.
However, you may also find that expectations differ from one subject to another.
For example, there is a common expectation that students will analyse and think
critically about issues discussed in lectures, tutorials and readings. Yet in some
subjects, there might be more of an emphasis on memorisation, rote learning,
and recalling information. Although these seem to be more basic skills than the
skills of critical thinking, they are still important in subjects where students are
expected to learn information before they are ready to carefully analyse and
evaluate it.
Thus you need to pay close attention to what your lecturers say to gain insights
into what they expect. You also need to read your subject outlines carefully,
noting the kinds of assignments you have to do (and whether the marks are
weighted towards information recall or application and evaluation) and the course
objectives. (See Chapter 2, Managing your writing, for more information on how
to use a unit outline.)


Expectations of UWS
The graduate attributes presented below have been endorsed by the University of
Western Sydney; they describe the skills and abilities that students committed to
their course of study can expect to have developed by the time they graduate.

A UWS g r a d u a t e :
communication
skills
communicates effectively through reading, listening,
speaking and writing in diverse contexts
numeracy
applies appropriate numerical skills to understand,
interpret and solve problems
social
interaction
skills
is a self-reliant learner who works effectively in
groups and teams
information
literacy
accesses, evaluates and uses relevant information
to solve problems and to continue learning
commands multiple
skills and literacies to
enable adaptable
lifelong learning
technology
literacy
applies communication and other technologies
effectively in personal and professional learning
demonstrates
comprehensi ve,
coherent and
connected knowledge
has in-depth knowledge in one or more chosen fields of study
understands how this knowledge is connected with other fields and
disciplines
understands the local and international relevance of their chosen
field(s) of study
understands the values and principles of scholarly inquiry
applies knowledge
through intellectual
inquiry in professional
or applied contexts

integrates theoretical and practical knowledge to analyse and solve
complex and novel problems
applies critical, reflective, and creative skills to make informed
decisions in professional or applied contexts
engages effectively in advancing knowledge both independently and
collaboratively

brings knowledge to
life through
responsible
engagement and
appreciation of
diversity in an
evol ving world

understands and values ethical conduct, intellectual integrity, and
professionalism in work and civic life
engages responsibly in work and civic life with respect for diversity and
social justice principles
can initiate and contribute positively to sustainable change in a diverse
and evolving world

Figure 1: UWS Graduate Attributes (approved by Academic Senate, 12 September 2003)

University survival kit
You will face many challenges during your university experiences. Many people
find that managing their time and their stress levels can be quite difficult;
identifying your own skills and potential can help you meet these challenges and
learn more about yourself in the process. You can use the information in this
section as a university survival kit. It will help you figure out what your strengths
are and how you can use them to succeed at university.
Identifying skills and potential
It is important to recognise that you have some skills already that will help you to
both survive and succeed at university. You may not recognise this, but some of
the skills that you have developed as a person, as a student, as a parent, as a
worker or in any of the other roles you fill will assist you in the university
environment.
You have personality traits and skills that you use every day to survive, and these
can be transferred to this new situation.
Activity 1.1: Identifying the positive
Have a look at the following checklist and tick the boxes that describe you.

punctual ambitious hardworking/ productive
curious good attendance willing to ask questions
honest enthusiastic able to solve problems
patient logical mind good at speaking in public
able to negotiate good communicator willing to learn new things
mature assertive able to manage projects
able to learn quickly sincere able to follow instructions
good sense of humour friendly able to get along with others
self-motivated results-oriented willing to take risks
dependable strong research skills able to motivate others
intelligent creative pride in doing a good job
willing to be a leader decisive persistent
Figure 2: List of personality traits and skills

My top three skills are:
1. ___________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________
List some ways that you think these skills will be useful to you at university:
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Rules for survival
Surviving at university requires you to think consciously about your studies and
your approach to them. The following suggestions are a broad overview of some
of the ways you can become a better student. Most of these will be covered in
more detail later in this book.
Be clear about why you are studying and why you have chosen your
subjects. Sometimes the going will get tough and, when it does, you will
need motivation. Be clear about what your long-term goals are because
this focus can help you get through. Think carefully about your subject
choices and how they will contribute to your goals.
Attend, and be prepared for, all lectures, tutorials & practicals. Some
students miss lectures and tutorials to the point where its hard to make up
the work. Reading the textbook and friends notes are no substitute for
attending lectures. Its also important to get to know your lecturers and
tutors so you can ask for help if you need it. Most courses have attendance
requirements for tutorials (and some for lectures), and you are expected to
participate. (For more information, see the section titled Modes of learning
later in this chapter).
Plan your time. Poor time management is one of the main reasons
students fail. Make a rule with yourself that you will get work in on time.
Plan your time carefully to achieve this. Rememberpenalties apply for
late submission. (See the section on Time management later in this
chapter for more help.)
Put an effort into developing and maintaining supportive friendships.
This will make your time at university much more enjoyable. While you
cant socialise all the time, you will need a local support network. Take the
time to seek out a number of compatible friends. Find friends who study.

Ask for extra help and feedback. Make use of your tutors and lecturers
for extra help or advice when you are struggling. If you dont understand
something, dont hide out. You can also ask for help on what went wrong in
an exam or whether youre on the right track with an assignment. (See
Chapter 10, Editing, proofreading and receiving feedback, for more
information on interpreting and using instructor feedback.)
Plan your written work and oral presentations. In general, the most
effective essays, presentations and reports are developed from a written
plan. Experiment to find the method that suits you best, but get into the
habit of working from a plan every time you write. (See Chapter 2,
Managing your writing, for information about developing a study plan.)
Manage your stress. Excessive stress can interfere with your studies by
causing memory and concentration difficulties, loss of focus,
procrastination and specific difficulties in presentations and exams. You
need to practise effective stress management strategies to avoid these
problems. (See the Stress management section of this chapter.)
Make use of support services. There are many sources of help around
the university, so take advantage of these when necessary. For example,
help is available for personal problems, study difficulties, finance,
accommodation and careers.
Combat perfectionism. Many students suffer from unrealistic
expectations. Wanting to submit perfect work or to consistently achieve
high marks can create so much stress that some people stop working
altogether. Be realistic and accept that you will develop skills as you go
along. Your first semester is a time for settling in and adjusting to
university, especially if you have not studied for a while.
Attack problems quickly. If things do go wrong, do something about it as
soon as possible. Letting problems develop will lead to failing by default.
See your lecturer or one of the counsellors sooner rather than later.
Strike a balance. Your university studies are certainly an important part of
your life, but they arent the only things in your life. Save time for the things
you enjoy!
Stress management
Stress is a natural part of life. We need some stress (eustress), but not too much
stress for too long (distress). Our body is designed to react to both types of
stress.
Eustress keeps us alert, motivates us to face challenges and drives us to solve
problems. These low levels of stress are manageable, necessary and normal.
Distress, however, results when our bodies over-react to events.

The following suggestions are designed to reduce distress. Try them. They work!
Learn to relax. Take minibreaks. Sit down and get comfortable. Slowly,
take a deep breath in, hold it and then exhale very slowly. At the same
time, relax your shoulders, smile and say something positive like, I am
relaxed. Also, be sure to get sufficient sleep at night.
Practise acceptance. Many people get distressed over things they wont
let themselves accept. Often these are things that cant be changed, like
someone elses feelings or beliefs.
Talk rationally to yourself. Ask yourself what impact the stressful
situation will have on you in a day or a week and see if you can let the
negative thoughts go. Rather than thinking I should have..., think about
what you can learn from the error and plan for the future.
Get organised. Develop a realistic schedule of daily activities including
time for work, sleep, relationships and recreation. Use a daily things-to-do
list. Improve your surroundings by cleaning your house and straightening
up your office. Use your time and energy as efficiently as possible. Beware
of procrastination. Breaking tasks into smaller units and prioritising will help
get things done.
Exercise. Physical activity has always provided relief from stress. In the
past, daily work was mostly physical. Now we dont get rid of stress so
easily. Develop a regular exercise program to help reduce stress before it
becomes distress. Try aerobics, walking, jogging, dancing, swimming etc.
Reduce time urgency. If you frequently check your watch or worry about
what you do with your time, learn to take things a bit slower. Allow plenty of
time to get things done. Plan your schedule. Recognise that you can only
do so much in a given period. Practise the notion of pace, not race.
Allow for quiet time. Balance your family, social and work demands with
special private times. Hobbies are good antidotes for daily pressures.
Unwind by taking a quiet stroll, soaking in a hot bath, watching a sunset or
listening to calming music.
Watch your habits. Eat sensibly. A balanced diet will provide the energy
you need. Avoid non-prescription drugs and minimise alcohol use. You
need to be alert to deal with stress. Be mindful of the effects of excessive
caffeine and sugar on nervousness. Put out the cigarettesthey restrict
blood circulation and affect your stress response.
Talk to friends. Friends can be good medicine. Daily doses of
conversation, regular social engagements and occasional sharing of deep
feelings and thoughts can reduce stress.
Seek professional counselling help before your problems become
unmanageable or distressing.

Time management
Another important method of managing your stress involves how you plan your
time; poor time management will cause you a great deal of stress.
Five symptoms of poor time management
These five symptoms are an indication that you are not managing your time well.
After reading through them, ask yourself if you exhibit any of these symptoms.
Rushing.
Chronic indecision.
Fatigue/tiredness even after many hours of non-productive activity.
Constantly intending to complete tasks but never really getting anything
done.
Sense of having to do what you dont want to do most of the time.
Ten strategies for better time management
Almost everyone could manage time more efficiently. If you identified with any of
the five symptoms listed above, these tips might be especially useful for you.
Write down goals for the day/week/month/year and set time limits for them.
Set at least one major objective each day and achieve it.
Keep a study time log and occasionally analyse how you use your time.
Keep track of what you do and eliminate the unnecessary.
Write out a plan each week.
Schedule your day, but leave time for the unexpected.
Make sure the first hour of your study day is productive.
Do it right the first time so you dont have to repeat it.
Set aside a quiet hour in your day.
Develop the habit of finishing tasks before starting new ones.
In Chapter 2, Managing your writing, you will learn some more ways to plan your
time, especially in relation to your writing assignments.

The time management matrix
In the previous section, you learned some general ways to improve the way you
manage your time. The time management matrix can be another very powerful
tool in your study skills tool kit.
This chart categorises our activities into four groups. We spend time in one of
these four ways:

Urgent Not Urgent
I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
I
Crises
Pressing problems
Deadline-driven projects meetings,
preparations
II
Preparation
Prevention
Values clarification
Planning
Relationship building
True recreation
Empowerment
U
n
i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
III
Interruptions, some phone calls
Some mail, some reports
Some meetings
Many proximate, pressing matters
Many popular activities

IV
Trivia, busywork
Junk mail
Some phone calls
Time wasters
Escape activities
Covey Leadership Quadrants 1994 Covey Leadership Center, Inc.
Figure 3: Time management matrix

A definition of each quadrant

Urgent Not Urgent
I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
I
This quadrant represents
things that are both urgent and
important. Here we handle an
irate client, meet a deadline,
undergo heart surgery or help a
crying child who has been hurt.
We need to spend time in
Quadrant I. This is where we
manage, produce and bring our
experience and judgement to bear
in responding to many needs and
challenges.
If we ignore it, we become
buried alive. But we also need to
realise that many important
activities become urgent through
procrastination, or because we
dont do enough prevention and
planning.
II
This includes activities that are
important but are not urgent. This is the
quadrant of quality. Heres where we do
our long-range planning, anticipate and
prevent problems, empower others,
broaden our minds and increase our skills
through reading and continuous
professional development.
Increasing the amount of time
spent in this quadrant increases our ability
to get things done. Ignoring this quadrant
feeds and enlarges Quadrant I, creating
stress, burnout and deeper crises for the
person consumed by it. On the other
hand, investing in this quadrant shrinks
Quadrant I. Planning, preparation and
prevention keep many things from
becoming urgent.
This quadrant does not act on us;
we must act on it. This is the quadrant of
personal leadership.
U
n
i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
III
This quadrant is almost
the phantom of Quadrant I. It
includes things that are urgent,
but not important. This is the
quadrant of deception. The noise
of urgency creates the illusion of
importance. But the actual
activities, if theyre important at
all, are only important to someone
else. Many phone calls, meetings
and drop in visitors fall into this
category. We spend a lot of time
in Quadrant III meeting other
peoples priorities and
expectations, thinking were really
in Quadrant I.
IV
This quadrant is reserved for
those activities that are not urgent and
not important. This is the quadrant of
waste. Of course, we really shouldnt be
there at all. But we get so battle-scarred
from being tossed around in Quadrants I
and III that we often escape to this
quadrant for survival.
In here are the reading of
addictive light novels, habitually watching
mindless television shows or gossiping
around the water fountain at the office
time wasters. This quadrant is not
survival; its deterioration. It may have an
initial fairy floss feel, but we quickly find
theres nothing there.
Figure 4: Quadrant definitions

Activity 1.2: Creating your own time management matrix
Try filling in the quadrants below with your own activities.

Figure 5: Personal time management matrix
How to limit quadrants III and IV
Now that youve identified how you spend your time, how can you limit the
activities in quadrants III and IV? These suggestions may help you:
Have all that you need when you sit down to study.
Break the task up into smaller blocks.
Set yourself goals that are small, achievable and specific.
List what you can realistically achieve in a day. Tick what youve done at
the end of the day.

Urgent Not Urgent
I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
I II
U
n
i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
III IV

Prioritise your tasks and focus on the most urgent.
Be selective in your TV watching. Read the TV guide and set yourself a
time limit; for example, set the oven timer to go off when a program is
finished.
Set aside a time to make phone calls. Be prepared to say when it is time to
terminate the call. If calls are disturbing you, take the phone off the hook,
get someone to screen the calls or let the answering machine record a
message.
Use spare time (like waiting for public transport) to go over notes or readings.
Let family and friends know your study times so they dont disturb you at
those times.
Reward yourself when you achieve something or when you receive a
good mark.
Talk to someone you trust if a personal problem is continually disturbing
you, such as friends, parents, family, a counsellor or teacher.
Combating procrastination
Procrastination means putting things off until another time. Most of you will find
yourselves getting stuck on something you have to do, at some stage of your
studies and it can sometimes help to take a break and try again. But putting
things off can become a habit or a way of responding to stress.
One form of procrastination can involve doing other, less urgent or less important
things (activities you would locate in quadrants III and IV of your time
management matrix) as a way of delaying more necessary tasks.
Here are some suggestions for dealing with procrastination (adapted from Davis,
M., Eshelman, E. R. & McKay, M (1995). The relaxation and stress reduction
workbook, 4
th
ed., Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, pp. 183-4).
Stop worrying. You probably spend more time worrying about the things
you dont want to do (like set readings, revising notes, preparing for
tutorials) than you spend actually doing them. To check this, time how long
it actually takes you to do the task.
Start small. Once you start doing a task that seems unpleasant, you may
find that it isnt so bad. You may want to start on a small but related task to
get yourself going.
Make a list of all the unpleasant aspects of what you are avoiding and
then make a second list of the consequences of putting it off. Look
honestly at these two lists and ask yourself where the greatest
unpleasantness is.

Look for hidden rewards. Look for any payoff that you may be receiving
for not getting the unpleasant task done. For example, by procrastinating
you may be avoiding feeling anxious or facing the possibility of failure. Also
examine the advantages of avoiding whatever changes might follow from
completing the task. For example, success might mean that you lose the
attention that you now get from people who nag you or sympathise with
your predicament.
Confront negative beliefs. You may be making statements to yourself like
No way am I going to do this or I must do it perfectly or I cant stand the
thought of giving a speech in front of a group of strangers or What if I
succeed, theyll expect even more out of me or Ill fail, so why try".
Take responsibility for each delay. You are the one wasting your own
precious time. Make a list of each procrastination or escape activity and
note how long it took. Add up the total and list all the positive things you
could have done with the time.
Link a distasteful activity to an activity that you know you will do.
Reward yourself for doing activities that are unpleasant to you.
Finish things.
(Source: pp. 5 14 adapted from Reaching for Success, a resource booklet developed by the
UWS Counselling Unit.)
Modes of learning
Different academic disciplines emphasise different modes of learning; however,
lectures and tutorials are still the most common teaching modes at university.
Learning in lectures
Lectures are an important way of learning at university. Anywhere between 30
and 200 students may be seated in a lecture room. This obviously limits the
interaction between lecturer and students. Nevertheless, lectures are a convenient
way of sharing information. Lectures will generally give an overview of the day's
topic, relate it to topics already lectured on, and indicate important readings,
debates and issues for further study.


Organisation of a lecture
It is important to distinguish between:
the main points,
illustrators or examples of these main points, and
other issues less central to the overall development of the argument.
Within a lecture, various topics may be discussed. Speakers often introduce
changes of topic by phrases that suggest the direction or order of their ideas.
These discourse markers may indicate time (nine years ago) or order (first
second) or importance (one of the most fundamental) or relationships (at the
other end of...).
Lectures are often given in a formal register. Although different lecturers have
different ways of communicating, many lectures have the following characteristics:
Structure e.g., an introduction to the topic and purpose of the lecture, an
overview of the theories or principles of the topic, a discussion of
competing theories or approaches, an application of theory to practical
concerns, a summary.
Formal and technical language (in explanations and elaboration of concepts).
Repetition of key phrases.
Organisation of lecture notes
Most students find that taking notes during the lecture is a helpful study tool.
Although your lecturer may provide you with a summary of the lecture, taking your
own notes can help to solidify the information in your memory.
A key point to remember is that you will not need to write down every word that
comes out of your lecturers mouth. Identifying main points and important
information is an essential skill for university study.
The following suggestions relate to ways you can take organised, effective notes:
Leave a 5 cm margin on either side of your page so you can add extra
notes later. One side can be kept for notes added from textbooks, journals,
your own ideas, etc.
Leave plenty of room (3 lines) between one main heading/point and the next.
This makes your notes clear and you can leave space for additional notes.

Use headings and sub-headings to help organise your notes. Underline
these.
Make sure you write clearly so that you can reread your notes later.
Use note-form, symbols and abbreviations when writing. The following
table provides some common examples of abbreviations. You will probably
develop your own abbreviations as you become more acquainted with your
subject matter.

+ and w/ with w/o without
= is the same as > more than ? follow up later
e.g. for example i.e. that means nb important
p. page para. paragraph ch. chapter
info. information cd could v. very
Figure 6: Symbols and abbreviations for note taking
For more information on structuring your notes, see Chapter 5, Reading and note
making.
Organising your lecture activities
Successfully participating in a lecture means more than just showing up in the
right room at the right time. To get the most out of the information provided, there
are things you can do
before the lecture
during the lecture, and
after the lecture.
Before the lecture
Spend time before the lecture preparing for the topic. Check your subject outline
to see if there are set readings you should read for the lecture. Ask yourself
questions such as:
What do I already know about this topic?
What do I want to know?
How does this topic relate to previous ones?
What questions do I have about this topic?

Before the lecture begins, mark your lecture notes with the following information:
Date
Subject and title of the lecture
Name of the lecturer
During the lecture
Dont attempt to write everything that is said.
Write down the series of major/minor headings used by the lecturer.
Write down the major point(s) made under each heading.
Write down one clear example or supporting idea for each major point.
Write down summary statements.
Monitor and focus your attention remind yourself to pay attention!
Think critically about what you hear by asking questions such as:
What is the main idea here?
What does mean by ?
What is the difference between and ?
How are and similar?
How does affect ?
What conclusions can I draw from ?
Which is preferable, and why?
What do I still not understand about ?
After the lecture
To fix your notes in your long-term memory:
review them that evening,
review them again within a week, and
review them again a month later.

Learning in tutorials
A tutorial is usually a period of class time that builds on and goes into greater
depth than the lecture. Small group discussion in universities is mostly conducted
in tutorials and seminars. Tutorials typically contain 12-15 students although
tutorial classes can have up to 30 students, and in some subjects, lecture-size
classes are called tutorials when the students are solving problems or carrying
out exercises.
Tutorials vary widely in structure and content and may be:
a mini-lecture where the teacher imparts information;
a group where each person takes a turn as chairperson; or
a discussion structured around a paper that has been given by a group
member, based on a set reading.
For more information about tutorials and the assignments you may be expected
to complete during your tutorial participation, see Chapter 12, Tutorials and oral
presentations.
Why are tutorials important?
They can help you to integrate what you learn from your reading, writing
and lectures.
They clarify your ideas and feelings on a subject.
They help you to sort out misunderstandings and problems in your work.
You can practise communicating ideas to others.
You have relatively close contact with a staff member.
You learn about the uses and dynamics of formal discussion groups.

How can I get the most out of tutorials?
You need to do the right kind of preparation:
Read as many of the listed sources as possible.
Check reference books and audio-visual materials in the library on and
around the topic.
Read over notes made from the last tutorial or lecture.
Formulate in writing at least one brief item to contribute to the discussion
a thought, a question, a piece of information, or a comment on your
reading or lecturers on the topic.
Research, plan and prepare what to say and what activities to use if you
are responsible for giving a discussion/seminar paper.
Self-directed learning
Self-direction means taking responsibility for your own learning, rather than
handing over that responsibility to your lecturers. Because lecturers control much
of the content of traditional lectures and tutorials, because they give you lists of
what to read, and because they set and mark assignments, there is a considerable
amount of teacher-direction and knowledge-telling.
Nevertheless, there are large areas where self-direction is important. You decide
how much reading and study you will do and whether you will go beyond the
recommended texts. You decide whether you wish to critically reflect on your
learning and critically analyse issues, rather than being content to retell
knowledge you have picked up from classes and readings. Some assignments
may require you to define the task you undertake or you may have to enter a
learning contract that is negotiated with a lecturer. You may have to suggest and
plan your own topic for research and reporting.
Being self-directed means being willing to take responsibility for your own
learning. It also means reflecting on what you learn, and showing respect for your
teachers and fellow students. You learn to co-operate and to think critically about
your tasks.
Asking questions like these may help you to monitor your learning:
What are my goals for this task?
Is this (book, activity) relevant?
Am I keeping to my timeline or deadline?
What feedback do I need?

Activity 1.3: Thinking about the modes of learning
Write short answers to Questions 1-3, below.
1. What are your preferred ways of learning (or, what ways of learning have
you been used to in the past)? For example, do you learn best when you
are able to discuss ideas with others, or do you prefer to learn on your
own, perhaps through your reading and research?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Do you foresee any problems that you might face in undertaking the kinds
of learning that are common at university?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. What do you think are the most important factors for achieving success in
your university studies?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

In conclusion...
Your decision to begin university study will change your life in many ways. To
deal with these changes, you can make use of both the services provided by the
university and the skills you already have.
With these changes come expectations those you have of your university
experience and those the university has of you. Identifying your strengths and
potential will help you meet those expectations.
Managing your time and your stress level will make your studies far more
productive. The tools you can use to do this will benefit you not only as a student,
but also in your life outside of the university.
In addition to thinking about time and stress management, you should be aware
of the different modes of learning at university, specifically lectures, tutorials, and
self-directed learning.
Making conscious decisions about how you manage expectations, time/stress,
and learning is an important foundation for the information and activities you will
encounter in Chapter 2, Managing your writing.

Answers to activities
The answers to the activities in this chapter will vary from student to student.

Chapter 2
Managing your writing


Introduction
During your studies at university, you will be required to undertake various types
of writing tasks that may include essays, tutorial papers, quizzes and exam
answers, reports on case studies, and project reports. In this chapter, we will
consider why your instructors have these requirements; we will also look at how
courses may incorporate these tasks into their study requirements.
This chapter will help you better understand the purpose of academic writing
tasks and how they relate to your learning. After you have read this chapter, you
will be able to:
State the reasons why writing tasks are an important part of your univer-
sity education
Analyse a unit outline to determine how to best plan your study time for
reading, thinking, and writing in your course units
Create a study plan for each of your units, and a general semester plan
to help you manage your entire study schedule
Identify the aspects of presentation that could affect your marks.
Purposes of written work
There are many reasons why you will be asked to undertake writing as part of
your learning. Writing can help you develop a deeper understanding of your
subject material, and it can help your lecturers and tutors assess the learning you
are doing. Additionally, the ability to write well is in itself an important goal of
university study.

Writing helps learning
The process of writing at university involves many different activities:
reading
making notes
synthesising ideas from different sources
analysing
criticising
These activities are all for the purpose of solving a particular problem. They all
contribute to your developing understanding of a topic.
Having to write about a topic engages you in a process that goes beyond
'learning things by heart'. Instead, you need to:
explain things in your own words,
select things that are relevant to a problem,
work out how different things are related to each other,
understand many different points of view on the same thing, and
ask critical questions about things.
You should be engaging in all these 'thinking' processes all the time as you are
reading, listening to lectures, and taking part in tutorial discussions. However, it
may not be until you try to put your thinking into words for someone else to read
that you can really grasp what you are learning. So, the writing process can really
help you in learning your units more deeply.
Learning can be assessed through writing
Through your writing, it is possible to make assessments of whether you have
carried out the required reading in your units and, more importantly, whether you
seem to understand the substance of the units you are studying. It is also
possible to assess whether you can use this understanding to develop a point of
view and argue it well, to solve problems, and so on.
Thus, the writing process provides evidence of your learning, which is necessary
for teachers to assess your progress. The assessment of your written work,
however, should not signal the end of your learning process. You should instead
take the opportunity to learn from the feedback you receive so that your next
written assignment can be even better.

There are many different types of feedback on your writing that you can use to
help your learning. For example, you will probably receive comments on your
written work. These are often of much more value to your learning than your
grade, and you should read them carefully and think about what you have learnt
for your next assignment.
You will learn more about interpreting written comments on your work in Chapter
11, Editing, proofreading and receiving feedback.
Writing skills are an important university outcome
Communication skills are being valued more and more by employers, and your
ability to communicate well is considered to be an important outcome of having
studied at university. Although communication skills include listening, speaking,
reading and writing, your ability to write well is closely related to these other
channels of communication.
When you write, you need to draw on the material that you have heard in
lectures, read in the library, and spoken about in tutorials. Some would argue that
this makes writing the most difficult skill it certainly is the most critical for your
progress when so much of the assessment load in most courses is based on your
writing. The skills of writing well are equally important in the workplace and
employers tend to place a high value on the ability to communicate ideas clearly,
precisely, and persuasively.
For all these reasons, you should approach every writing task as an opportunity
to learn more deeply, to demonstrate your understanding and problem-solving
skills to your lecturers, and to develop effective writing skills to carry with you
throughout your academic and work career.
Planning the writing process
So far in this chapter, weve explored in a general way why writing tasks are an
important part of your university studies. Now we will turn to a more specific
examination of the place writing has within a particular course.
Almost every assessment task you face will demand some kind of writing from
you, even your oral presentations. And most experts now agree that successful
writing rarely results from a single marathon session at your computer. The more
preparation and prewriting planning you put into your assignments, the more
likely you are to receive the kind of mark you want. Successful academic writing
is a process, and planning for that process is a worthwhile investment.

In Chapter 3, Understanding the task, you will learn how to examine a writing task
carefully to ensure you understand what is required and how you will go about
responding to the task. In this section, however, we will look at the unit outline as
a guide to planning your writing process throughout the term; these are some
areas we will consider:
Identifying the different sections of a unit outline.
Estimating how much time you will need for each stage of an assignment.
Locating deadlines and incorporating them into a study plan.
Creating a study plan for a course you are currently taking.
Making sense of a unit outline
The unit outline is a valuable source of information that can help you understand
and research your assignments, as well as enable you to participate more
effectively in your course or subject.
Most unit outlines include some, if not all, of the following information:
General subject information (e.g., course number, code and name; credit
points; prerequisites; meeting dates and times).
Instructor information (e.g., name, contact information, office hours).
Aims and objectives of the course.
Week-by-week plan may be as brief as a lecture title or as detailed as a
lecture outline, and often includes a weekly schedule of tutorial readings.
Course requirements (e.g., attendance policy, assessment tasks and criteria,
student obligations for assignment submission, and plagiarism policy).
Description of major assignments.
Reading list/required texts.

Activity 2.1: Analysing a unit outline
Over the next few pages, you will find a sample unit outline from a unit similar to
one taught at UWS. Imagine this is a unit you are studying this semester and use
the information provided in the unit outline to fill in the following table:
Figure 7: Unit plan analysis
Questions Comments
In your own words, what is
the aim of the course?

What are the major
assignments for this course?

Which assignment is worth
the most?

Where can you find the task
requirements for the essay
assignment?

What referencing system
should you use for this
subject?

Which lectures/readings will
provide relevant material for
the essay assignment?

What format will the course
meetings take (e.g., formal
lectures, study groups, etc.)?
What will be required of me?

What percentage of course
sessions must you attend?

What is the set text for the
course?

How can the marking
schedule for each
assignment help you in your
planning?

What two important points
are made about getting
extensions?


Sample course outline

ACADEMIC DISCOURSE

Unit Number 12345

SPRING 2005

Unit Convenor and Lecturer (Bankstown): James Brown
Phone: 1234-5678 Ext 5678
e-mail: j.brown@uws.edu.au

Unit Advisor and Lecturer (Penrith): Alice Green
Phone: 2345-6789 Ext 6789
e-mail: a.green@uws.edu.au

Postal Address:
Locked Bag 1797
Penrith South DC NSW 1797
Telephone: (02) 9852 5222

Unit 12345 Outline

UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN SYDNEY

Academic Discourse
Unit Number 12345

Assumed Knowledge: Nil
Pre -Requisite/Co-Requisite: Nil
Duration: One Semester
Credit Points: 10

1. RATIONALE
The unit is available to students wanting to develop their tertiary literacy
skills. The aim of the unit is to increase students understanding of
academic discourse while developing academic literacies. The emphasis is
on consolidating clear written and oral expression in appropriate genres,
achieved through critical reading, writing, speaking and thinking in contexts
relevant to study and professional life.

2. OUTCOMES
Through successful completion of this unit, students will:
2.1 Read, analyse and evaluate the information gained through the
course reading materials
2.2 Develop skills to summarise and critique academic articles
2.3 Recognise the value of critical thinking in academic reading, writing
and speaking
2.4 Competently use appropriate oral and written communication to
clearly express ideas that incorporate well-developed argument and
structure

Page 1

Unit 12345 Outline

2.5 Develop written arguments that use appropriate evidence and
stylistic conventions
2.6 Refine skills in the academic genres of annotated bibliography,
essay and oral presentations.

3. CONTENT
3.1 Academic discourse at UWS;
3.2 Relevant academic conventions of style, citation and structure;
3.3 Analysis and argument: criticism and justification;
3.4 Major written academic genres;
3.5 Oral presentation skills;
3.6 An introduction to major debates surrounding language and
learning.

4. PRESENTATION
This unit will be presented through a program of weekly three-hour
sessions over twelve weeks. The subject is presented using a combination
of small group activities and discussions, lectures, workshops and tutorials.
Students are expected to prepare for and contribute to each class so that
the skills and knowledge can be developed over the twelve weeks.
Attendance
This is a workshop/discussion based subject. Your participation in tutorials
is an essential part of learning both as an individual and member of the
group.
You are expected to attend 80% of tutorials and provide documentation,
such as a medical certificate, to cover absences.

Page 2

Unit 12345 Outline

WEEKLY CALENDAR
Page 3
Date Topic Learning Tasks
Week 1:
commencing
28/7/03
Introduction to the subject
Course overview
University culture and academic
expectations
Introduction to the annotated
bibliography
Learning from texts: Understanding
difficult texts

Week 2:
4/8/03
The annotated bibliography:
Structure
Summarising
From reading to note making and
summarising
Students receive oral presentation
topics and dates for presentation
Read Barratt-Pugh (2000).
Week 3:
11/8/03
Annotated bibliography continued
Developing a critique of academic
texts
Comparing and contrasting
Read Botterill (1997) and
Campbell (1996).
Week 4:
18/8/03
Oral presentation skills for university
Collecting, organising and presenting
information
Annotated bibliography: Draft due,
Week beginning 18/8/03
Week 5:
25/8/03
Feedback on first draft
The assignment writing process
Research
Task analysis and planning
Structure and purpose
Hand in first page of chosen
article for review.
Read Comber (2002).
Week 6:
1/9/03
Critical thinking and argument in
essays
Descriptive and analytical writing
Paragraph structure
Read Freebody & Luke (1990)
and Gibbs (1994).
Week 7:
8/9/03
Essay writing
Using evidence with appropriate
citation
Introductions and conclusions
Completed Annotated
bibliography due, Week beginning
8/9/03
Week 8:
15/9/03
Essay writing continued
Linking paragraphs, linking the
argument
Meta discourse and cohesion
Read Grenn, Hodgens & Luke
(1997) and Kress & Leeuwen
(1996).
Week 9:
22/9/03
Academic language
Register appropriate language
Writing workshop
Read Lanksher & Synder (2000)
and Reeves (2002).

Unit 12345 Outline

University vacation 29/9/03-5/10/03
Independent Study 6/10/03 12/10/03
Week 10:
13/10/03
Other academic genres
Oral presentations; giving and
receiving feedback
Essay due, Week beginning
13/10/03.
Read Street (1994).
Week 11:
20/10/03
Oral presentations
Oral presentations and class
feedback
Week 12:
27/10/03
Oral presentations
Oral presentations and class
feedback

5. ASSESSMENT
Please be sure to read carefully the general notes on assessment at
the end of this section.
ASSESSMENT ITEM PERCENTAGE DUE DATE
Draft of first annotation No mark for draft Week 4 18/8/03
Annotated Bibliography 30% Week 7 8/9/03
Essay 45% Week 10 13/10/03
Oral Presentation 25% Weeks 11 and 12

ASSESSMENT TASKS
5.1. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Percentage mark: 30% Total length: 1000 words
Date Due: Draft of first review due in class, Week 4
A copy of first page of your chosen article is due in class,
Week 5.
Complete assignment due in class, Week 7.

Page 4

Unit 12345 Outline

Description
The annotated bibliography consists of three reviews of texts, each being
approximately 350 words. You will be given the first two readings and you
must choose the third text yourself. Take care to choose a suitable
academic text that allows for comparison with the other two readings and
remember to supply a copy of the first page of your chosen article (i.e.,
the third text you aim to review) in class in Week 5.
Each of the three reviews in your annotated bibliography should include
the following stages:
Full bibliographic details of the text.
Summary of main issues.
Critical comments and reflections.
Please consult the Marking Schedule at the back of your unit outline for
the marking criteria for this assessment item. Please attach a copy of the
Marking Schedule to the back of your assignment.
5.2 ESSAY
Percentage mark: 45% Length: 1,500 2,000 words
Date Due: in class Week 10
Topic
The acquisition of literacy begins early in a childs life.
Discuss the role of teachers in preparing children for literacy in a
multicultural society.
Please consult the Marking Schedule at the back of your unit outline for
the marking criteria for this assessment item. Please attach a copy of the
Marking Schedule to the back of your assignment.
5.3 ORAL PRESENTATION
Percentage mark: 25% Length: 10 minutes
Date: Weeks 11 and 12
Description
The due date and the topics for the oral presentations will be determined
during class in Week 4.
Page 5

Unit 12345 Outline

Each presentation will be 10 minutes in duration. Feedback will be given at
the conclusion of the presentation by both peers and lecturers.
Students will receive their grading for the individual oral presentation at the
end of the semester. Final grading for this assessment component will
incorporate peer and personal feedback given on the day as well as
lecturer assessment using the marking schedule.
Please consult the Marking Schedule at the back of your unit outline for the
marking criteria for this assessment item.
In Order to Pass this Subject STUDENTS MUST:
Satisfactorily complete all assessment tasks.
Attend no less than 80% tutorial/seminar sessions. Failure to attend or
participate may result in a fail grade.
Demonstrate an adequate standard of presentation, literacy and academic
writing skills in all written work.

ASSIGNMENTS
Assignments must be handed in with an Assignment Cover Sheet and
submitted as detailed in Section 5. (Refer to the School Assessment Policy
on the web and the University Assessment Policy in the University
Calendar for other information on Assignments)
Students are required to keep a copy of all written work submitted.
Returning of assignments. The lecturer will return assignments in class
as soon as they are marked. If there are no classes (in the case of an end
of session assignment), the lecturer will give the class a time and venue
when the assignments can be collected.
Alternatively an appropriately sized self-addressed stamped envelope can
be attached to your assignment upon handing in and your marked
assignment will be returned to you via post.
Extension of time to complete an assignment. You must contact the
Lecturer in the first instance and not assume that the extension will be
granted automatically. Extensions of time requests should normally be
supported by documentary evidence (e.g., medical certificate).
Referencing should follow the Publication Manual of the APA, copies of
which are in Open Reserve in the Library.
Page 6

Unit 12345 Outline
ACADEMIC MISCONDUCT Refer to the University Calendar for details
Cheating, plagiarism, or other academic misconduct with respect to term
work, tests or final examinations will constitute student misconduct.
Plagiarism is the presenting of the words or ideas of others as if they were
your own. It includes copying sections from books or articles without
indicating a quotation and acknowledging the author. Paraphrasing -
changing a passage into your own words - is also plagiarism when the
author of the original works is not acknowledged. Taking or copying work
from other students and presenting it as your own is also plagiarism.
Cases of plagiarism will be treated with the utmost severity. [Refer to
University calendar].
Note: Any student with a disability who may require reasonable
accommodations in the unit is requested to seek advice and
assistance at the commencement of the session or soon after, from
the unit coordinator, in conjunction with the Disability Advisor and/or
Disability Academic Officer.

6. TEXTS
There is no set text for this course. You will be given a set of readings for
the course and other handouts.

7. REFERENCE LIST
Ballard, B. & Clanchy, J. (1997). Essay writing for students. (3
rd
ed.).
Melbourne: Longman.
Beecher, B. & Arthur, L. (2001). Play and literacy in childrens words.
Sydney: PETA.
Bonnett, A. (2001). How to argue: A students guide. New York: Pearson
Education
Collerson, J. (1997). Grammar in teaching. Sydney: PETA.
Cotterill, S. (1999). The study skills handbook. London: Macmillan.
Green, D. & Campbell, R. (2003). Literacies & Learners (2
nd
edn). Sydney:
Prentice Hall.
Hay, I., Bochner, D. & Dungey, C. (1997). Making the grade: A guide to
successful communication and study. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Page 7

Unit 12345 Outline
McLaren, S. (1997). Easy writer: A students guide to writing essays and
reports. Glebe, NSW: Pascal Press.
Reid, J.M. & Lindstrom, M. (1985). The process of paragraph writing. New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Scoufis, M., James, B., Farrell, H., Carmichael, E., Driscoll, K. & Craigie,
D. (1995). Critical analysis: What is it? (2
nd
ed.) Kingswood, NSW: UWS
Nepean.
Morley-Warner, T. (2002). Academic writing is: A guide to writing in a
university context. Sydney: CREA Publications.
ONLINE RESOURCES
Australian Journal of Language and Literacy
Available through UWS library (Expanded Academic ASAP Plus)
Primary English Teachers Association (PETA)
Resources and professional links available at: http://www.peta.edu.au/

Page 8

Marking Schedule: Annotated Bibliography
Student Name: ________________________________________________
Criterion Article One
(10)
Article Two
(10)
Your article
(10)
Total (30)
Introduction (1)
Full bibliographical details
Overview statement

Summary (3)
Accurate summary of main
points with reference to text

Critique (4)
Links with summary (eg
comment on ideas raised in
summary)
Comments are adequately
developed and supported with
evidence
Critical judgements are of
academic concern
Awareness of authors position
and assumptions
Reasonableness of positive
and negative criticisms
Relevance of chosen article

Presentation and Language
(2)
Clear expression
Coherence and logic (e.g.,
author or text is fore-
grounded)
Appropriate style

Total

Comments

Grand Total:___________

Marking Schedule: Essay
Student Name:____________________________________________________
Criterion Value Mark Comment
Content
Acceptable interpretation of question
Thorough understanding of subject
Evidence of wide & relevant reading
Adequate coverage of content
10
Argument and evidence
Clear statement of writers position
Logical development of argument
Adequate discussion of relevant issues/concepts
(depth)
Evidence of ability to interpret & incorporate
evidence appropriately
Evidence of critical thinking
10
Structure
Introduction: orientation, thesis, preview
Body:
logical sequence (as per preview)
paragraphs have topic and supporting
sentences
linking between paragraphs
Conclusion: restates thesis & summarises main
arguments
15
Academic language and presentation
Appropriate academic style
Accurate grammar and punctuation
Correct APA referencing
Clear layout
Marking schedule & cover sheet attached
10
Total Mark 45
Comments


Marking Schedule: Oral Presentation
Student Name: ________________________________________________
Presentation Topic: ___________________________________________
Peer Reviewer: ________________________________________________
Marks Comments
(7) Voice and
Presentation
Audible & comprehensible
Appropriate volume and
projection
Good timing
Eye contact
Audience rapport
Appropriate & useful visual aids
Appropriate body language
Ability to engage audience

(7) Structure
Clear structure:
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
Logically sequenced
Well signposted

(9) Content
Appropriate to task & audience
Appropriate balance of
description and analysis
Adequate coverage of key
issues eg good explanation and
use of evidence
Well researched

(2) Overall
impression

Comments

Total: ______________

Now that youve familiarised yourself with the general structure of a unit outline,
take a look at the course information provided by one of your own lecturers.
Activity 2.2: Analysing your own unit plan
Answer these questions for one of the courses youre taking now:
1. What are the major assignments? When are they due?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. How much does each assignment contribute to your final mark?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Does the lecturer specify which referencing system you should use? If so,
which one? Have you used this system before?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. What is the attendance policy for this course?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. How will the assessment tasks help you further your learning in the
course?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Getting more information
While your unit outline will provide you with a great deal of information, there may
be more you need to know about your course or assignments. One of the best
resources you have as a student is your lecturer or tutor.
Many students find communicating with instructors to be quite intimidating and
are often hesitant to approach them. Most instructors, however, are pleased to

talk with their students and enjoy interacting with them outside of class. The key
is to be prepared. These guidelines can help you make the most of the
opportunity you have to speak with your instructor:
Make an appointment, if possible. Most instructors keep regular office
hours that they set aside specifically to meet with students. Make use of
them. Let your instructor know that youll be coming in during those office
hours, and find out if it is possible to schedule an appointment so that youll
be guaranteed some time. (Some lecturers and tutors prefer a first-come,
first-serve approach to their office hours and wont accept appointments
during that time.) Almost all your teachers, however, will schedule an
appointment with you if you are unable to come to their office hours due to
an unavoidable scheduling conflict.
Have a specific question in mind. Few things are more frustrating to a
lecturer than to be confronted with a student whose only comment is I
dont understand. This may very well be true; after all, you wouldnt need
an appointment if you understood everything perfectly. You must, however,
be more specific when you ask for assistance. Before you meet with your
instructor, plan your request. What exactly is causing you difficulty? Are
you having problems interpreting an assignment topic? Did you find a
particular section of a lecture to be confusing? Also, give some thought to
what kind of assistance youd like your instructor to provide. He or she will
not be able to give you information that could give you an unfair advantage
over other students (answers to possible exam questions, for example);
make sure you are asking for reasonable assistance.
Dont go empty-handed. If you have a question about a specific
assignment, try preparing something before you meet with your instructor.
Your session will be much more productive if you can present some ideas
and ask if youre on the right track than if you go with nothing prepared and
ask to be told what to do.
Planning your study time
Budgeting your time is an important skill you will need to develop as a university
student. In Chapter 1, Beginning university studies, you learned some ways to
make the most of your time. In this section, you will find some tools designed to
help you create a study schedule for yourself that can be as general or as
detailed as you like.
All of these tools are different types of study planners. A study planner, used in
conjunction with your course outline, can be a very useful tool for organising your
study time. In this section, we will look at:
course plans
semester planners
weekly planners.

Study plan
Below is a possible plan for the unit of study described in the sample unit outline
presented earlier in this chapter. For every week in the unit, tasks are scheduled
based upon major assignments and their due dates.
Week 1 Analyse oral presentation assignment; begin brainstorming
potential topics for presentation.
Week 2 Analyse annotated bibliography assignment; read recommended
texts.
Week 3 Begin note taking and draft review of first assigned text; visit
library to begin research for third text; select third text.
Week 4 Begin note taking and draft review of second text; begin note
making and drafting third review; submit draft of first review.
Week 5 Write second drafts of all three reviews; review marking schedule
in course outline to ensure youre on track; submit first page of
third article.
Week 6 Write and edit third and final draft of complete annotated
bibliography assignment.
Week 7 Submit annotated bibliography assignment; analyse essay
assignment; read relevant articles; brainstorm ideas.
Week 8 Visit library to select additional resources; read additional
resources; review essay marking schedule in course outline to
ensure youre on track; develop an essay plan.
Week 9 Clarify essay task and plan with subject lecturer(s); modify
plan/add research if necessary; write first draft of essay
Vacation Write and edit second draft; analyse oral presentation
assignment; brainstorm for ideas.
Independent
Study
Make an appointment with the Student Learning Unit to review
draft; write and edit final draft for content and essay structure,
referencing, grammar, and spelling; develop a plan for oral
presentation; locate and read additional resources, if necessary.
Week 10 Submit essay; review oral presentation marking schedule to
ensure youre on track; write first draft of presentation.
Week 11 Write and edit second draft of presentation; practice presentation
out loud for timing and delivery; deliver presentation (if
scheduled).
Week 12 Deliver presentation (if scheduled).
Figure 8: Possible course plan

Your attendance at lectures and tutorials is assumed and not specifically referred
to in the above plan. However, it is to your benefit to attend all the lectures and
tutorials; in most units at UWS you will be required to attend at least 80 percent of
the scheduled class meetings in order to pass.
Notice that in this plan plenty of time is reserved for research, drafting, and
editing. Preparing your assignments is a process; planning ahead for each step of
the process can save you a great deal of time and frustration throughout the
semester.
Activity 2.3: Preparing your own study plan
Using a unit outline for a unit you are currently taking, create a plan below.
WEEK Week
commences
(date)
Tasks

Figure 9: Personal course plan

Semester planners
If you were only taking one unit of study in a semester, the table above would be
enough to plan for all your assignments. Most students, however, take anywhere
from two to six courses each semester.
Using a semester planner can help you organise your study tasks over several
units. For each course, identify the major assignment due dates and other
important events; then enter those dates onto your semester planner. This will
give you an overall picture of how your assignments will overlap throughout the
term and allow you to allocate time in advance for the research, thinking, and
writing needed for each task.
On the next page, you will find a schedule that you could use for this large-scale
kind of planning.
Activity 2.4: Using a semester planner
Photocopy the semester planner on the next page; then follow these steps to fill
in the planner:
1. Fill in the weeks (1-14) and dates of the Semester. There is a 1-2 week
mid-semester break that usually occurs after Week 6, 7 or 8 (see your
UWS CALENDAR to determine when it will occur). Weeks 15-16 are
usually reserved for centrally coordinated exams.
2. Fill in the Planner with all your assessment tasks for the Semester.
Remember, if an essay is not due until Week 9, you may need to start
working on it in Week 6 or 7 (if not sooner).
Often students find that many of their major assignments are due at
roughly the same time. For most, it is simply impossible to work on four
assignments at once. Therefore, if you have four assignments due in
Week 9, you may need to commence working in Week 3, aiming to
complete one in Week 6, and then one each in Weeks 7, 8 and 9.
3. Add other events that will affect your capacity for study to the Semester
Planner (e.g. your sister's wedding; a football trip, etc).
4. Talk to your lecturer BEFORE an assignment due date if you are unable
to meet the deadline. In this way, your lecturer may be more open to
negotiate an extension.
If the reasons are quite personal and you would not feel comfortable
talking to the lecturer, you should make an appointment on your campus to
talk with a counsellor. The counsellor may be able to assist you with your
concern and can recommend an extension without disclosing the details of
what you have discussed.

DO NOT LEAVE IT UNTIL AFTER THE ASSIGNMENT IS DUE - THIS IS
ALMOST ALWAYS TOO LATE!


6

5

4

3

2

1

S
U
B
J
E
C
T

W
e
e
k

B
e
g
i
n
s

W
E
E
K

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

E
X
A
M

P
E
R
I
O
D
S
E
M
E
S
T
E
R

P
L
A
N
N
E
R

Figure 10: Semester planner

Weekly planners
You have already done a great deal of planning for your study. You have:
analysed the unit plan for each unit of study;
created a study plan for each unit; and
entered important dates into a semester plan.
Some people find it helpful to break down their study time even further, assigning
time each day to specific tasks. If you find this detailed kind of planning helpful, a
weekly planner can be a useful tool.
The weekly planner on the next page is an example of this kind of schedule.
Activity 2.5: Using a weekly planner
Photocopy the weekly planner on the next page; then follow these steps to fill in
the planner:
1. When filling out your Planner, make sure you leave time for everything in
your life: sleeping, eating, travel, exercise, relaxing/having fun with family
and friends, earning money, domestic duties and, of course, attending
classes and studying.
2. You may wish to colour code your Planner (e.g., classes in black, study in
red, time at work in green, etc).
3. Once you've filled it in, look over your Planner - does your life appear
balanced?
Students often ask how much time a week they should allocate to study.
Estimates vary, usually between one and two hours of study for every hour in
class, depending upon how many class hours you are required to attend. That is,
if you only have 15 hours/week in class, you might need to spend 30 hours
studying; if you have 25 hours/week in class, you might only be able to spend 25
hours studying. It also of course differs from individual to individual and from time
to time throughout the Semester.


9

1
0

7

8

5

6

4

5

2

3

1

2

1
2

1

P
M

1
0

1
1

9

1
0

8

9

7

8

A
M

T
I
M
E

M
O
N

T
U
E
S

W
E
D

T
H
U
R
S

F
R
I

S
A
T

S
U
N

W
E
E
K
L
Y

P
L
A
N
N
E
R

Figure 11: Weekly planner

Presenting your assignment
For your assignments, the process of composing your writing is important and
can be difficult. The practical aspects of preparing a final piece of work for
assessment are not intellectually taxing, but require common sense and effort.
Many good assignments have fallen down because of poor presentation. Even
though markers try not to be influenced by the appearance and layout of your
work, their judgement may be affected by surface features over which you have a
great deal of control. It therefore pays to make the effort not to lose marks.
Word processing
A word processor provides, with the minimum expenditure of time and effort, the
opportunity to experiment with the arrangement of words and ideas. Development
of a final draft may involve cutting and pasting words, sentences, paragraphs, or
whole sections a number of times as part of the writing/editing process.
Word processors also make professional presentation easy to achieve. Headings,
italics, tables, and so on can be readily incorporated to improve readability and
graphics can enhance the written word. Be careful, however, not to rely on
presentation to hide poor quality content.
Using checkers in your word processing
Most computers have tools like word count, spelling and grammar checkers, a
thesaurus and style checkers, all of which can be a valuable aid to your writing. It
is a good idea to use these tools before printing your final copy.
A few words of warning: these checker tools included with your word processing
program can lead you astray as easily as they can help. The grammar and spell
checker are not very sensitive to context that means they wont always catch all
your errors, and may even tell you to correct items in your writing that are not wrong.
Because of these issues, many people find these checkers to be very frustrating.
The key is to investigate why the program has identified the item in your writing
for correction; rather than simply accepting that it needs to be changed, consider
the suggested remedies and decide for yourself whether or not they apply to the
context of that particular sentence. You can also use a grammar book or seek
help from a friend who is good at writing in English.

Presentation
The presentation requirements for assignments vary widely. Make sure that you
know exactly what your lecturer requires. Be prepared to adjust your presentation
style to conform to the requirements set out in different units and for individual
assignments.
Generally speaking, though, the following suggestions will help your assignment
to be reader-friendly:
Make sure your presentation is in keeping with the nature of the assign-
ment, which will usually ask for a scholarly style with a professional layout.
A good presentation does not involve using edge trimmings, pretty pictures
and expensive folders.
Include the full and correct title of the assignment. Do not abbreviate or
change the title of the set topic.
Include an accurate and detailed contents page if writing a lengthy report.
Begin numbering your pages from the beginning of the writing proper (i.e.
immediately following the contents page).
Make sure your written work can stand alone and is comprehensible and
complete. Supporting material is usually better placed in an appendix right
at the end of your work and after your reference list.
Use headings and sub-headings as an integral part of an assignment if
appropriate. Headings can also be included in conventional essays as they
help to delineate the structure of the piece. As you may be doing electives
from other faculties, you should be aware that the use of headings in
essays is frowned upon within certain disciplines. You must be sure to
check with your lecturer about the policy of using headings. As a general
rule, do not number headings in an essay.
Acknowledge all sources that you use. It is essential that you make
yourself familiar with the referencing system that is the accepted mode of
acknowledging the sources in your subject.
Insert page numbers in the final document. These can help your marker to
navigate the assignment and to give you feedback on specific parts.
Use A4 paper, as this is the widely accepted size to use. Regardless of
which size you use, all pages of your assignment must be the same size
and carefully clipped together. Loose sheets are unacceptable.
Write on one side of the paper only. The margins should leave plenty of
room for any written comments from your lecturers.
Use a word processor to generate your assignments, as lecturers, on the
whole, do not accept handwriting.

Make sure the marker can read the work comfortably and easily. The
quality of the type (font and spacing) influences the reader-friendliness of
your work. Double spaced typing contributes to ease of reading. Two sets
of spaces are left between paragraphs. If handwritten work is acceptable
for an assignment, and your handwriting is not easily read, you should
write on every second line.
Use a folder for your assignment. However, you should make sure your
name and assignment details are immediately visible. Folders with a
transparent front are marker-friendly. Choose a folder that allows the
reader to turn the pages easily. It is better not to insert your assignment or
individual pages into a plastic sleeve unless requested by the lecturer.

Security
It is your responsibility to keep a copy of the completed assignment in case of
theft or accidental loss. Save it on a USB memory stick.
Meeting deadlines
It is your responsibility to ensure that your assignment is submitted on time and
reaches the person responsible for receiving it.
Your School may have particular rules regarding late submissions. Some Schools
do not accept late submissions at all. It is your responsibility to work within the set
guidelines. Some lecturers may allow you to submit the assignment late but with
a penalty for every day after the due date.
If your School does not have stated rules, you should nevertheless try to present
your assignment by the due date. If it appears that for legitimate reasons you are
unable to meet that commitment you should negotiate courteously with your
lecturer. Prior to the set date, and not on the day the assignment is due, you
should explain your problem and suggest an alternative submission date. The
responsibility is yours to deal with the lateness and offer an acceptable solution.
If you are running late, it is not wise to put your problems on the back burner, and
pretend that they will go away. You will do more for your image as a responsible
and competent student if you have the courage to face up and deal with problems.
Students who stay away from lectures on the day that assignments are due
present a poor picture of their professionalism.
Asking for extensions can have cumulative negative consequences. You may find
yourself with a pile up of demands towards the end of the semester, which might
lead you into further difficulties.
Remember, you will find that good writing always requires effort and commitment.
You cannot expect to become an outstanding writer overnight. Practice with
feedback is the only way to help you refine your writing skills. Developing and

effectively using all the component skills is a long process and if you genuinely
wish to improve you must persist. Remember the effort you expend now will pay
dividends not only for the writing you do in your academic training, but also in
your future profession.
In conclusion...
Before you can manage your writing, you must understand why you are required
to produce academic writing in the first place. Once those reasons are clear to
you, you can begin to plan the writing process.
An invaluable tool in your planning toolbox is the unit outline. Your unit outline
contains a great deal of important information that will help you to effectively
respond to your written tasks.
Understanding why you need to produce academic writing and making the most
of the information contained in your unit outline are important factors in analysing
your writing tasks, which is the focus of Chapter 3, Understanding the task.
Finally, format and presentation are integral to the writing process. Paying
attention to detail will have its benefits.

Activity 2.1

Questions Comments
What are the major
assignments for this course?
Annotated bibliography
Essay
Oral presentation
(See page 4 and 5 of the unit outline.)
When are they due?
Annotated bibliography due in week 7
Essay due in week 10
Oral presentation due in weeks 11 and 12
(See page 4 and 5 of the unit outline.)
Which assignment is worth the
most toward my final mark?
The essay is worth 45% of the final mark.
(See page 5 of the unit outline.)
Where can I find the task
requirements for the essay
assignment?
Section 5.2 on page 5 of the unit outline describes the
essay task, and the marking schedule for the essay
assignment also contains useful information.
What referencing system should
I use for this subject?
APA system
(See page 6.)
Which lectures/readings will
provide relevant material for the
essay assignment?
The lectures in weeks 5 9 will be especially relevant.
Most of the readings will be useful in some way or
another, but Ballard, Beecher, Green, and McLaren
are most pertinent.
What format will the course
meetings take (e.g., formal
lectures, study groups, etc.)?
What sort of participation will be
required of me?
The course meetings will be a combination of small
group activities and discussions, lectures, workshops
and tutorials.

Students are expected to attend at least 80% of class
meetings.
What is the set text for the
course?
There is no set text for the course; instead students
will use a series of readings and handouts provided by
the lecturer.
How can the marking schedule
for each assignment help me in
my planning?
The marking schedule provides detailed information
on how each task will be assessed. It describes
specifically what the marker is looking for and how the
student can meet the criteria.

Activity 2.2
Answers will vary.

Activity 2.3
Answers will vary.

Activity 2.4
Answers will vary.

Activity 2.5
Answers will vary.

Chapter 3
Understanding the task


Introduction
In the previous chapter, you read about why you will be asked to complete writing
tasks at university; then you were asked to think about the specific courses you
are taking and how that information might relate to them.
In this chapter, you will look closely at the writing tasks themselves and analyse
the different aspects of an assignment. When you have finished this chapter, you
will be able to:
Analyse a writing task so that you fully understand what is being asked
of you
Locate and define key words and phrases in the task
Identify the intended audience of a text
Establish the purpose of a piece of writing.
Checking your understanding of the task
Before you can start researching for your assignment, you must understand the
task you face. The following three elements are important in checking your
understanding.
Clarifying the task.
Identifying the audience.
Establishing the purpose of the piece of writing.

Clarifying the task
Before you can begin the writing process, you must make sure that you have
clearly understood what it is that you are supposed to be writing about. To do this,
you will need to break the assignment task down into its different parts.
Key words
Locating key words in a writing task will help you decide what kind of approach
you should take in your response. There are three types of key words:
Topic words/phrases tell you what you are going to write about. They
define the topic, indicating the areas you should concentrate on. These are
generally easy to identify, as they are the topics that you have probably
studied in your Unit.
Task words/phrases describe how you will write your assignment (what
you will need to do to complete the assignment). These words are usually
verbs, but might be question words, e.g. Why? How?
Focus words/phrases are the aspects of the topic you are asked to pay
particular attention to.
Topic Focus

Example 1: Schoolies week is an important rite of passage for Australian
teenagers. Discuss.

Task word
Topic

Example 2: Since sustainability is a key concept of the twenty-first century, it
should be included as part of the curriculum of primary and
secondary schools throughout Australia. Do you agree?

Focus Task words

Task words
Making sense of key words, particularly task words, is a very important preliminary
step in the writing process. Following is a table of common task words.

Some common task words/phrases
Account for Explain, clarify, give reasons for
Different from give an account of, which is more like describe in detail
Analyse Break an issue down into its component parts, discuss them and show how
they interrelate
Argue Make a case, based on appropriate evidence, for and/or against some given
point of view
Assess Consider the value or importance of something, paying due attention to
positive, negative, and disputable aspects, and citing the judgments of any
known authorities, as well as your own.
Comment on More than describe or summarise; implies a level of analysis and
assessment; see also discuss
Compare Identify the characteristics or qualities two or more things have in common (but
probably pointing out their differences as well)
Contrast Point out the differences between two things (but probably point out their
similarities as well)
Criticise Spell out your judgment as to the value or truth of something, indicating the
criteria on which you base your judgment and citing specific instances of how
the criteria apply in this case
Define Make a statement as to the meaning or interpretation of something, giving
sufficient detail so as to allow it to be distinguished from similar things
Describe Spell out the main aspects of an idea or topic or the sequence in which a series
of things happened
Discuss Develop a balanced argument by exploring, analysing and debating the range
of perspectives that apply. Research widely, sort through the available
evidence, weigh up the arguments for and against, and analyse alternatives to
arrive at an informed conclusion. One of the most common task words; similar
to comment on (see above)
Enumerate List some relevant items in continuous prose (rather than in note form) and
perhaps describe them (see above) as well
Evaluate Like assess (see above)
Explain Tell how things work or how they came to be the way they are, including
perhaps some need to describe and to analyse (see above)
To what extent Explore the case for a stated proposition or explanation, much in the manner of
assess and criticise (see above), probably arguing for a less than total
acceptance of the proposition
How far Similar to to what extent (see above)
Identify Pick out what you regard as the key features of something, perhaps making
clear the criteria you use
Illustrate Similar to explain (see above), but probably asking for the quoting of specific
examples or statistics or possibly the drawing of maps, graphs, sketches, etc.

Interpret Clarify something or explain (see above), perhaps indicating how the thing
relates to some other thing or perspective
Justify Express valid reasons for accepting a particular interpretation or conclusion,
probably including the need to argue (see above) a case
Outline Indicate the main features of a topic or sequence of events, possibly setting
them within a clear structure or framework to show how they interrelate
Prove Demonstrate the truth of something by offering irrefutable evidence and/or
logical sequence of statements leading from evidence to conclusion
Reconcile Show how two apparently opposed or mutually exclusive ideas or propositions
can be seen to be similar in important respects, if not identical. Involves need
to analyse and justify (see above)
Relate Either explain (see above) how things happened or are connected in a cause-
and-effect sense, or may imply compare and contrast (see above)
Revi ew Survey a topic, with the emphasis on assess rather than describe (see
above)
State Express the main points of an idea or topic, perhaps in the manner of
describe or enumerate (see above)
Summarise State (see above) the main features of an argument, omitting all superfluous
detail and side-issues
Trace Identify the connection between one thing and another either in a
developmental sense over a period of time, or else in a cause-and-effect
sense. May imply both describe and explain (see above)
Adapted from: Rowntree, D. 1998. Learn How to Study A Realistic Approach. Warner Books: London.
Figure 12: Common task words

Question words
Sometimes the task is set by a question word instead of a verb. Some of the most
common question words are:
What is/was? What impact/effect? In what ways? How do/did? How far?
(These are usually explain type essays.)
Why? How far? To what extent? How effectively? Was? Do you agree? Is
this fair comment? How important? What do you think?
(These are usually argue or discuss type essays.)
Of course, these question words only make sense when seen in conjunction with
the focus and topic words. However, even then, it can be difficult to identify what
you actually have to do, and you may need to clarify the task with your lecturer or
tutor before going any further.

Focus words
It is also very important to look closely at the focus words. These significantly
affect what you include or exclude in your essay, and also how much space you
might devote to different areas. Lets look again at the first essay question on
page 54:
Schoolies week is an important rite of passage for Australian teenagers
Discuss.
A change in the focus words of this question (in italics) would very much affect
how you write about schoolies week. Look at these examples and think about
how an essay on these topics would be quite different:
1. Schoolies week is the most important rite of passage for Australian
teenagers Discuss.
2. Schoolies week may be an important rite of passage for Australian
teenagers but it is a time of great anxiety for many parents. Discuss.
3. Schoolies week has become an important rite of passage for Australian
teenagers, but it has now degenerated to a spectacle of excess. Discuss.
To demonstrate the process, a sample question is analysed below:
Account for the rapid spread of HIV AIDS in Africa since the eighties.
How has HIV AIDS affected infant health?
Topic words Task words Focus words
HIV AIDS Account for
How
rapid spread
Africa since the eighties
affected infant health
Strategies to get started
Brainstorming
Brainstorming means writing down any ideas at all that come to mind when you
read the question. Some of the ideas may end up being irrelevant, but that does
not matter at this stage. The idea is to get you started on thinking about the essay
question. A brainstorm on the HIV AIDS question might look like this:
social factors statistics on Africa, other parts of world
role of women statistics on infant health
civil wars, conflicts availability of medicine
famine world aid ignored problem? Why?

Mind mapping
Mind mapping is a more organised kind of brainstorming. As well as writing down
ideas, you organise them in categories and sub-categories. For example, on the
HIV AIDS question you might have:

examples
prejudice

ignorance

issues
level of aid

medicine

violence
towards
women

civil wars

world
response

areas

Africa

statistics

HIV AIDS
in Africa

famine

statistics
the rest of
the world

men/women
/children
social effects

social
factors

poverty
education
role of
women

Figure 13: Example of mind map

Research focusing questions
Another strategy is to form some questions about the topics and focus aspects.
These will serve as the basis of your research and help you to understand every
aspect of the question. In some cases, these questions might suggest a structure
for your essay as well giving you the main focuses for your body paragraphs.
This could be the case in this essay.
General Specific
What? What factors aided the spread of HIV AIDS in Africa?
How? How are the effects on infants different from the affects on adults?
Why? Why has HIV AIDS spread more rapidly in Africa than in other places?
Who? Who is most responsible for infant health?
When? When was the extent of the potential danger from HIV AIDS first
recognised?
What if? What if the epidemic is not contained?
Figure 14: Research questions
Sometimes the question will suggest a two-part structure for your essay. The HIV
AIDS question could be dealt with in two parts HIV AIDS in Africa in general
and the effect of this on infant health.
It is good to start thinking about the essay structure at this early stage, although
you might change your mind about the detail as you start firm planning.
Activity 3.1 Estimating word allocation
Now, lets assume that the question below requires a response of 2,000 words.
How had HIV AIDS affected infant health?
Discuss:
1. What is a realistic allocation of words to answer each part of the question?
To the introduction? To the conclusion?
2. Why is it beneficial to plan your approximate allocation of words even
before you begin writing?

Activity 3.2 Analysing an assignment question
Here is the task for the major writing assignment from the unit outline provided in
Chapter 2, Managing your writing.
The acquisition of literacy begins early in a childs life. Discuss the role
of teachers in preparing children for literacy in a multicultural society.
1. Analyse this question by identifying the:
(a) Topic words ___________________________________________
(b) Task words ___________________________________________
(c) Focus words ___________________________________________
2. Formulate some questions that could guide your research
General Specific
What?
How?
Why?
Who?
When?
What if?
Figure 15: Creating research questions
Overview of strategies
Listed below are the main strategies that can help you clarify your understanding
of a writing task:
Read the question/s (and any other supporting material) at least twice.
Check the definitions of words or phrases you may not fully understand,
especially technical words
Locate topic words/phrases, directive words/phrases and focus
words/phrases.

Brainstorm, mind-map or formulate a set of questions to guide your
research (or perhaps all three).
Paraphrase (or rewrite) the question in your own words.
Consider how the assignment is to be presented and check guidelines and
assessment criteria.
Check back to the course objectives, recommended readings and class
topics to see how they relate to the task.
Discuss your understanding of the task with fellow students.
Seeking further clarification
Even after you have employed these strategies, the task you have been given
may still be unclear to you, perhaps because you do not understand the
terminology, or because it is expressed in very general terms. If that is the case,
you should discuss the topic with your lecturer or tutor.
Remember, speaking with your tutor or lecturer will be more useful if you have
made every effort to analyse the question on your own first. Most lecturers will not
be receptive if you make an appointment having done little or no preparation
yourself. As you discovered in Chapter 2, Managing your writing, being well prepared
for a meeting with your instructor will result in a far more productive session.
A useful strategy is to jot down the points the lecturer makes during your
discussion. At the conclusion of your visit, you should repeat to the lecturer what
you think you have discussed in order to check that you both have the same
understanding of what the topic involves.
As well as checking your understanding of the question, you should make sure
you know what kind of research you'll need to do. Ask yourself questions like:
Will I have to find a lot of additional material in the library?
If so, how much will be enough?
How much will be too much? What kinds of material?
Where else can I find relevant material?
If not, do I have the required material already?
Will I have to carry out surveys or gather my own data?
All of these questions are ones that you may need to confirm with your tutor or
lecturer, if the information is not provided in your course outline or during class
meetings.

Identifying the audience
Assignment writing comes under the general heading of expository writing. When
writing, you usually wish to inform or persuade your reader. Writing for lecturers is
somewhat of an artificial situation in that the audience is generally better informed
about the topic than the writer. Therefore, the lecturer will be reading your assign-
ment from a particular perspective.
Since your lecturer is already an informed audience, you should write to demon-
strate your competence in managing the content under discussion and arguing a
case effectively. Often lecturers will outline or describe their requirements of an
assignment, and you should be alert to what they say. Some students even find it
helpful to use the vocabulary, terminology, expressions and orientation that
lecturers use.
Sometimes assignments are set which specify an imaginary reader such as an
imaginary employer or business client. In these cases, you should be thinking
about the needs of this reader and how different the writing might be compared
with a more strictly academic piece of writing.
It is easy to forget about an audience when you are so involved in the personal
activity of articulating your thoughts. Regardless of whom you are writing for, you
should never forget that writing is communication. You would do well to pause
from time to time to check that what you have written makes sense to the reader
and communicates information in a reader-friendly way.
Establishing the purpose
By combining (1) the task with (2) the reader, you have a lot of information that
helps you to understand the purpose of writing. In addition, you should be careful
to note the advice given in the task requirements, the question, the format of the
assignment, and any other clues to work out exactly what the purpose of the
writing will be.
As you saw in Chapter 2, Managing your writing, your unit outline will also give
you valuable information about the purpose of your writing. Remember to read all
the information provided to you by your instructor as you think about the task.
The following table includes a list of key words and their purposes:
Key words Purpose
list / describe / summarise to inform
explain / justify / critique to persuade
compare / argue / hypothesise to speculate
Figure 16: Essay question key words

When you put all these different aspects together (task, reader, format and
purpose), you should know enough about what you have to do, and what the
'shape' will be of your final piece of writing. In the context of academic writing,
here are some common shapes or genres that result:
Written genre Purpose
A summary of published literature on a
topic
demonstrates that you have found relevant
literature and that you understand it.
A critical review of published literature
on a topic
demonstrates that you can analyse, show
relationships between, and evaluate the
significance of literature on a certain topic.
An essay justifying your views on a
topic, supported by relevant published
literature
demonstrates that you can develop a clear
and logical response that is your own
interpretation but is supported by evidence.
A case study analysing a particular
case and recommending a course of
action
demonstrates that you can identify key issues
and relate theory to a workplace situation.
A journal on your learning experiences demonstrates that you have reflected on and
analysed the process of your learning.
A report on a field study or industry
placement
describes what happened, and explains how
the practice is related to the theory.
Figure 17: Purpose of academic genres
When you are facing the task of writing in a genre or shape that is unfamiliar, and
in a field of knowledge that is new to you, it can be very confusing and sometimes
rather worrying. (You will learn more about academic writing genres in Chapter 6,
Writing your assignment.) It is important to be aware that this could happen and to
try to find out as much as you can about the requirements for each assigned task.
In conclusion...
Making sure you understand all the factors involved in an academic writing task is
an essential early step in the writing process. To do that, you must determine
specifically what the requirements are, what the purpose is, who the audience will
be, as well as developing your own research questions.
Those research questions will guide you as you seek out supporting information
and texts. Making sense of all the information you gather requires you to exercise
you critical thinking skills; ways to develop these skills are the focus of Chapter 4,
Thinking critically.

Activity 3.1 Estimating word allocation - discuss
How has HIV AIDS affected infant health?
1. How you allocate words to section of a task depend on the instruction
given to you by your lecturer. However, one way might be to treat each
section of the question as equally important. If you took this approach, you
might then allocate 800 900 words to each section which would then
allow you approximately 100 -150 words for the introduction and 100 -150
words for the conclusion.
Alternatively, you may decide to allocate 1200 words to the first section,
600 to the second section and still have 200 words to share between the
introduction and the conclusion.
2. It is beneficial to plan out your word allocation before starting your
research so that you:
know how much research to gather
dont waste time gathering data you can never use
focus on the important aspects of the task and helps you keep the balance
between the sections of the task.

Activity 3.2 Analysing an assignment question
1. Identify key words in assignment question
(a) Topic words: acquisition of literacy
(b) Task words: Discuss
(c) Focus words: role of teachers, preparing children, multicultural society

2. Formulating questions to guide your research. The questions in the table
below are suggestions; there are many other useful and relevant
questions.
What? What can teachers do to help facilitate the acquisition of
literacy?
How? How is the learning environment in a multicultural environment
different from that in a homogenous culture?
Why? Why is it important to consider literacy issues early in a childs
education?
Who? Who can help teachers understand the best way to teach
children from varying cultural backgrounds?
When? When did multiculturalism first become an issue in childhood
education?
What if? What if teachers dont account for childrens cultural
backgrounds in the classroom?

Chapter 4
Thinking critically

Thinking critically

Introduction
Critical thinking means thinking carefully, questioning and testing what you hear
and read, and being prepared to examine and if necessary change your beliefs
and ideas. In the university context, critical thinking often refers to the skills and
attitudes needed for evaluating texts and arguments.
In previous studies, you may have developed surface learning skills such as:
memorizing and rote learning
summarising and describing
reproducing (copying or reporting what you read, without comment or
acknowledgement).
At university, you are expected to develop deep learning skills, such as:
acknowledging the source of quotations
relating ideas (by comparison, contrast and/or synthesis)
interpreting, analysing and evaluating what you read and hear
questioning claims and assumptions (by asking What is the evidence for
that? What are the implications of that?)
using theory to help you understand new ideas and situations.
Skills such as memorisation will always be important, but success and
independence as a learner and practitioner require approaches that are more
critical. Deep or analytical learning is learning where you question what you read.
In other words, you become a critical reader and writer.
This does not mean looking for faults with everything. It means looking for and
evaluating the reasons and evidence for what people (including your own
lecturers) say and do and write. It also means being critical and reflective about
your own beliefs, habits and approaches.
By the time you have finished this chapter, you will be able to:
Describe what it means to be a critical thinker
Identify the different stages of the critical thinking process
Implement strategies to develop your own critical thinking skills in the
areas of reading, writing, speaking and listening.
Thinking critically

A critical thinker is...
A critical thinker is someone who is able to think well and fair-mindedly not just
about his or her own beliefs and viewpoints, but also about the beliefs and
viewpoints that are opposed to their own.
Critical thinkers dont only think about others beliefs and points of view but try to
explore and appreciate their adequacy, their cohesion, and their reasonableness
when compared to their own.
People who think critically are not just willing and able to explore alien, potentially
threatening viewpoints, but they desire to do so. They question their own deeply
held beliefs, and if there are no opposing viewpoints immediately available, they
seek them out or construct them themselves.
Therefore, critical thinking involves setting aside, or suspending, your own
personal beliefs, prejudices, and opinions to sort out the facts and discover the
truth, even at the expense of your basic belief.
Activity 4.1: Identifying critical thinkers
Think of two or three people that you would describe as good critical thinkers.
Now, think of two or three people that you would describe as poor critical thinkers.
Keeping these people in mind, answer the following questions:
1. What is it about these people that led you to categorise them the way you
did? Specifically, what can the good critical thinkers do that the poor critical
thinkers cant?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. What attitudes or approaches do the good critical thinkers have that the
poor critical thinkers dont seem to possess?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Thinking critically

3. Based on your answers to the previous questions and the description
above, what critical thinking skills do you think you already have? Where
do you think you need to work on your skills?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
(Adapted from Facione, P. Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts.)
The process of critical thinking
Critical thinking is a process. Many students are able to proceed through the first
two or three stages of the process, but may not understand how to move further.
Most university assignments cannot be successfully completed, however, without
implementing the later stages of the process as well.
By proceeding through all the stages of this process, you will demonstrate the
level of understanding and awareness that many lecturers classify under the
umbrella of critical thinking or analysis.
Critical thinking can be considered to have six stages:
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Thinking critically

Knowledge
The first stage of critical thinking can be defined as your ability to recall what you
have learned. Assignments that ask you to reproduce information may contain
words like:
name relate
list tell
recognise recall
choose match
label define
Comprehension
The second stage is that of comprehension understanding what you have
learned. You can demonstrate this comprehension in the following ways:
compare explain
describe rephrase
outline show
organise relate
classify identify
Another way that you can demonstrate your understanding is through inference;
this means you can show you have grasped not only the surface meaning, but
also underlying or unstated facts or ideas. You can do this by:
speculating interpreting
inferring generalising
concluding
Application
The third stage of critical thinking is application putting to use the information
and knowledge you have gained. You can do this by applying your acquired
knowledge, facts, and techniques in new situations. Words to describe different
methods of application can be:
apply dramatise
construct restructure
model simulate
use translate
practice experiment
Thinking critically

Analysis
The fourth stage of critical thinking involves breaking down ideas or information
into various parts. Assignments that ask you to analyse may use terms like:
analyse simplify
chart summarise
classify relate to
contrast categorise
sequence differentiate
Synthesis
The fifth stage of critical thinking puts back together what you have broken down
during your analysis. The key ingredient here is that you put the information back
together in new ways, to create something unique. Your lecturers or tutors may
ask you synthesise information using words like:
compose elaborate
design formulate
develop originate
propose solve
adapt invent
Evaluation
The sixth and final stage of critical thinking is evaluation making judgments.
When you evaluate information, you pull together all that you have learned in the
earlier stages of your thinking process to produce and defend your own opinion
about that information.
Some terms associated with evaluation are:
judge defend
rank justify
rate prioritise
evaluate support
recommend prove
(Adapted from Longview Community Colleges Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum Project at
http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/longview/ctac)
Thinking critically

Text comparison
The three texts that follow demonstrate differences at three levels: descriptive,
comparative and evaluative.
Descriptive
In Text A, the writer has simply listed information in a descriptive way. He/she has
not made links between any information or demonstrated why the information is
relevant. There is no sense of the writers own view on the two forms of transport.
Text A
A car is a machine for transporting people. Cars usually can carry a
maximum of 5 or 6 people. They use petroleum or diesel fuel although
there are also some electric cars. Many people are killed or injured each
year in car accidents. In Australia, most people drive cars and the roads of
many urban centres are choked with this form of transport.
A bus is a form of public transport. Buses generally operate on urban,
suburban, or inter-urban routes. Other than the buses operated by the
government, there are some private bus companies, particularly for long
distance travel. Many people can be transported in one bus, and so just
one serious accident can claim many lives.
Comparative/synthetical
In Text B, the writer has selected some important points and compared and
contrasted them in a way that shows that he/she has thought about the issues.
Note that the points are the same ones as used in Text A.
Text B
Two of the most common vehicles for transporting people are cars and
buses. Whereas the capacity of the car is usually limited to about 5 or 6
people, the greater passenger capacity of the bus brings savings on fuel
and other costs as well as reducing the amounts of traffic on the road. The
ownership of buses is usually governmental or business, which ensures
that bus travel is generally safer than travel by privately owned cars,
although just one serious accident can claim many lives. However, public
ownership also means that buses are often not as convenient as private
cars in terms of their accessibility to all areas.
Evaluative/analytically critical
In Text C, on the following page, the writer has gone even further. This time
he/she has come to a conclusion about the two forms of transport based on an
evaluation of the points and issues. He/she expresses a viewpoint and supports it
with good reasons. The highlighted text that follows Text C shows you some of
the writing techniques used to do this
Thinking critically

Text C
Of the two main forms of transport for people, buses are more effective
than cars for a number of reasons. The greater passenger capacity of the
bus ensures savings on fuel and other costs as well as reducing the
amounts of traffic on the road. Secondly, the increased safety of bus travel
as a result of ownership being governmental or business ensures that
deaths and injuries from accidents are minimal, compared with the
numerous deaths and injuries from car accidents. Finally, the accessibility
of buses to most areas is strategically possible because buses use the
established road system, so that little development is needed in order to
extend a new bus route. Indeed, the potential for a bus transport system to
be as convenient as private cars, combined with the other advantages of
buses over cars, provides a convincing argument for the expansion of the
bus transport system, rather than the continuation of a costly, inefficient
and unsafe system based on privately owned vehicles.

Text C highlighting the writing techniques used to express a point of view
and support arguments, including references
Of the two main forms of transport for people, buses are more effective
than cars for a number of reasons. The greater passenger capacity of
the bus ensures savings on fuel and other costs as well as reducing the
amounts of traffic on the road (Harris, 1999). Secondly, the increased
safety of bus travel as a result of ownership being governmental or
business ensures that deaths and injuries from accidents are minimal
(RTA, 2001), compared with the numerous deaths and injuries from car
accidents. Finally, the accessibility of buses to most areas is strategically
possible because buses use the established road system (NSW, 2001), so
that little development is needed in order to extend a new bus route.
Indeed, the potential for a bus transport system to be as convenient as
private cars, combined with the other advantages of buses over cars,
provides a convincing argument for the expansion of the bus
transport system, rather than the continuation of a costly, inefficient and
unsafe system based on privately owned vehicles.
[Texts from SWOT lecture series: Learning to learn, Successful essay writing, Learning Centre,
University of Sydney]
Thinking critically

How to develop critical thinking skills
The critical thinking process described above is an important part of university
study. You can apply your critical thinking skills to the study areas of:
Reading and listening
Writing
Reading and listening
Critical thinking when reading or listening involves the following:
Identifying the line of reasoning
Critically evaluating the line of reasoning
Questioning surface appearances and checking for hidden assumptions or
agendas
Identifying evidence given
Evaluating the evidence according to valid criteria
Checking for consistency are there any contradictions in ideas, and if so,
what is going on beneath that contradiction
Identifying the writers or speakers conclusions
Deciding whether the evidence given supports these conclusions
Identifying what is not said or written and carefully considering why it has
been left out.
Critical thinking, when listening, also involves:
Checking that the body language, eye contact, and speed and tone of
voice are consistent (congruent) with what is being said does the
speaker look and sound as though they believe what they are saying?
See Chapter 5, Reading and note making, for more information about reading
critically.

Thinking critically

Here are some basic ways that you can develop your critical reading and listening
skills. These are also relevant to your own writing or speaking.
Recognise emotive language. Some words are used specifically to
evoke emotion in an audience, while others are purposefully objective.
Recognise bias. Knowing when a speaker/writer is deliberately appealing
to your emotions can help you distance yourself from them.
Bias is similar to emotive language, in that the speaker/writer uses certain
words to signal their position (perhaps even unconsciously).This bias can
cause the speaker/writer to skew the facts and evidence that they present.
Distinguish between fact and opinion. Speakers/writers may try to
present a personal opinion as fact.
While their opinions may not necessarily be wrong, it can be dangerous to
ascribe to them the same weight as you would to proven facts.
Recognise inferences. Inferences are unstated facts or ideas, and often
take the form of an educated guess.
As with opinions, a speakers or writers inferences must be validated.
Evaluate sources. When listening or reading, ask yourself the following
questions:
What are this speakers/writers qualifications?
Does this speaker/writer have experience in this topic?
Is he/she being paid, and if so, by whom?
Does he/she have a hidden reason for discussing this topic?
Where can I find other opinions?
Thinking critically

Activity 4.2: Developing critical reading skills
1. Read the four extracts from a text about sustainability. Then, underline the
emotive language. Think about what the words tell you about the persons
position. (You don't have to agree with them, but you should take such
language into account.)
a. Not surprisingly, the good ol US of A leads the world in energy
consumption per person in the population.
b. Some resources are alarmingly scarce.
c. The way in which we in rich countries are using up resources is grossly
unsustainable.
d. The American energy sector is full of established, cashed-up businesses
that use their influence to combat concern about climate change, to
destroy emerging challengers, and to oppose moves towards greater
energy efficiency.
[Sentences from UniStep Academic Writing: Book of Readings. Feb 2006. Pages 22 (a), 47 (b
and c), and 95 (d).]
2. Rewrite the above sentences so that they appear more objective (eg
change or leave out a word).
a. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
d. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Thinking critically

3. Look at the sentences below and consider whether each one is either a
statement expressing a fact or a statement expressing an opinion. Write F
if you think the statement is a fact, and O if you think the statement is an
opinion.
Remember, a fact is a statement about a subject which is true and can be proven
or observed. For example, The Earth is a sphere. An opinion is a statement of
feeling of opinion about a subject. It cannot be objectively proven or observed.
For example, Earth is a beautiful place.
a. Most economic activity uses up materials and resources, including forests
and minerals.
b. Management of the environment is essentially an economic problem.
c. The two words sustainable and development are in a strict sense
contradictory.
d. The Bruntland report emphasised that the state of our technology and
social organisation limits the worlds ability to meet human needs now and
in the future.
e. There are 6 billion people on this Earth.
f. Therefore, everyone is entitled to about 1.7 hectares of this bio-productive
land to support them.
g. Toynbee analysed the fate of civilisations in terms of their capacity to
respond to challenges.
h. If the thing threatening our survival was a comet headed for Earth, or a
global flu epidemic, or another Hitler, there would instantly be focussed
attention and energetic and massive effort to deal with it.
[Sentences from UniStep Academic Writing: Book of Readings, pages 3 (a), 5(b), 8 (c)11 (d) 22
(e,f), 50 (g,h).]
Thinking critically

Use one of the texts from a course you are currently taking and answer the
following questions:
Readers background and value assumptions
What do you already know about the
topic?

What are your beliefs and values
about the topic?

What is your purpose for reading the
material?

Figure 18: Reader's background and value assumptions

Writers background and value assumptions
What is the writers background?

How might it affect the writers
approach to the topic and
interpretation of evidence?

Figure 19: Writers background and value assumptions

Thinking critically


Writers argument and conclusions
What is the writers main argument?

What conclusions does the writer
draw?

How has the writer limited the
argument (e.g., through carefully
defined terms or the use of qualifying
words or phrases)?

Figure 20: Argument and conclusions

Writers use of evidence
What sort of evidence does the writer
use to support his/her conclusions?

Does the evidence offer adequate
support for the conclusions?

Do you find the evidence credible?

Figure 21: Use of evidence
Thinking critically


Readers reaction
To what degree do you accept the
writers conclusions?

How does the conclusion relate to
what you already know and believe
about the topic?

How has the writers argument
changed your views on the topic?

Figure 22 Readers reaction
(Adapted from Case Western Reserve Universitys Office of Educational Support Services How do
I sharpen my critical reading strategies? At http://ess.cwru.edu/onepg/critical.htm)
Activity 4.4: Developing critical listening skills
Public discourse is something we are all exposed to in some way or another. It
sometimes employs language designed to elicit a strong reaction in those who
hear it. Using critical listening skills to evaluate what you hear on television or
radio programs is excellent practice for evaluating other forms of verbal
communication. These same skills can be applied to the texts you read when
researching for academic writing tasks.
Listen to the news on the radio or watch it on TV; pay particular attention to how
politicians or their speeches are reported. Take some notes in the space provided
about the kinds of language that you hear.
1. Do you recognise any emotive language? Give some examples.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Thinking critically

2. Do you think the speaker is biased? Why or why not?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Is it possible to consistently distinguish between fact and opinion? Why or
why not?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Writing
Critical thinking when writing involves comparable processes:
Being clear about what your conclusions are
Showing a clear line of reasoning an argument leading to your
conclusion
Presenting evidence to support your reasoning
Reading your own writing critically, as above, as well as your sources
Viewing your subject from multiple perspectives.
Basically, you must be able to read your own writing, as critically as you would
any outside source. This also applies when you are preparing a seminar paper or
doing any oral presentation task.
Critical writing at university requires you to do more than just describe. A common
criticism of first year student writing is that it is not analytical enough; it is too
descriptive. The following activity will help you recognise the characteristics of a
piece of writing that goes beyond mere description and can be classified as critical.
It should be noted, however, that there is sometimes a place for descriptive
writing at university. For example, you might be asked to write a paragraph which
describes or outlines a theory, an approach or a situation. Or, you might have to
describe one of these within a larger, more analytical, essay.
Thinking critically

Activity 4.5: Developing critical writing skills
1. Read Text A and Text B (below), and decide whether they are written in an
analytical or a descriptive way. Give reasons to support your answer.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Text A
Top down theories about the media assume that the media is an
instrument used by the powerful to support and justify their power
(Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & DAlton, 1989). There are two major
components of this general perspective. The first is that the owners of the
media control the style and content in order to serve their own economic,
political and social ambitions. The second major aspect of top down
theories is the idea that the media is one of the institutions which
reproduce an ideology that supports the continuation of the capitalist
system (Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & DAlton, 1989).
Bottom up theories are based on the notion that the media responds to
and therefore reflects the needs, experiences and interests of most people
(Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & DAlton, 1989). The two major areas
emphasised here are the free market and the importance of popular
culture and mythology. The free market idea likens different media to
markets, whose popularity is controlled by the extent to which it meets the
needs of its customers. This approach is favoured by market
researchers. The perspective of popular culture and mythology focuses on
the way the media portrays and dramatises daily life, culture, and cultural
traditions (Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & DAlton, 1989).
Text B
Views about the role of television as a socialising agent can be shaped by
the Sociological perspective adopted. For example, television as a
socialiser could be discussed in a top down context. This would be
Thinking critically

concerned with illustrating how the media is used as a vehicle for
propaganda which supports attitudes and behaviour that are not in the
interests of most people (Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & DAlton, 1989). In
this case, the idea that television promotes images and stereotypes that
justify and promote the dominant ideology would be supported by
reference to examples such as the way women and men are commonly
portrayed in serials and advertisements. The broad argument here would
be that gender roles are deliberately distorted to reinforce sexist attitudes
that have no relationship with the way most people live (Courtney &
Whittle, 1974; Howitt, 1982).
By contrast, a bottom up view emphasises more interaction between
media and people. In particular, it would argue that people are not passive
recipients who lack the capacity to interpret the world for themselves
(Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & DAlton, 1989, p 91). In fact, commentators
like Fisk (1987) claim that television viewers do not passively accept
messages, but read meanings into what they see according to such factors
as their social group. A good example is evidence of union activity
because they know from experience that it may be biased against them
(Carroll, 1980).
Related to these interpretations is the view that television programmes and
even advertisements reflect peoples experiences far more than impose
interpretations of the world. For instance, many of the soap operas
scorned as superficial distortions of reality actually portray and explore
relevant social images and issues. Cunninghams analysis of Prisoner (in
Tulloch & Turner, 1989) focuses on the way it can be seen as a
representation of Australian popular cultural attitudes to authority and a
source of group identity and meaning: as in the way schoolgirls interviewed
identified with the prisoners attitude to authority.
2. How is Text C (on next page) different from Texts A and B?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Thinking critically

Text C
Of the two major Sociological perspectives on televisions socialising role,
the bottom up is more realistic and flexible than the top down. Certainly,
the top down perspectives are right to raise debate about the manipulative
capacity of television as a vehicle for reinforcing attitudes which favour
powerful vested interests. For example, there is no doubt that many
advertisements promote gender roles that dont portray the way people
really are but do pressure and influence people to support the idealised
roles (Courtney & Whittle, 1974; Howitt, 1982). The result is that images
and attitudes are often created by television to exploit people. However, to
then make the blanket claim that viewers are passive and mindless and
that all television does in dictate to them what they should think is elitist
(Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & DAlton, 1989) and distorts the fact that
social reality does not neatly fit ideological patterns. For example, bottom
up theorists show that viewers often read their own meanings into what
they see and hear and critically examine it from their own social
perspectives (Fisk, 1987). Thus, trade unionists sceptical attitudes to
media coverage of union activity are based on previous experience of
biased media reports (Carrol, 1980).
Not only is it simplistic to argue that people always believe whatever
television portrays. Television and even advertisements reflect peoples
experience far more than impose interpretations of the world. For instance,
many soap operas do portray and explore images and issues that are
relevant and controversial in the lives of most viewers. Cunninghams view
of Prisoner (in Tulloch & Turner, 1989) illustrates this well.
(Adapted from Webb, C. n.d.)
Thinking critically

Critical thinking materials available at UWS
At UWS, several resources have been developed to help students better
understand expectations about critical thinking in university assignments. The
following table provides a brief description of each resource and a call number
you can use to locate it in the library on your campus.

Title Description Call Number
Critical Analysis: What Is It? This book provides a set of sample
student essays and reports identified
by lecturers in various disciplines as
containing strong evidence of critical
thinking. Along with these texts are
comments by both the student writer
and the lecturer.
808.042 16 [1998]
Unravelling the Mysteries of
Critical Thinking
A video narrative about three
students discovering some of the
ways they can improve their critical
thinking skills.
370.152 35
On the Track: Critical
Thinking in Assignment
Writing
An interactive CD ROM for students
of commerce or business studies
370.152 36 [1999]
BR PC 139 [2006]
Figure 23: Critical thinking materials
In conclusion...
Critical thinking involves purposefully examining your own thought processes and
belief structures. It also requires you to be able to identify and analyse those
same aspects of other peoples reasoning and logic. Once you are able to do this,
you will be better able to discern between useful, academically sound resources,
and those that are not credible in this way.
This distinction will be very important as you begin to research your writing tasks.
Much of your research will involve reading and note making, which we will
consider in Chapter 5, Reading and note making.
Thinking critically

Activity 4.1: Identifying critical thinkers
Answers will vary.
1. Underline emotive language.
a. the good ol US of A
b. alarmingly
c. grossly
d. cashed-up, destroy
3. Rewrite sentences. Answers will vary.
a. Not surprisingly, the United States of America/USA leads the world in
energy consumption per person in the population.
b. Some resources are extremely scarce.
c. The way in which we in rich countries are using up resources is
unsustainable.
d. The American energy sector is full of established, wealthy businesses
that use their influence to combat concern about climate change, to
defeat emerging challengers, and to oppose moves towards greater
energy efficiency.
4. Statements expressing fact or opinion.
a. F
b. O
c. O
d. F
e. F
f. O
g. O
h. F
Answers will vary.
Activity 4.4: Developing critical listening skills
Answers will vary.
Thinking critically

Activity 4.5: Developing critical writing skills
1. Text A is descriptive. It simply defines the two theories of the media, one
after the other, and then describes their features. Text B, however, is more
analytical; it places its discussion of the two theories firmly within a
sociological context, and then proceeds to bring in real-world examples
(the Australian TV show Prisoner).
Text A
General
definition

Top down theories about the media assume that the
media is an instrument used by the powerful to support
and justify their power (Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg &
DAlton, 1989). There are two major components of this
general perspective. The first is that the owners of the
media control the style and content in order to serve their
own economic, political and social ambitions. The second
major aspect of top down theories is the idea that the
media is one of the institutions which reproduce an ideology
that supports the continuation of the capitalist system
(Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & DAlton, 1989).

Division into
specific
features/
characteristic
elements
General
definition

Bottom up theories are based on the notion that the media
responds to and therefore reflects the needs, experiences
and interests of most people (Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg
& DAlton, 1989). The two major areas emphasised here
are the free market and the importance of popular cul-
ture and mythology. The free market idea likens different
media to markets, whose popularity is controlled by the
extent to which it meets the needs of its customers. This
approach is favoured by market researchers. The perspec-
tive of popular culture and mythology focuses on the way
the media portrays and dramatises daily life, culture, and
cultural traditions (Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & DAlton,
1989).

Division into
specific
features/
characteristic
elements

Thinking critically

Text B
Analytical
focus
Views about the role of television as a socialising
agent can be shaped by the Sociological perspective
adopted. For example, television as a socialiser could be
discussed in a top down context. This would be concerned
with illustrating how the media is used as a vehicle for
propaganda which supports attitudes and behaviour that
are not in the interests of most people (Windschuttle, in
Jagtenberg & DAlton, 1989). In this case, the idea that
television promotes images and stereotypes that justify
and promote the dominant ideology would be supported
by reference to examples such as the way women and
men are commonly portrayed in serials and advertisements.
The broad argument here would be that gender roles are
deliberately distorted to reinforce sexist attitudes that have
no relationship with the way most people live (Courtney &
Whittle, 1974; Howitt, 1982).

Transitional
phrase
By contrast, a bottom up view emphasises more inter-
action between media and people. In particular, it would
argue that people are not passive recipients who lack the
capacity to interpret the world for themselves (Windschuttle,
in Jagtenberg & DAlton, 1989, p 91). In fact, commentators
like Fisk (1987) claim that television viewers do not pas-
sively accept messages, but read meanings into what they
see according to such factors as their social group. A good
example is evidence of union activity because they know
from experience that it may be biased against them
(Carroll, 1980).
Qualitative
adjective
expressing
contrast
Transitional
phrase
Related to these interpretations is the view that tele-
vision programmes and even advertisements reflect people's
experiences far more than impose interpretations of the
world. For instance, many of the soap operas scorned as
superficial distortions of reality actually portray and explore
relevant social images and issues. Cunninghams analysis
of Prisoner (in Tulloch & Turner, 1989) focuses on the
way it can be seen as a representation of Australian pop-
ular cultural attitudes to authority and a source of group
identity and meaning: as in the way schoolgirls interviewed
identified with the prisoners attitude to authority.

Thinking critically

2. Text C goes beyond both A and B in that it begins to present a critical eval-
uation of the two theories. It not only places the discussion within a socio-
logical context, but the author also defends the opinion that bottom up
theories are better (more realistic and flexible). The author is engaged in
academic argument, something missing from the first two texts.
Text C
Qualitative
adjectives
and adverbs
(in bold)
expressing
the writers
evaluation
Of the two major Sociological perspectives on televisions
socialising role, the bottom up is more realistic and
flexible than the top down. Certainly, the top down per-
spectives are right to raise debate about the manipulative
capacity of television as a vehicle for reinforcing attitudes
which favour powerful vested interests. For example, there
is no doubt that many advertisements promote gender roles
that dont portray the way people really are but do pressure
and influence people to support the idealised roles (Courtney
& Whittle, 1974; Howitt, 1982). The result is that images
and attitudes are often created by television to exploit
people. However, to then make the blanket claim that
viewers are passive and mindless and that all television
does in dictate to them what they should think is elitist
(Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & DAlton, 1989) and distorts
the fact that social reality does not neatly fit ideological
patterns. For example, bottom up theorists show that
viewers often read their own meanings into what they see
and hear and critically examine it from their own social
perspectives (Fisk, 1987). Thus, trade unionists sceptical
attitudes to media coverage of union activity are based on
previous experience of biased media reports (Carrol, 1980).
Refutation
structure:
top down
theories

+ positive
aspect

- overall
problem
(outweighs
positive)
Qualitative
adjectives
and adverbs
(in bold)
expressing
the writers
evaluation
Not only is it simplistic to argue that people always believe
whatever television portrays. Television and even advertise-
ments reflect peoples experience far more than impose
interpretations of the world. For instance, many soap
operas do portray and explore images and issues that are
relevant and controversial in the lives of most viewers.
Cunninghams view of Prisoner (in Tulloch & Turner,
1989) illustrates this well.

Chapter 5
Reading and note making


Introduction
Reading
Reading plays an important role at university, mainly because learning becomes
more student-centred at this level. This means that teachers cease to be the only
source, or even the major source of information for students.
Lectures and tutorials do supply you with vital information, but this information is
more like a set of guidelines about the approach you need to take in acquiring
knowledge in a particular subject. To get a broader outlook, you need to use this
information as a springboard and search for more knowledge in the same area.
Reading is one of the important ways of bridging the gap between knowledge
acquired at lectures/tutorials and the vast amount of knowledge that still needs to
be explored.
Note making
In university studies, note making is closely linked with reading and plays an
important role too. This is mostly because note making enhances reading in many
ways:
It helps you concentrate on what you are reading and stops your mind from
wandering.
It helps you understand better as well as evaluate the information you are
reading.
It helps you store information you acquire for future use.
It helps you form links between the information you have read and the
knowledge you have already acquired through other means.
It helps you gather information from different sources and put it together to
get a broader perspective and to draw your own conclusions.

This chapter will introduce you to some strategies to make your reading more
effective and some methods for note taking to help you keep track of the reading
youve done. When you finish working through this chapter, you will be able to:
Employ strategies that are appropriate to your reading purpose
Explain what it means to read critically and use this skill in your own
course work
Make a reading plan for a particular assignment or course
Identify different methods of making notes from your reading texts
Choose a note taking style that fits your study habits.
Reading
During your university studies, you will be expected to read for a variety of reasons:
Lectures: Pre-reading material before lectures makes them
more relevant.
Tutorials: Tutorials are often based on a set of readings. If you
havent read the material, you cant participate in the
discussion.
Assignments: The majority of your assignments will require
research that will involve a great deal of reading.
Your lecturers expect you to become familiar with your subject and you need to
build a bank of knowledge that you can dip into when you need to discuss or write
about any issue from that area. Therefore, to become knowledgeable in your
subject area, you will need to read a great deal from a variety of sources
(academic journal articles, books, etc.).
Some of these sources will be provided to you in the form of unit readers (a
collection of photocopied academic articles or chapters that usually includes all
those listed in the weekly tutorial reading schedule of the unit outline) purchased
from the campus bookstore as reading packs, and lists of essential texts or
suggested further reading in the unit outline that you will find in the library or on
the Internet.

Activity 5.1: Thinking about reading
Think about the reading you have done before you came to university, and
answer the following questions:
1. What do you read apart from your university studies?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Why do you read these texts?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. How do you think your reading at university is similar to what you read
personally? How is it different?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. What strategies do you use for reading difficult texts?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. What do you think makes a good text?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Reading effectively
Reading at university is quite different from any other reading as it has different
purposes and requires different reading techniques. The purpose of university
reading is to gain an understanding of your topic that you can show in your
assignments. To do this, you will have to complete a large amount of reading in a
limited amount of time. Therefore, it is important that you become an effective
reader.
An effective reader is one who:
can locate information relevant to the task
is not distracted by interesting and irrelevant information
can distinguish between main points and minor points
can take clear, concise notes.
In other words, at university you have to be:
a selective reader
an active reader
a critical reader
Selective reading
When you read selectively, you separate reading material that is not essential to
your purpose from what is important and relevant. To do this you will need to
identify why you are reading and what kind of information you hope to come away
with from your source.
Two strategies that can help you to identify relevant information effectively, gain
an understanding of the purposes and structures of texts, and locate and
distinguish between main ideas and minor ideas are skimming and scanning.
Skimming means glancing through a text such as a book to decide
whether it is relevant for your purpose or not. It is not necessary to read
every word.
Scanning means reading with the purpose of locating specific information
or a relevant chapter/section in a book or journal article.
(These two useful strategies will be explored later in the chapter.)

Active reading
When you read actively, you engage with the text or become an active participant
in the reading process. Taking notes, underlining and highlighting are good ways
to keep you active and focused. This involves:
underlining key words,
writing comments in the margins
making notes of points you find important.
writing a question for each paragraph or for each set of paragraphs that
make up a section of the text. The answer to the question will sum up the
main idea of the section.
summarising in your own words key sections of the text.
Critical reading
Being critical does not mean criticising for the sake of being argumentative. It
means understanding how the author arrived at the ideas in the text, and then
evaluating these ideas for their strengths and weaknesses. Consider the following
statement:
Coal is currently Australias major export.
A reader could interpret this statement in many ways including:
a. In the recent past Australias major export was something else
b. As a non-renewable resource, coal supplies will eventually be exhausted.
Some of the main features of critical reading include:
Recognising the writers purpose
Recognising the writers assumptions and underlying values (social,
cultural and historical influences)
Recognising patterns of argument
Linking ideas in the text to other ideas and texts
Understanding how language choices reflect values and indicate power
relations. (Is the language that of a psychologist? A feminist? Is the writer
intimidating the reader by using obscure words or jargon? Is the writer
persuading you with emotionally charged words, such as democracy,
moral, humanitarian, for the future of the world, forbid, should?)

Recognising how the text positions the reader. (Is the reader being
addressed as an academic colleague or as a prospective teacher, nurse,
pilot, accountant, or a layperson? Does the writer want the reader to agree
or does the writer invite debate?)
Exploring alternatives to the stated idea
Recognising the assumptions and underlying values that you bring to your
reading.
Thinking critically overall (not just while youre reading) is a very important skill
you will need for your university studies; you can find out more about it in Chapter
4: Thinking critically.
Reading for understanding
Reading (in the same way as writing) involves a process. You can break this
process down into three stages:
Pre-reading
Reading
Post-reading
Stage 1: Pre-readi ng strategies
The purpose of pre-reading is to become familiar with the text you are about to
read. You do this by getting as much general information about the text as
possible. This is similar to what you do when you have to familiarise yourself with
a new place: you usually try to locate the important landmarks rather than taking
in every detail of the landscape.
Pre-reading can be done in three quick steps:
1. Survey
2. Skim
3. Scan
Survey
You survey a text by looking for particular information like:
the title
author (name, qualifications, etc.)
publication details (publisher, date, place of publication, etc.).

For a book, you should also glance through the preface, introduction, and the
content and index pages. For an article, take a quick look at the synopsis and/or
abstract; if these arent presented in the article, look over the first and last paragraph.
This kind of survey gives you a very general idea about the text you are going to
read and anticipate some of the information presented in the text.
Activity 5.2: Practising pre-reading strategies
Choose a text from your reader and quickly answer the following questions:
1. What is the title of the text? What kind of clues does the title give you
about the authors position on the subject?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Who is the author of the text? What kind of qualifications do they have that
give their opinion weight? What can you predict about their position on the
subject based on their qualifications or professional associations?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Who published the text? Is the publisher associated with a particular group
or organisation that you are familiar with? What kind of clues about the text
can this association give you?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. When was the text published? Is the information you need the kind that
dates quickly, or will an older text still be useful to you?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Skim
Skimming a text focuses on the general information you have acquired about the
text and leaves you with a good idea about what information is important and
where you can find it. In fact, it provides you with an outline similar to what the
writer may have had when writing up the information as well as a set of questions
about the information you need to get from the text.
You can skim a book by reading:
chapter headings and sub-headings
chapter introductions and summaries
information given special attention by different typeface, different colour
print, boxes, etc.
graphics (graphs, charts, diagrams, illustrations, etc.) and their captions.
You can skim an article by reading:
headings and sub-headings
first and last paragraphs
highlighted information (see above)
graphics and their captions.
Scan
Scanning a text helps you to identify the sections that are important for your
purpose
The table below shows some reasons you may need to read a text, and the kinds
of information that you should be seeking when you scan:
Purpose Information needed
Write a summary Detailed information about text structure:
how major facts and arguments are organised
controlling idea or thesis and how it is supported by facts
and arguments
conclusions drawn after main arguments are presented
Write an essay General awareness of the text structure so you can:
locate information relevant for your assignment
place this information within a broader frame
Studying for an exam Specific sections than contain answers to a set of anticipated
exam questions
Figure 24: Information needed for different assignment types

Activity 5.3: Determining the information needed for an assignment
Look at the three major assignments in the sample unit outline provided in
Chapter 2. For each assignment, fill in the table below by describing the purpose
(i.e., what are you being asked to do?) in the left-hand column and then the kind
of information you will need to get from your reading to complete the assignment
in the right-hand column.

Figure 25: Analysis of assignments
Stage 2: Reading strategies
Once you have completed your pre-reading activities, you can move into the
second of the three parts of the process: reading. In this part, you should be
practising intensive reading, which means you read carefully and critically.
Steps for intensive reading
You should be prepared to read through the sections you have identified as
important during your pre-reading at least twice.
First reading
The first time you read through a text, do not take notes. Instead, you should:
try to determine the authors main thesis
compare diagrams and illustrations with the written text. Often they can
help you understand the text better
make sure you understand what you are reading. Reduce your reading
speed for difficult passages.
Look up difficult words in a dictionary or glossary of terms. Dictionaries of
technical terms and theoretical concepts are available for many fields of

study (e.g., dictionaries of sociological terminology). If the meaning of a
word or passage still evades you, leave it and read on. After more reading
you may find the meaning becomes clear. Consult with your classmates or
speak to your tutor if your difficulty continues. (For more information about
dealing with difficult vocabulary, see the Vocabulary section on page 14.)
Question the authors reasoning: is each point justified? Is there enough
evidence? Where is it?
(Adapted from the Learning Centres Reading to Remember handout.)
Second reading
During this reading, you should begin to take notes (for specific strategies on note
making, see the next section of this chapter). Some general suggestions:
Note down the main idea(s) of each paragraph. This is often the first or last
sentence.
Look for important details (supporting evidence, explanations of important
points, etc.).
Take notes from the text, but write information in your own words.
In your notes underline or highlight the important points.
Identifying main ideas
It is very easy to lose your way when reading academic texts. The words and
sentences are often long and complex and the information may be very abstract.
Whats more, the ideas and information may be quite new to you. The trick is to
keep an eye on the main ideas that hold the text together - constantly.
The controlling idea
The first aspect of determining the main ideas is to identify and keep track of the
major ideas that control the whole text the authors basic reason for writing. This
will sometimes be only one controlling idea, but other times there will be two or
three. The writer will probably have given you some direction to these controlling
ideas in the title and introduction and by his or her use of headings which is why
it is important to skim for a preview first.
But, even if you do a good preview and are able to keep the controlling ideas in
mind, you can still lose the thread. You might find yourself asking:
Why is the author telling me this?
What has this got to do with what I read on the last page?
How does this connect with the last paragraph?
Is this an important idea that I need to grasp hold of?
Or is it something minor that I dont have to worry too much about?

These are all good questions they show you are reading actively. However if
you cant answer them you could find yourself drowning in words. And this brings
us to the second aspect of the skill.
The main ideas
As you read, you need to be able to identify the main ideas of the text the
important, big ideas that develop and support the controlling idea/ideas. And, you
need to distinguish these main ideas from the less important supporting ideas
detailed facts, interesting examples, and sidetracking. So how can you do this?
Take notice of headings and sub-headings as you read. These give you
the topics and sub-topics; they also show how the text is organised.
Pay special attention to the first sentences of paragraphs they often
contain the main ideas (see Topic sentences, Chapter 9). Sometimes, the
main idea may be only one part (or clause) of a sentence.
Look out for connecting words and phrases such as The first thing is,
Importantly, In contrast. (A list of these are in Chapter 9, Features of
academic writing.) These act like signposts that guide you through the
various ideas in the text and how they are related.
Keep asking yourself questions like those above these will keep you alert
to the main ideas as you read.
Activity 5.4: Identifying main ideas
1. Read the two paragraphs below, and aim to grasp the main idea of each.
At this stage, do not worry about the parts you dont understand. Begin
with a quick preview skim.
Sustainability and economics
Modern economic theory is usually traced to the 18
th
century, but economic
arrangements between humans are as old as are human societies. Indeed, in
simple forms, behaviours identifiable as economic exist among many non-human
species. The earliest economic arrangements among humans probably included
mutual reciprocity and specialisation. In some societies these changed into more
formal systems of barter and currency, used for trade and ceremonies. Simple
forms of credit, interest and insurance can also be traced for millennia, including
those in non-literate and non-agricultural populations.
Inequality and the exploitation of vulnerable individuals, genders, age groups and
populations by those who are more powerful is also an ancient economic trait.
The development of strongly hierarchical societies, including the holding of
slaves, may be more common in economies with comparatively abundant
resources rather than those that are purely subsistence. However, slavery and
specialisation once considered hallmarks of agriculturally based economies
existed in at least some non-agricultural economies.
(Text from Listening, Co-ordinating ideas on sustainability and health. Chapter 2 In Sustainability
and Health, by Grootjans, J., Townsend, M., Butler, C and Heyworth, J. Book of Readings,
UniStep Academic Writing, February 2006, pp. 61-62).

2. From the options listed below, choose the main idea of each paragraph.
Paragraph 1
a. Economic arrangements began in the 18
th
century.
b. Some early economic arrangements developed into more formal systems.
c. Economic arrangements are as old as human societies.
d. Early economic arrangements were very simple.
Paragraph 2
a. Slavery has been around a long time.
b. Exploitation of vulnerable people has been around a long time.
c. Slavery may have been more common in economies with abundant
resources.
d. Slavery and specialisation existed in agricultural and non-agricultural
economies.
3. Now, underline the sentences that contain the main ideas. Read those
sentences to yourself, one after the other. Do they make sense? Do they
help you to see the overall meaning of the three paragraphs?
Vocabulary
One of the most obvious barriers to understanding academic texts is the difficult
vocabulary. You will probably ask yourself why writers need to use words you've
never heard of, and whether there couldn't be a simpler way of expressing ideas.
And it's true that writers sometimes use a vocabulary that is unnecessarily
academic. Nevertheless, it is important to expand your word knowledge.
Strategies for dealing with unfamiliar vocabulary
Try to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from their context. Look at
the sentences before and after the word as well as the words in the same
sentence.
Use anything you know about related words or words with the same prefix
or word root to help you guess. For example, you might be able to work
out, given the context, that ambivalence means thinking in two ways about
something (mixed feelings), because you know that ambidextrous means
able to use both right and left hands equally, and ambiguous means a
double meaning.
Look up new words in a dictionary, but dont look up every word that is new
to you. Make a decision about how important it is to understanding the
text's meaning. By constantly looking up words, this can distract you from
the authors ideas and argument, and so making the text harder for you to

understand. Often you will work out the meaning a bit later on by an
example the author gives or a further explanation. It can be better to just
mark new words and keep reading, and then make time afterwards to look
them up.
Make your own dictionary of new words, with a few pages for each letter of
the alphabet. Write each new word in your dictionary, and a sentence
containing the word (you can copy this from the book where you read it).
Write a definition, if necessary, and perhaps a synonym (a word with a
similar meaning).
Make word cards. Write new words on the card and pin them up in your
room. Review them by seeing whether you can remember their spelling
and meaning.
Use the new words in your own writing.
Activity 5.5: Clarifying meanings of unfamiliar vocabulary
1. Read the Sustainability and Economics text again. As you read, underline
the words below.
Words from text Rough meaning
Clarify
meaning?
Dictionary meaning
reciprocity (para 1)
trait (para 2)
hierarchical (para 2)
subsistence (para 2)
hallmarks (para 2)
Figure 26: Clarifying meanings of words from text
2. Next to each word, write what you think its approximate meaning is, based
on the context and your existing knowledge of the word. Then tick those
you think you would need to clarify in order to understand the text. Now
look at the dictionary and check the precise meanings.
How close were you?

Dealing with complex sentences
It is not just the words that can make academic texts a challenge. Often it is the
sentence structure that can trip readers up. Sentences are often very long,
contain many parts (clauses and phrases), and pack in lots of information and
ideas. Most people have trouble with these kinds of sentences, so take heart,
youre not alone. And there are some strategies you can use to deal with them.
Take your time and read slowly. Read the sentence twice, three times or
as often as needed.
Read the sentence out loud. This often makes the meaning clearer.
Break up the sentence into smaller chunks of meaning.
Work out the essential parts of the sentence the subject (what or who it
is about) and the main verb (what the subject did, or how it relates to the
rest of the sentence). In the sentence, The two dogs chased the cat, the
subject is The two dogs, and the verb is chased.
Identify the main clause (the one that make sense by itself) where there is
more than one.
Read on, if you are still not sure; often the following sentence will make it
clear.
Stage 3: Post-reading strategies
After youve read through a text, there are some things you can do to help
strengthen your understanding and memory of the information youve absorbed.
Recall
By attempting to recall what youve just read, you are beginning the process of
putting the ideas of someone else into your own words. Follow these steps:
Close the book and put aside any notes you have made.
Write down what you remember from the text.
Check the accuracy of what you have written against the original material.
It may be helpful to break long texts down into more manageable sections, and
practise recalling these sections, rather than entire reading sessions.

Review
Reviewing what you have read can be helpful both at the end of your study
session and the next day.
At the end of your session, check the accuracy of your notes you made
during your reading against the original material. Remember to check the
concepts; you are not trying to reproduce the text word for word.
The next day, read through your notes again to reacquaint yourself with
the main points. Then, closing the book and your notes, try to summarise
the main points in your own words.
It will be very helpful if you can discuss what you read with a classmate or
a friend.
Reading for research
The guidelines in the previous section will apply broadly to almost any type of
reading situation you may find yourself in. Now we will look specifically at reading
you will do as part of your research for a specific writing task.
In this section, well discuss ways to help you to:
evaluate sources what you should read
make sense of reading lists how much you should read
narrow your research how to focus your reading.
Evaluating sources
Some texts are more valid or credible than others. Any sources that possess
most or all of the following features are likely to be suitable for your research:
Authority Is the writer an expert in the field? Is the writer often quoted
by others in the field? Is the source published in a reputable book or
journal (academic or professional) affiliated with a reputable institution?
Originality Does the material provide original information or only a
summary or paraphrase of previously existing information?
Objectivity Is the writer being objective or is there a slant or bias in their
approach?
Accuracy Has reliable, credible data been used that shows knowledge
of the field?
Currency Is the information current? Or is it outdated and obsolete?

Coverage Does the source cover the issue in depth or give only a
cursory treatment?
Making sense of online texts
The skills you develop in evaluating sources will be especially useful to you in the
research you do on the Internet. The World Wide Web can be a powerful research
tool; it puts thousands of useful texts at your fingertips and makes information
accessible that might have been extremely difficult, if not impossible to obtain in
the past.
A few words of warning: much of the information you will encounter online should
be approached with great caution. The very nature of the Internet makes it
possible for anyone to post inaccurate or misleading information in a way that
makes it appear credible. You will find the categories for evaluating sources
described above helpful to separate the useful, reliable information from that
which is inappropriate for your research purposes.
It is also important that you apply your critical reading skills very stringently to these
texts information that is not overtly inaccurate or misleading can still be strongly
biased or situated in a context that does not lend itself to your reading purposes.
Once you have located useful, credible online texts, youll want to utilise them as
efficiently as possible. Reading online texts requires special skills. These texts
are designed differently from more traditional sources, like books and journals,
and recognising the unique characteristics of online resources will help you make
good use of them.
In particular, many online texts make use of a linking technology that turns them
into hypertexts a series of linked sources that can carry readers seeking more
information from site to site. While these links can provide invaluable information,
they can also become a distraction. It becomes especially important to focus your
research and remain on task while you research in this environment.

Activity 5.6: Evaluating sources
Below you will find three short texts that deal with the topic of intelligence. (Text A
p. 20, Text B p. 23 and Text C p. 25.) At the beginning of each text, there is a
brief description of who author is and where the text was located.
Read each text, and then answer the following questions:
1. In this table, describe the positive and negative aspects of each text. Refer
to the features we discussed in the section above.
Positive Negative
Text A

Text B

Text C

Figure 27: Text analysis

2. Based on what you have written in the table, which text do you believe is
the most credible? The least credible? Give some reasons for your answer.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Which text(s) could you use as references in an academic writing
assignment? Give some reasons for your answer.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Text A
Text A is from the IQ Comparison website, written by Rodrigo de la Jara, located
at http://members.shaw.ca/delajara/IQBasics.html. There is no information about
the author to be found on the website, but there is a statement that the information
was updated in June of 2003. The webpage itself is a customers personal page
hosted on a server run by a company that provides Internet services to the
general public.
What is intelligence?
There has been much professional quibbling about this. But the definition I
like is simply that intelligence is the ability to learn. I have heard some
people misuse the word smart to mean knowledgeable. That is like confusing
velocity with distance. That one can lead to the other does not mean that
they are the same thing.
I.Q. = Intelligence Quotient
Originally, "IQ" tests were created to be able to identify children who might
need special education due to their retarded mental development (1).
Binet's test included varied questions and tasks. The tasks even included
unwrapping a piece of candy and comparing the weights of different
objects (4)!
To relate the mental development of a child to the child's chronological age
the IQ was invented. IQ = (MA/CA) * 100. The intelligence quotient was
equal to 100 times the Mental Age divided by the Chronological Age. For
example, if a certain child started reading, etc., at the age of 3 (CA) and
average children start reading, etc., at the age of 6 (MA), the child would

get an IQ score of 200. (Such a score is very, very rare). Since people
wanted to also use IQs for adults, that formula was not very useful since
raw scores start to level off around the age of16 (2).
Thus the deviation IQ replaced the ratio IQ. It compares people of the
same age or age category and assumes that IQ is normally distributed,
that the average (mean) is 100 and that the standard deviation is
something like 15 (IQ tests sometimes differ in their standard deviations).
What is a standard deviation (SD)? Simply put, the standard deviation is a
measure of the spread of the sample from the mean. As a rule of thumb,
about 2/3 of a sample is within 1 standard deviation from the mean. About
95% of the sample will be within 2 standard deviations from the mean (3).
With the standard deviation and a mean, you can calculate percentiles.
Percentiles tell you the percent of people that have a score equal to or
lower than a certain score.
High IQ societies ask for certain percentile scores on IQ tests for you to be
eligible to join them. Mensa asks for scores at the 98th percentile or higher.
There have been various classification systems for IQ.
Terman's classification was (6):
IQ Range Classification
140 and over Genius or near genius
120-140 Very superior intelligence
110-120 Superior intelligence
90-110 Normal or average intelligence
80-90 Dullness
70-80 Borderline deficiency
Below 70 Definite feeble-mindedness
(Terman wrote the Stanford-Binet test (1), which has a SD of 16.)

Later, Wechsler thought that it would be much more legitimate to base his
classifications on the Probable Error (PE) so his classification was (6):
Classification IQ Limits
Percent
Included
Very Superior 128 and over 2.2
Superior 120-127 6.7
Bright Normal 111-119 16.1
Average 91-110 50
Dull Normal 80-90 16.1
Borderline 66-79 6.7
Defective 65 and below 2.2
Mental deficiency used to be more finely classified using the following
technical terms that later began to be abused by the rest of society (5):
70-80
Borderline
deficiency
50-69 Moron
20-49 Imbecile
below 20 Idiot


These are now largely obsolete and mental deficiency is now generally
called mental retardation. The following is the currently used classification
of retardation in the USA (5):
50-69 Mild
35-49 Moderate
20-34 Severe
below 20 Profound
Moreover, "educable mentally retarded" is roughly equivalent to mild
mental retardation, and "trainable" mentally retarded is roughly equivalent
to moderate (5). The DSM now requires an assessment of a person's
adaptive functioning as an additional criterion for labeling someone
retarded. IQ is not enough. Maybe the same sort of thing should be done
for labelling somebody a genius.
References
(1) Berk, L.E. (1997). Child Development. (4th ed.). Toronto: Allyn & Bacon.
(2) Eysenck, H. (1994). Test Your IQ. Toronto: Penguin Books.
(3) Iman, R.L. (1994). A Data Based Approach to Statistics. Belmont:
Duxbury Press.
(4) Nietzel, M.T., Berstein, D.A., & Milich R. (1998). Introduction to Clinical
Psychology. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
(5) Reber, A.S. (1995). The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology (2nd ed.).
Toronto: Penguin Books.
(6) Wechsler, D. (1944). The Measurement of Adult Intelligence. Baltimore:
The Williams & Wilkins Company.

Text B
Text B is an excerpt from a language-teaching textbook. The author, H. Douglas
Brown, is a professor at San Francisco State University and has taught English
as a second/foreign language for over three decades.
New Views on Intelligence
Intelligence was once viewed strictly as the ability to perform (a) linguistic
and (b) logical-mathematical problem solving. This IQ concept of
intelligence permeated the Western world and its way of testing for almost
a century. Since smartness in general is measured by timed, discrete-
point tests consisting of many little items, then why shouldnt every field of
study be so measured? Today we live in a world of standardized, norm-
referenced tests that are timed, multiple-choice, tricky, long, and artificial.
Research on intelligence by psychologists like Howard Gardner and
Robert Sternberg turned the psychometric world upside down. Gardner
(1983) extended the traditional conceptualizations of intelligence on which
standardized IQ tests are based to five other frames of mind to round
out his theory of intelligence:
1. linguistic intelligence
2. logical-mathematical intelligence
3. spatial intelligence (the ability to find your way around an environment,
to form mental images of reality)
4. musical intelligence (the ability to perceive and create pitch and
rhythmic patterns)
5. bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence (fine motor movement, athletic powers)
6. interpersonal intelligence (the ability to understand others, how they
feel, and to interact effectively with them)
7. intrapersonal intelligence (the ability to understand oneself and to
develop a sense of self-identity).
Robert Sternberg (1988) also charted new territory in intelligence research
in recognizing peoples creative thinking and manipulative strategies as
part of intelligence. All smart people arent necessarily adept at fast,
reactive thinking. They may be very innovative in being able to think beyond
normal limits imposed by existing tests, and may need a good deal of
processing time to enact this creativity. And other forms of smartness are
found in those who know how to manipulate their environment, especially
other people. Debaters, politicians, successful salespersons, smooth
talkers, and con artists are all smart in their own manipulative way.

These new conceptualizations of intelligence infused the decade of the
1990s with a sense of both freedom and responsibility in our testing
agenda. We were freed from exclusive reliance on timed, discrete-point
analytical tests in measuring language. We were liberated from the tyranny
of objectivity and its accompanying impersonalness. But we also
assumed the responsibility for tapping into whole language skills, learning
processes, and the ability to negotiate meaning. Our challenge was to test
interpersonal, creative, communicative, interactive skills, and in doing so,
to place some trust in our subjectivity, our intuition.
Brown, H. (2001). Teaching by principles: an interactive approach to
language pedagogy. (2
nd
ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman.
Text C
This article is from Time magazine, a popular weekly news periodical established
in the United States. The author, Rebecca Winters, is a frequent contributor to the
magazine.
Testing that je ne sais quois
Psychologist Robert Sternberg's first field study in intelligence took place in
grade school, when poor scores on IQ tests convinced him he was a "dum-
dum." Largely thanks to an exceptional fourth-grade teacher, Sternberg
managed to shed his self-doubt, improve his grades and go on to attend
Yale University, but he never shook the sense that traditional tests are
missing something. "You don't get to the top in life just on your IQ points or
your SAT score," says Sternberg, now a professor at Yale and president of
the American Psychological Association (APA). "You have to psych out the
system. How do you measure that skill?"
For three years, Sternberg has been working on a new test to augment the
SAT, one that asks students to write captions for New Yorker cartoons,
dictate stories into tape recorders and persuade friends to help haul a
bulky mattress up a flight of stairs. These unorthodox tasks are designed
to measure the creative and practical skills that Sternberg says are crucial
to success in college and in life but are ignored by the typical pencil-and-
paper exam. If Sternberg succeeds in quantifying these types of intelligence
- and linking them to concrete accomplishments - his efforts may change
forever the way colleges pick their students.
About 800 freshmen at 13 colleges took a trial version of the test, called
the Rainbow Project, in 2001. Teams of judges scored the creative portions
for humour and originality. The raters graded the practical sections on the
basis of conformity to social norms. The more closely students' responses
matched the average test taker's, the higher their scores.
Those who took the test in its early phase were volunteers rather than a
random sample of undergraduates. But the preliminary results, which
Sternberg presented in August at an APA conference, were dramatic. The
Rainbow Project was nearly twice as successful at predicting students'

first-year college GPAs as their SAT scores had been. The College Board,
which produces the SATs, is funding Sternberg's research because the
ability to predict college performance from a test-any test-hasn't improved
much in 50 years, says Wayne Camara, the board's vice president of
research.
Another impetus for the board to explore alternative tests is the persistence
of gaps in SAT scores between racial and ethnic groups. Here, too, the
Rainbow Project shows some promise. On the practical-intelligence portions
of the test (the part in which students persuade friends to haul the mattress),
there were no differences in scores between groups. On the creative
portions, the differences were considerably smaller than they are on the
SAT. And in some sections, groups that traditionally fare poorly on stan-
dardized tests thrived. Native Americans did especially well on the oral part.
In the next trial phase, Sternberg will expand his study to 5,000 to 10,000
students, who will take the test next spring and fall. These students will be
followed for four years and will be scrutinized more closely than the first
group was. In addition to GPAs, Sternberg will look at how well the
students adapt to college socially and whether or not they graduate.
Widespread adoption of the test-a possibility several years and hundreds
of thousands of research dollars away-would create some new dilemmas.
For the time being, students know that their answers to quirky questions-
like how to handle gossipy co-workers-don't matter. But if in the future the
answers affect their college admissions, test subjects may be tempted to
bluff-a problem that employer-administered personality tests have. "You
can't fake solving a math problem," says Linda Gottfredson, a professor of
education at the University of Delaware. "You can fake conscientiousness."
For now, however, Sternberg's task is to persuade more colleges to take
his offbeat exam seriously. In other words, he's got to prove he can psych
out the system.
Winters, R. (2003). Testing that je ne sais quoi. Time. 162, 53.
Making sense of reading lists
For most writing tasks, usually you will be given a list of references. There are
many variations as to what this list represents:
It could be a short list with only one or two references that are the only
readings you are expected to do for this topic.
The same short list could be the most important readings you should do,
and is therefore considered the minimum amount of reading required, but
you are expected to find other relevant references yourself.
It could be a long list with 10 or 20 references and you are expected to find
and read all of them, and perhaps even more.

It could be the same long list, but you are expected to find only a few of the
references.
You might even be given no reference list, and the main purpose of the assignment
is for you to find appropriate and relevant references for yourself.
Such variations occur for all sorts of reasons, including what the purpose of the
task is, how much independent research you are expected to do in your course,
and how available reference materials on the topic are. Because the breadth of
research required for a task is so variable, it is important that you clarify this early
in your preparation.
For some students, the problem is that they read too much for the task. Ideally,
you could never read too much as long as what you are reading is helping you to
learn. However, when you have many deadlines to meet for all your units, it is
essential to recognise when you have reached a point where you have carried out
enough research for each task and to allow enough time for preparing your answer
or solution. You might find, as you really get into your topic, that you become so
totally involved in reading that you almost run out of time to start writing. If this
happens to you, it might be that you are not focusing on the task sufficiently, and
developing an on-going plan for your writing whilst you are reading.
Narrowing your research
As well as making sure that your research is broad enough for the task, it is also
important to make sure you focus your reading clearly on the topic and question
you are answering. You should be constantly coming back to your question or
problem, to work out how what you are reading is relevant to this problem. This
means not just looking at the topic (what is it about?), but also looking at the
problem to be solved (so what?).
When you read on the topic, you are discovering someone else's knowledge
about the topic. When you write on the topic, if you simply present this knowledge
in the same form as you found it in your reading (knowledge telling), then your
lecturers can only assume that you haven't developed your own understanding of
the knowledge. So it is important to work out exactly what the problem is that you
have been set, so that you can work out how much you are expected to
'transform' (reshape and reinterpret) the knowledge (knowledge transforming).

These are some simple examples of different academic writing tasks,
approximately in order of how much transformation of knowledge is required:
Summarise an article Presenting the same
knowledge as in the article
but in a condensed form
KNOWLEDGE
TELLING
Explain a theory or concept Presenting the same
knowledge but from the
perspective of making it
clear to someone else

Compare two or more different
theories explaining the same
phenomenon
Presenting your
interpretation and
evaluation

Present a set of
recommendations
Adding new knowledge
based on previous
knowledge
KNOWLEDGE
TRANSFORMING
Figure 28: Examples of different writing tasks from basic knowledge telling tasks to more
complex knowledge transforming tasks
When you analyse a question or task, be careful not to just look at 'key' words
and 'instruction' words, because these might not tell you enough. You should also
be thinking about the meaning of the question in terms of the relationships
between the words, and the amount of knowledge-transforming that you are
being asked to perform.
For example, if you were asked in a basic science course 'Explain the function of
the heart' you would be engaging much more in knowledge-telling; whereas if you
were asked to "Explain the implications of socio-economic status on physical
health" you would be engaged much more in knowledge-transforming because
there are so many possible interpretations and perspectives.

Note making
As weve mentioned before, reading and note making go hand-in-hand a university
study. Clear, concise notes become a record of the information you acquired during
your reading and allow you to integrate that information into your own writing.
Strategies for note making
Your purpose in making notes is to record the most relevant and most important
details from your reading in an abbreviated format. Because you are aiming for
understanding, these notes should be in your own words as much as possible.
The following strategies can help you make notes that will be useful to you when
you return to the information. Remember, you may not always be able to obtain
copies of the material you use to make your notes. Therefore, your notes must be
clear enough so that you can make sense of them when you have not seen the
source material for some time.
Be organised
Include all
bibliographical
details
Always include complete details about the authors name, the
title of the text, the year and place of publication and (for a
chapter or article) page numbers.
Use a system It is useful to be able to distinguish between your notes from
the text and your own ideas. For example, you could use
different coloured pens, draw boxes around your thoughts, or
use a three-column system (see below).
Identify quotes It is imperative that you always identify when you have copied
directly from the text. Use quotation marks and note the page
number. Similarly, if you are paraphrasing, you need to
distinguish this from your own thoughts.
Leave space Leave space in your notes, and a wide margin, so that you
can add new information and ideas later. (This is much
quicker than rewriting your notes to incorporate new
information.)
Be selective
Identify your
purpose
Why are you making these notes? Are you reading for
general understanding or to locate specific information for an
assignment?
Identify
important
points
Highlight main points or arguments in your notes to organise
the information in a logical sequence.

Be clear
Take easily-
read notes
Write clearly, neatly, and in language you can understand so
that you can easily re-read and recall the ideas.
Use your brain Put your pen down before you start making notes and
compose them in your head (so you wont be tempted to
merely copy information).
Keep one set
of notes
Aim to have just one set of notes. Visual familiarity will make it
easier to find information later, and to recall information during
an exam. Shuffling between different sets of notes can be
very time consuming and frustrating.
Be concise Use symbols and abbreviations whenever possible.

Some common abbreviations and symbols
Common abbreviations Common symbols
e.g. for example & / + and
i.e. that is, that means + plus, in addition to
etc. and the rest > greater/more
NB important, take note < smaller/less
p./pp. page/pages = is the same as/equal to
ch. chapter is not the same as/equal to
edn. edition therefore
c. (or ca.) circa, approximately

because
wd(s) word(s) @ at
govt. government / per (20 km/hour)
imp. important paragraph
ex. example leads to/results in
re: regarding, about
rises, increases by
vs. versus
falls, decreases by
c.f. compare both ways, mutual
incl. including change
excl. excluding
no. number
usu. usually
amt. amount
Figure 29a & 6b: Common symbols and abbreviations used in note making

Methods of note making
There is no one best method that works for everyone when it comes to making
notes. The key is to find a way that works for you and takes into consideration the
reasons you are making the notes. In this section, we will look at three possible
methods of note making:
Three column notes
Chunking
Mind maps
Three-column notes
Instead of filling each page with notes, you might find that organising your notes
in columns helps you both in note making and in using your notes later. Here is
an example of a three-column system for recording notes from multiple sources.
Source
(Where?)
Notes
(What?)
Comments
(So what?)
Including author,
title, page nos. of
quotations, etc.
Including select quotations
and paraphrasing of key
points. Use quotation marks
for all direct quotations.
Including things you dont
understand, things you disagree
with, the names of authors who have
written something similar or different.
These should be your ideas,
recognising links in the text to your
assignments or lecture/tutorial topics.
Figure 30: Three-column note making system
Figure 8 (on following page) shows you an example of notes made using the
three-column system, based on the example essay question below.
It is crucial that managers in charge of venues that serve food consider
issues surrounding the effects of passive smoking. Critically discuss.


Source Notes Comments
Zussman (1970)
p. 1
Tobacco smoke is an allergen.
Study used skin sensitivity to
tobacco leaf.
Is skin sensitivity to tobacco
leaf the same as allergy to
smoke? I need to find more
evidence on this.

McDougall and Gleich (1976) Study found no conclusive
evidence that tobacco smoke is
an allergen.

Salvaggio et al (1981) No evidence of allergy, but did
find that sensitivities may be due
to psychological factors.

Even if it is an imagined
discomfort rather than real,
customers will still avoid smoky
places loss of business for
managers.
National Health and Medical
Research Council
p. 1
Possible that there may be
some groups at higher risk than
general population.
May be people with asthma or
employees who work in smoky
places for long periods of time
legal action?

Taylor (1974)
p. 2
Questions Zussman study
allergy to leaf extract not the
same as allergy to smoke.

Critical comment on Zussman.
Peterson (2000)
p. 4
20% of Australian population
smoke.
More like 50% in some public
places like coffee shops and
bars.
Figure 31: Example three-column note making system
Your three-column notes can then be extended to creating a paragraph. To
illustrate this, Figure 9 (on following page) presents an example of three-column
notes on the notion that passive smoking may cause allergic reaction.
This system shows how a paragraph can be developed from the notes.

Example of a student's note making:

Figure 9: Three-column notes with example paragraph
(Adapted from Web, C & Drury, H 1995, Independent Learning Resources: Essay Module.)

Chunking
Chunking is a useful way of making notes whereby your notes are organised
under themes relating to the assignment task. This can be done as a second
stage of note making from your original notes or, particularly as you can gain
confidence and skills, as your initial note making process. Chunking helps to
streamline the note making process so that when you come to writing your
assignment you have already begun to engage in the process of critical thinking
through analysing and categorising. By developing themes you are both actively
engaging with the readings and beginning to form the basis of your assignment.
As an example, lets consider the same topic and sources as in the three-column
note example:
As you read, you might begin to recognise that there are different aspects to the
question that can be organised into separate themes. For example, points relating
to tobacco smoke as an allergen, or in contrast, conflicting research results about
this point, could be noted on different pages under the relevant thematic headings.
(The three-column approach could then be used under each of these headings).
It is also helpful to have a page of miscellaneous quotes/paraphrases that you
have not yet categorised and a page for noting your ideas, connections, tentative
links etc.

Smoke as an
allergen

Conflicting
research results
Who is affected

Miscellaneous My Thoughts

Figure 10: Example of " chunking" and " three-column note making" using separate pages

Mind maps
A mind map, or branching diagram, shows the relationships between ideas. Mind
maps can be used to brainstorm ideas before reading (as shown in Chapter 3:
Understanding the task) or to show the issues that are discussed in a reading.
One type of mind map focuses on facts, as in the example in Figure 11 (on the
following page).


text books

journals
library class
readings

databases

internet

time
management

research

motivations

skimming

reading

Study
Skills

attitude goals
close reading critical
reading
coping with
stress

writing

planning
re-
drafting

drafting
Figure 11: Sample mind map focussing on facts
Another type of mind map (see below) encourages you to read texts more critically.
Rather than linking together ideas found in the text, this map helps you formulate
questions that will guide your reading and note making throughout your research.
Why is this
issue
important?

What do the
key words
mean?
What are the
main
theories?

How has this
issue changed?

Who are the
main writers?
What is my
opinion/
position?

ISSUE
What is the
history of this
issue?
What are the
implications for
the future?

What are the
problems?

How can theories
be used to solve
these
problems?

Figure 12: Sample mind map focussing on critical thinking questions

Using quotations, paraphrases, and summaries
In academic writing, you will be expected to refer to the work of others in a variety
of ways. Sometimes, a direct quote will be the most efficient and effective way to
make your point. More often, it will be appropriate to either leave out certain
words and ideas or to put them into your own words.
As a general rule, paraphrasing is the preferred method of referring to sources; it
is a very good way to show that you have understood and can explain others
ideas and claims. Conversely, relying too heavily on direct quotations can be a
signal that you have not been able to incorporate that information into your own
knowledge base. Remember that no more than ten percent of your text should
take the form of direct quotations.
Here are some brief definitions of each of these methods of incorporating
information:
Quotation A quotation is an exact reproduction or transcription of
spoken or written words. Direct quotes can provide strong
evidence, act as an authoritative voice, or support a writers
statements.
Paraphrase A paraphrase is a way of presenting a text, retaining the
meaning, but using entirely different wording to translate
this meaning for use in the context of your writing task.
Paraphrasing is generally used with short sections of text,
such as phrases and sentences.
Summary A summary is an overview of a text. The main idea is given,
but most details, examples, and formalities are left out.
Used with longer texts, the main aim of summarising is to
reduce or condense a text to its most important ideas.
However you choose to incorporate outside information, the process will begin as
you make notes from your reading. It is a good idea to practice all three types of
references in your notes as you gather information; when it comes time to begin
writing from notes, you will then have a variety of resources to draw on.
As we will discuss in more detail in Chapter 8: Evidence and academic argument,
difficulties with using quotations, paraphrases, and summaries can sometimes
lead to plagiarism. Properly referencing all information from outside sources
during your note making can help you to avoid this problem when you begin
writing your assignment. Be certain to reference all uses of outside sources, no
matter what method of incorporating them you decide to use.

Differences between quotations, paraphrases, and summaries
There are distinct differences between quotations, paraphrasing, and summaries,
as you can see in the table below:
Quotations Paraphrases Summaries
Match the source
word for word
Do not match the
source word for word
Do not match the
original source word
for word
Are usually a brief
segment of the text
Are passages from a
source put into your
own words
Are made up
exclusively of the
main idea(s) of a
passage written in
your own words
Appear between
quotation marks
Change the words or
phrasing of a text, but
retains and fully
communicates the
original meaning
Presents a broad
overview, so is
usually much shorter
than the original text
May be longer than
the original text
Must be attributed to
the original source
the original source
(including page
number, if available)
the original source

Figure 13: Quotations, paraphrases, and summaries
(Adapted from: Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarising, UNSW Learning Centre)

Activity 5.7: Using quotations, paraphrases, and summaries
Read the following paragraph. Using the information it contains, write:
a sentence incorporating a quotation from the paragraph
a paraphrase of the paragraph
a summary of the important points in the paragraph.
The study skills needed for higher education are ultimately gained only through
studying at that level. Study skills dont hatch fully formed, any more than a
grown hen pops from an egg. They evolve and mature through practice, trial
and error, feedback from others, and reflection as you move through the dif-
ferent stages of your course. You will be surprised at how your thinking and
language skills develop simply through continued study.
(From Cottrell, S. (1999). The Study Skills Handbook. London: Macmillan, p.1.).
Quotation: ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Paraphrase: ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Summary: ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

In conclusion
During your university studies, you will have to do more reading than you may
have ever done before. The texts will probably be more difficult and require a
higher level of concentration to interpret.
Smart readers employ a variety of strategies to help them digest large amounts of
information. They evaluate their texts and read them critically, while recording the
most important points in their notes.
Thus, strong note making skills support academic reading. Well-constructed
notes, written using organised strategies, are an essential part of the research
that underpins the academic writing process. In Chapter 6, The academic essay
and Chapter 7, Other academic genres, you will learn more about how academic
writing makes use of the information generated from your reading and note making.

Activity 5.1: Thinking about reading
Answers will vary.
Activity 5.2: Practising pre-reading strategies
Answers will vary.
Activity 5.3: Determining the information needed for an assignment
Write an annotated
bibliography (brief
critical evaluation of
three texts)
Information about the main arguments of the texts so that you
can:
adequately critique the authors main points
comment on the texts relevance/usefulness.
Write an essay General awareness of the text structure.
Give an oral
presentation
Specific sections or chapters you can use to support your
discussion of a specific assigned topic
Information that can be used to create visual aids and
graphics.
Activity 5.4: Identifying main ideas
2. Paragraph 1 - c; Paragraph 2 - b
3. Paragraph 1: Modern economic theory is usually traced to the 18
th
century,
but economic arrangements between humans are as old as are human
societies. Indeed, in simple forms, behaviours identifiable as economic
exist among many non-human species.
Paragraph 2: Inequality and the exploitation of vulnerable individuals,
genders, age groups and populations by those who are more powerful is
also an ancient economic trait.
Activity 5.5: Clarifying meanings of unfamiliar vocabulary
Answers will vary.

Activity 5.6: Evaluating sources
1. These are not the only correct answers you may have others.
Positive Negative
Text A Author has provided references for
his sources (accuracy).

No way to determine the credibility of
the author could be anybody (lack of
authority).
Puts forward opinions and arguments
that are not necessarily supported by
his sources (lack of objectivity).
Sources are general dictionaries,
introductory textbooks and they have
been used very descriptively (lack of
originality).
Text B Author is an expert in his field
(authority).
Publisher well-respected publisher of
educational and theoretical texts
(authority).
Well-written, logical description of
various theories of IQ embedded in
larger work devoted to learning and
teaching (coverage).

Text C Article is timely; provides real-world
examples of topics relevance
(currency).
Popular periodicals are often not
considered to be as scholarly a
resource as peer-reviewed journals
(lack of authority).
2. Most credible source: Text B Brown, H.D. Author is an acknowledged
expert in his field, the writing style is formal and academic, and the text is
relevant to the topic.
Least credible source: Text A de la Jara, R. Nothing is known about the
author, and although the text is referenced, it would not be accepted as an
academic source.
3. Text B is the most useful as an academic source. It is written by an expert
in the field in an appropriate academic style, and is timely and relevant.
Text C could potentially be used as a source, depending on the type of
assignment (for example, if you were writing a reflective journal, or giving a
presentation about current discussion of intelligence in the media).

Activity 5.7: Using quotations, paraphrases and summaries
The following answers are suggestions you may have come up with different
but equally correct answers.
Quotation: Students must practice if they want to develop their skills. According
to Cottrell (1999), Study skills dont hatch fully formed, any more
than a grown hen pops from an egg. (p.1)
Paraphrase: Students develop tertiary study skills through the act of university
study. These skills are the product of continued practice and
participation in many aspects of their university courses; they will not
appear overnight (Cottrel 1999).
Summary: Cottrel (1999) believes that sustained participation in university
courses is one of the best ways for students to develop the
necessary skills for higher education.

Chapter 6
The academic essay

The academic essay


Introduction
In Chapter 2, Managing your writing, we looked at some of the reasons that you
may be asked to produce written work at university.
In Chapters 6 and 7, we will look closely at some of the different types of writing
(or genres) that you will use to meet those expectations. Specifically, those types
will include:
essays
research reports
critical reviews
annotated bibliographies
reflective journals
Chapter 6 will focus on the academic essay, while Chapter 7 will look at the other
genres listed above.
In this chapter, we will look closely at each part of an essay and you will learn
techniques to help you organise your own essay assignment.
When you have finished working through these chapters, you will be able to:
Recognise the genre of various academic texts
Identify the purpose of a writing assignment and choose the appropriate
genre to fulfil the task
Recognise and reproduce the structure of an academic essay
Analyse an academic essay.
The academic essay

Recognising the structure of texts
You are already familiar with many different types of texts; you can recognise
these types or genres from the familiar structure or sequence of stages through
which information and ideas are communicated in texts.
For example, a recipe is a type of text that contains the name of a dish, a list of
ingredients, and instructions on how to create the dish. It might also contain a
picture of the finished dish, and a comment on how it should taste.
Another example of a familiar text genre is a story or narrative. A typical story
introduces key characters and the setting for the story. It describes events that
lead to complications (or a series of complications), and finishes by resolving
these complications.
Academic texts also have predictable structures. You probably already know that
essays begin with an introduction, that they have a body in which the topic and
argument of the essay is developed, and a conclusion. You may also be familiar
with academic reports. A typical report structure consists of an introduction to the
problem or issue, an explanation of the reports aims, a description of how the
activity reported on was carried out, an analysis of the results of the activity, and
recommendations about future actions.
Structure and purpose of academic texts
Like all text genres, the structure of academic texts is closely related to their
purpose. Because most essays aim to persuade a reader, they present claims
and supporting evidence that will convince the reader of the credibility of the
claims. Because a critical review aims to evaluate a text, it needs to summarise
the text briefly as well as discussing the strengths, weaknesses and relevance of
the text. The principle of structure being related to purpose can be applied to
other academic text-types, such as scientific reports, work reports, case studies,
reflective journals and seminar presentations.
The following table compares the purposes and corresponding structures of the
major academic text-types that we will discuss in these two chapters.
The academic essay

TEXT-TYPE (GENRE)
Argument essay Research report,
Case study
Critical review,
Annotated
bibliography
Reflecti ve
journal
Purpose To persuade a
reader that the
writers argument
is credible
To explain what
was done to solve a
problem or to carry
out an activity
To summarise
and evaluate a
single text
(critical review)
or a group of
related texts
(annotated
bibliography)
To reflect on
personal learning
experiences
Stages in
the Text
Introduction (with
thesis and
preview)
Body (arguments
and evidence
supporting thesis)
Conclusion
(summary and
restatement of
thesis)
Reference list
Introduction
(background to
report; previous
studies of the
issue)
Aims
Method (how the
activity, project, etc.
was carried out)
Results (outcomes
of activity)
Discussion
(significance of the
activity)
Recommendations
Bibliographic
details
Purpose of the
text
Summary of
major themes
Critique
(evaluation)
Log or diary type
follows relatively
unstructured
format; most
common is
chronological
responses to
class meetings,
tutorials, and/or
readings.
More formal
journals requiring
analysis can be
organised
according to
themes and often
require comparison
of readings and
theory with your
personal
experience
Audience
(reader)
Lecturer /
assignment
marker
Manager, or
provider of funds,
or lecturer /
assignment marker
Potential reader
of the text, or
lecturer/assign-
ment marker
Yourself, or
lecturer/assign-
ment marker
Language
features
Variable, but
simple present
tense
predominates
Third person
perspective
(Brown
suggests...)
Formal language
Simple present
tense in
Introduction and
Discussion
Past tense in
Method and
Results
Third person
perspective
Formal language
Simple present
tense
Third person
perspective
(Chapter One
describes...
This book is
essential
reading...)
Formal
language
Variable, but
present tense
dominates
First person
perspective
Usually less
formal than other
genres
Figure 32: Purpose and structure of argument essays, reports and critical reviews
The academic essay

Essays, reports, critical reviews and reflective journals can vary from their basic
structure, so use these frameworks as a guide only. It is best to ask your lecturer
or tutor if they have specific expectations of the genre they are asking you to use.
It is also useful to observe the different structures of the texts that you encounter
in your studies.
Writing style
There are many characteristics of writing style that contribute to making a piece of
writing appropriate for its purpose and its reader. It's very important to write in the
appropriate style for each particular task; for example, if you are writing an essay,
it will usually be more formal, more impersonal, more technical in language, and
more abstract than if you are writing a letter to a friend.
formal informal
impersonal personal
technical non-technical
abstract concrete
So, every different task will have characteristics in the style of writing that will be
appropriate for the purpose and the reader for which you are writing.
Activity 6.1: Analysing writing styles
1. The table in Figure 2 (page 5) has two examples of different styles of
writing. Read each example paragraph and then answer these questions:
a. Which of these genres is more formal? Which is the least?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
b. Can you identify some of the features that make the style more formal?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
The academic essay

c. Which of the genres is more personal? Which is less personal? How can
you tell?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Genre Example paragraph
Essay Gender can be considered a social construction, as can be seen in
the differences in behaviour of males and females across different
ethnic groups, cultures and class schemes within the individual
cultures. The constructs that are created to define these differences
between males and females are often reinforced by cultural identity
with a particular ethnic social group and by institutional structures
such as governments, media, religions and even schools (Bilton et
al., 1996).
Reflective
journal
When I think of how gender stereotypes have shaped my experiences,
the first thing I think of is how teachers treated boys and girls when I
was at school. Things like boys, who are always getting the
interesting jobs, and girls getting to tidy things up, or clean stuff away.
When we used to do music, girls got triangles to play, but boys got
drums. Another thing that still annoys me now is that boys were
expected to be noisy and active, but girls were supposed to just sit
and watch and try to keep their clothes nice and clean. So if a girl
wanted to climb a tree or something, thered be all this disapproval,
and you had to worry about people being able to see your knickers,
because all the girls had to wear dresses.
Figure 2: Genre style examples
2. The table in Figure 3, on the following page, outlines some of the
differences in language features between academic and informal writing.
Referring to this table, give examples of the academic writing features
included in the 'Gender differences' text (page 6).
The academic essay


Academic writing Informal writing
Full word forms: cannot; will not
that is; for example
Contracted forms: cant; wont
Abbreviated forms: i.e.; e.g.
Passive voice: Gender can be
considered
Active voice: I consider gender to be
Formal language Gender can be
considered a social construction
Informal language: The way that
people treat boys and girls differently
makes boys and girls behave differently.
References: According to Bruner... Not referring to other sources
Extended noun groups: The differences
in behaviour of males and females
across different ethnic groups...
Simpler noun groups: Males and
females ...
Figure 3 Comparison of language features in academic and informal writing
Gender differences: pathological cases
In pathological cases, however, children deviate from the normal pattern of exploring
masculine and feminine behaviours and develop an inflexible, compulsive, persistent
and rigidly stereotyped pattern (Zucker, 1985). On one extreme is the distorted
super-masculinity of boys who are belligerent, destructive, interpersonally violent,
and uncontrolled and simultaneously lacking gentle and socially sensitive behaviours
(Harrington, 1970). Professional intervention is required for these exaggeratedly
hyper-masculine boys who have actually adopted a maladaptive caricature of
masculinityAlthough little research exists on female childhood gender disorders, it
is possible to identify the parallel conditions of maladaptive hyper-femininity and
hyper-masculinity in girls (Rekers & Mead1979, 1980).
Academic features Examples

The academic essay

The academic essay
Undergraduate essays are usually written as responses to topics set by the lecturer.
Essays where the student selects a topic and writes their own question may
become more common in the final (third or fourth) year and postgraduate studies.
In academic essays, you are expected to discuss or argue the issues thoroughly.
This means you need to support what you say with convincing evidence,
explanations and examples. The evidence will certainly come from your readings,
but in some essays, it might also come from your own small-scale research, or it
might draw on your own experience. It is important to be aware, when writing an
essay, that there is not a correct answer, or that your lecturer does not have a
model essay in mind against which yours will be compared. Rather, an essay is
an opportunity to present your response to the question with a thoughtful, sub-
stantiated and convincing discussion.
Essays can have a range of purposes:
Some essays are written primarily to inform. These essays tell a reader the
what, how or why of a topic. They can be called exposition essays (what)
and explanation essays (why, how).
Example: Explain the role of nursing theory in contemporary nursing practice.
Most essays are written primarily to persuade and these are generally
called argument or discussion essays. Most university essays would fall
into this class. More specifically, it is often expected that essays at university
persuade by means of discussion. In this case, the purpose in the essay is
to develop your own main argument or thesis through analysis and
evaluation of the arguments of other writers. (See Chapter 8, Evidence and
academic argument for more information on developing an argument).
Example: Outline the development of nursing as a profession. Comment
on what you see as two key developments. Discuss the directions in which
contemporary nursing practice is headed.
Lecturers set essays as assignments to enhance learning and to test what
has been learnt. Your learning is enhanced as you explore, analyse, draw
ideas together and develop a thesis convincingly. Learning is tested
because essays can indicate how well you have understood the concepts
and issues of a particular subject.
Essays are also used to assess students written communication skills.
The academic essay

Structure
The basic structural components of an essay are the introduction, body and
conclusion. The introduction is critical to making sure that the reader is clear
about the purpose and/or main argument of the essay. The body is critical
because it is the substance of the essay; it provides the reader with supporting
points and evidence that develop the main argument. The conclusion is critical to
leaving the reader in no doubt about the significance of the writer's final position.
The journey: a metaphor for writing essays
It can be useful to conceive of the essay as a journey that you, as the writer, are
taking the reader on. The introduction provides a map for the journey, indicating
clearly to the reader the reason for the journey (purpose/thesis) and the direction
of the journey (outline). The journey itself is the body of the essay. The main
aspects of the journey are highlighted by signposts such as paragraphs with topic
sentences, connective phrases, explanations and examples. This comparison is
useful because it helps you to remember that you are taking the reader on a
journey with you and therefore you need to be explicit by clearly outlining your
arguments/ideas. At the conclusion of the journey, you reflect on the purpose of
the journey and remind the reader of the main highlights. The essay is also a
journey in another sense in that you will travel through the realm of ideas and
sources to create your own unique response to the essay question.
Introduction
The introduction makes it clear to the reader what the topic under discussion is
and give an outline of the remainder of the piece of writing. A good introduction
can generally be envisaged to have the shape of a funnel. It usually begins with a
general statement(s) about the topic that provides a broad orientation. Then the
focus is narrowed to the specific unit or 'thesis statement' of the essay.
The table on the following page summarises some important information about
the introduction of an academic essay.
The academic essay


Purpose To introduce the subject matter and your claim or position.
Parts A general statement gives background information
A thesis statement outlines the writer's proposition/main
claim and plan of the essay
A linking statement that connects the general statement to
the thesis statement it can also provide a theoretical
framework for the thesis statement.
Features Answers/responds to the essay question (thesis statement)
Outlines the sequence of the stages or issues for discussion
in the body of the essay
Establishes the limits or 'scope' of the essay (i.e., what the
essay will or will not cover).
Figure 4: The introduction
An introduction cannot be finalised until you have planned your essay and you
are clear about your line of argument. A common problem for essay writers new
to university studies is that they labour over the introduction long before they
really know what they want to write. More experienced writers often leave their
introduction until last. In this way, they avoid being 'locked in' to a particular line of
argument that may later prove difficult to sustain in the essay body.
Remember, an introduction may not necessarily comprise discrete sentences in a
set order. You may find that you interweave the outline with the thesis statement
or purpose. The essay introduction below is an example of this.
Topic: Why do some humanitarian crises make the front pages while
others wait in vain for their turn in the spotlight?

The factors that affect whether the media covers a story or not
are complex and many competing forces come into play at the
international and national levels as well as at the coalface of
the editors office. These factors are aligned to the news value
of a story, which includes its impact and proximity as well as
the currency and relativity of the issue. Political and economic
forces also interplay in whether a crisis makes it to the front
pages. Humanitarian crises are subject to the vagaries of the
media and whereas the Boxing Day tsunami generated
widespread and sustained media coverage and a massive
outpouring of public generosity, the plight of the people of
Niger has generated little media or public interest. Using these
examples as well as other recent humanitarian crises, this
essay will discuss the factors that keep some stories from the
spotlight while others are forced upon the publics attention.
Orients the
reader to the
essay topic

Clarifies the
writer's pos-
ition on the
topic (thesis)

Outlines the
issues to be
explored in
the body
paragraphs
The academic essay

Activity 6.2: Analysing essay introductions
Below are some examples of essay introductions, each from a different field of
study. The characteristic parts or stages of essay introductions were presented in
Figure 4 on the previous page; the examples below have been labelled to show
how these stages combine to produce an effective introduction.
When reading the examples, note how each introduction begins with general
information that orientates the reader to the topic (general statement) and then
moves on to provide a specific indication of the essays purpose and sequence
(thesis and outline).
Introduction 1 (from Adult Education)
Topic: What are the most important factors in teaching adults?
Analysis Introduction
Background
Theoretical
framework
Thesis and
outline

To decide what the most important factors in teaching adults are, one
must have an understanding of adults and learners and the goals of
education. The work of two prominent adult educators, Malcolm
Knowles and Paulo Freire, will be explored to develop this
understanding. From this research three factors emerge that are
fundamental to teaching adults effectively: understanding their
motivation, creating an environment that is conducive to their learning,
and encouraging critical reflection.
Figure 5: Introduction 1 analysis
Introduction 2 (from Social Science Theory)
Topic: Critically assess whether Marx's theory of alienation is still relevant
to modern society.
Background
Thesis
Outline

Marx's theory of alienation originated in his analysis of the roots of the
unequal distribution of power, property and wealth in capitalist society.
Because these inequalities still exist, Marx's theory of alienation
remains highly relevant to modern society. This essay explores the idea
that workers' alienation from the products and processes of production
has resulted in alienation from their own creative human nature and, in
competition for employment, in the alienation of man from man.
The academic essay

1. Read the two introductions below and identify each stage in the same way
as the previous two examples. Then answer the questions that follow each
introduction.
Introduction 3 (from Nursing)
Topic: Identify and discuss the most serious occupational hazards of nurses.
While patient safety has long been a nursing priority, only recently has
the occupational safety of nurses received attention. These occupational
health hazards include the risk of back injuries, stress, and the dangers
of radiation and infection. Apart from these kinds of risks, hospitals were
thought to be safe places to work. This paper argues that violence
against nurses is a serious problem for hospitals and thus a serious
occupational hazard. It reviews the literature on the incidence of violence
and the effects of violence on nurses, and suggests strategies to manage
violent situations.
2. Based upon your analysis, do you believe this is an effective introduction?
Why or why not? Do you think it could be improved? If so, how?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
The academic essay

Introduction 4 (from IT)
Topic: Analyse the impact of IT developments on Australian society.
Australian society is complex and ever changing. It is often described as
a classless society, but this is not very accurate. There are various
classes in Australian society, although the differences between them are
not as pronounced as in some other societies, such as in France or
Indonesia. Information Technology is defined as "the use of technology in
managing and processing information, especially in large organisations"
(Wikipedia 2006). Developments usually refer to changes, and there is an
association of ideas that links developments with improvements, although
this is not always the case. Consider the development of computer
viruses, for example. Information Technology (IT) has had many
developments. These developments have had an impact on Australian
society, but perhaps not equally on all classes in this society. It can be
argued that the wealthier classes have had much greater access to IT
than have the poorer classes. The internet has had a large impact on
many societies. Many religious groups fear the influence of the internet.
3. Based on your analysis, what do you think are the strengths of this
introduction? How would you improve this introduction?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
The academic essay

Body
The body of the essay should flow very obviously from the introduction and be
divided up into paragraphs that develop the ideas through to the conclusion. If a
particular sequence of discussion is outlined in the introduction, then the structure
of the body should adhere to this sequence. Further, each paragraph should
develop a group of ideas about one aspect of the topic.
It can be very helpful in planning your essay if you consider how many paragraphs
your essay should have according to the total word length of the essay. For
example, an essay of 1500 words could be expected to have somewhere between
8 and 15 paragraphs.
Keeping in mind the rule that each paragraph should develop a new set of ideas
can help you in planning the outline of your essay. You can use the diagram
below in your planning:
Paragraph 1 Introduction 150 words
Paragraph 2 Point 1 170 words
Paragraph 4 Elaboration
on point 2
150 words
Paragraph 6 Elaboration
on point 3
130 words
Paragraph 9

Point 6

160 words
Paragraph 10

Conclusion

150 words
Figure 9: Paragraph guide
Remember to keep your paragraphs well balanced. An unbalanced set of paragraphs
would mean having some paragraphs of only 20 words and others of 200 words.
The table in Figure 10 (on next page) provides information about aspects of an
essay's body paragraphs.
The academic essay


Purpose The purpose of the body of an essay is to support the claim
made or position taken in the thesis statement. The body should
not contain anything that is extraneous to the scope of the thesis
statement.
Parts The body consists of a logically sequenced series of paragraphs
that develop the essay's thesis. A paragraph has at least two but
sometimes three parts to its structure:
A topic sentence that presents the main idea of the paragraph
often taking the form of a generalised claim. It is usually the
first sentence of the paragraph.
Supporting sentences that explain and elaborate on the main
idea. This can involve drawing on examples relevant to the
field, quotations from published authorities on the topic,
statistical data, comparing and contrasting sources. It is
important to use other sources (quotations, paraphrases and
summaries) as support information as it can give credibility to
a claim.
A concluding sentence that signals the end of the paragraph
by giving a final comment on the topic that answers the
question 'so what?' A concluding sentence is often needed
when the paragraph is long.
Features In addition to the three parts, a good body paragraph has four
major characteristics:
Unity: oneness of idea. A paragraph develops one main idea
at a time and the sentences in the paragraph exist to support
or develop that idea.
Coherence: logical relationships between and among
sentences within a body paragraph.
Adequate development: There must be sufficient evidence to
prove or substantiate the main idea in the topic sentence.
Hierarchical structure: organising the main idea and sub-
ideas along the lines of the principle of layering.
Figure 10: Constructing body paragraphs
The academic essay

When you are constructing each paragraph, you should consider each one to
have its own mini-structure similar to your whole essay, as in this example:

middle
sentences
present an
explanation
as well as
evidence to
support
this claim
The currency of a news item is also relevant when
considering humanitarian crises. Currency refers to
how hot an issue is at any one time (Sheridan Burns,
2002: 52). Currency can occur when a particular crisis
appeals to the collective social conscience of the
world, a nation or a local community. East Timor has
had currency in Australia for more than two decades.
News reports from East Timor initially brought the
audience into the story (Sheridan Burns, 2002: 53)
by giving graphic accounts of the killing of the five
Australian journalists who, in 1975, were reporting on
the political unrest in the tiny Indonesian province.
Since that time, there have been numerous articles on
the abject poverty, starvation and inadequate health
services endured by the East Timorese. These human-
interest stories allow the reader to empathise with the
suffering of their near neighbours. The fact that many
Australian volunteer aid workers have also endured
the same living conditions as the East Timorese
increases and maintains local interest in the news
story (Smith, 2004). Currency can be maintained over
a significant period of time by journalists revisiting a
humanitarian crisis from a social perspective or
reporting on a suffering individuals experience that
twang the readers heart strings.
first sentence
introduces a
claim, which is
also the topic of
this paragraph

concluding
sentence gives
a final comment
on this point,
thus allowing
the reader to
move on to the
next paragraph
Figure 11: Example body paragraph
Note: Paragraph writing will be examined in more detail in Chapter 9, Features of
academic writing.
The academic essay

Conclusion
The conclusion is, first of all, a review of your essay, highlighting the main ideas
that serve to make your argument. It functions to leave your reader convinced of
the strengths of your thesis, and one way to do this is to paraphrase the thesis
statement given in the introduction.
The conclusion can also include a number of other comments, depending on the
essay question and your lecturers requirements. If appropriate, it can evaluate
the material you have presented, state your own conclusions, forecast the future
and/or make recommendations.
The table in Figure 12 below provides information about the different aspects of
an essay's conclusion.
Purpose The purpose of the conclusion is to draw together the main
arguments and concepts of your essay to reach a logical end
to fit everything together, not just to summarise. If you stop at
the summary, you have not actually written a conclusion.
Parts The conclusion often has several parts:
a summary that briefly restates the main issues or ideas
covered in the body of the essay
a thesis restatement that shows how the main elements of
the essay combine to confirm the essay thesis. Thus, it
ensures the reader is reminded of the essay's main point
a final statement that communicates a strong message the
reader will remember. The final statement is the actual con-
clusion of the essay, and is the most important part of the
final paragraph. It can make an evaluation or recommendation
or it may indicate the implications that follow the conclusion
such as a prediction, a warning or the direction of future
research.
Features A well-written conclusion has the following characteristics:
It includes your subjective perspective, based on the
objective facts and evidence presented in the body of the
essay. A good conclusion is logical and valid.
It does not introduce any new ideas, offer any apologies, or
make qualifying remarks that are not supported in the body of
the essay.
Figure 12: Aspects of a successful conclusion

The academic essay

Activity 6.3: Analysing essay conclusions
1. Read the conclusion below, which is from the same student essay as
Introduction 4 (page 12), and determine whether you believe the author
successfully incorporates the stages of a conclusion described on the
previous page. Then, in the left-hand column of the table below, label any
stages you can identify.
Analysis Conclusion
In conclusion, it has been argued in this essay that recent
developments in IT, and particularly the growth of the Internet,
have introduced significant changes to Australian society. These
changes were seen to be affecting Australian society in several
areas including equity of access, education, employment,
privacy and security, and healthcare. In most cases the impacts
considered in these areas were found to have both positive and
negative implications. The issue of equitable access to the
technology and the skills to use it remains perhaps the major
hurdle in the short term. However, to reiterate Kiesler (1997,
p.10), the Internet is a new domain of human activity and as
such a full understanding of the consequences that this new
domain presents is still unfolding. The continually varying
context of the Internet entails that the progression of change and
impact on society will also vary. There is no doubt that the
internet has established its value in certain sectors and proven
to be useful in many applications. Hopefully in the future the
disadvantages relating to ICT will be reduced so that the full
value of the Internet can be realised throughout society.
Figure 13: Conclusion analysis
2. Based upon your analysis, decide whether you believe this is an effective
conclusion; then write a sentence or two defending your opinion. Also,
think about some ways you could improve this conclusion, and write a
sentence or two outlining those ways.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
The academic essay

Variations in essay structure
While this essay structure is common, you might find that it does not fit all the
essays you will write. The structure might change slightly depending upon the
course or subject youre writing in. For example, essays written in Education often
have a distinct 'implications' stage where theories and arguments are applied to
classroom teaching.
There will be some variation in what lecturers look for in essays as well. They
may have different preferences for the order of information in the introduction, for
example, or for how often it is appropriate to use quotations.
You will also need to take into consideration the organisation dictated by the
rhetorical device that that might be required for the essay. Examples of rhetorical
devices include comparison and contrast, cause and effect, description,
classification narration, process analysis.
Most essays, however, require you to use the knowledge, skills, methods and
theories you have learned in a unit to analyse major issues and arguments from
your field of study. Some will require you to refer to your sources when you apply
these skills; others might allow you to apply them without making extensive
reference to sources. It is important, therefore, to analyse questions carefully, and
to check with lecturers and tutors about their expectations.
Marking criteria
Following are some very general assessment criteria that most lecturers would
agree are fundamental in marking essays at university-level. The main question
on the marker's mind for each criterion is "how deeply do you show that you
understand?" The significance of each criterion may vary according to the kind of
essay. For example, essays written under exam conditions would not usually be
expected to be as well presented and well-written as essays you have weeks to
prepare.
Essays should:
be well-researched with relevant material
answer the question in a well-structured way
be well-argued and substantiated
be well-written
be well presented.
In order to satisfy each of these criteria, you need to think carefully about the
purpose of each particular writing task to make sure that, above all, you answer
the question or address the problem that you have been posed by the task.
The academic essay

Essays should be well researched with relevant material
Your researching process is critical in developing a deeper understanding of the
topic you have selected. Sometimes you may already have clear ideas about the
topic, and even your own point of view on it, so your reading is mainly to find
supporting evidence to give your views weight. However, for most students who
are new to an area of study, the researching stage is a process of discovery of
new ideas and information, and different points of view.
The two most important qualities of your research that lecturers usually look for in
your writing are that you have read broadly enough for the task, and that you
have drawn on reading that is relevant in answering the set task.
Essays should answer the question in a well-structured way
The structure of your writing should reflect the degree to which you have
transformed the knowledge. If the task were to summarise an article, then the
structure of your summary would normally reflect the structure of the article. If the
task was to present your own argument, then there are no predetermined steps
they depend entirely on your argument.
However, it is expected that your essay will have a clear structure in terms of
introduction, body and conclusion, and well constructed paragraphs. The
development of a clear structure will allow the reader/marker to identify and follow
your argument/line of thought in answering the question and addressing the
assessment criteria.
Essays should be well argued and well substantiated
A well-argued and well-substantiated essay will normally have the following
characteristics:
clear thesis
analytical approach
critical approach
appropriate evidence (internal argument, and external substantiation)
appropriate mix of summary, paraphrase, and quotation
no plagiarism
presentation of visual/graphic data (where applicable).
Essays at university are normally expected to be both analytical and critical. Being
analytical involves dividing ideas into their different components. Being critical
involves making judgements about different perspectives and ideas. A critical
analysis is much more than a mere summary of what the authors of the books or
The academic essay

papers that you have read for your assignment think about the topic. It is an
intelligent understanding and pulling apart of the topic by interpretation of different
ideas and weighing up alternatives.
From this concept of critical analysis we can infer two basic rules. Firstly, don't let
the readings write the essay for you; that is, don't just summarise the readings. It
is your essay and you have to drive it by using the readings to reinforce your
statements. Secondly, the ideas of others should be paraphrased and referenced
accurately. Avoid the use of direct quotations that allow the ideas and words of
others to take over your essay. (For more information on using quotations
effectively, see Chapter 8, Evidence and academic argument.)
You should be careful when including quotations; many markers frown upon their
overuse. To show that you really understand the ideas of others, you should be
able to write about them in your own words. You can also comment on the
quotations you are using to show that you understand their importance.
Remember, use quotations when they are absolutely essential, but make sure that
they are copied exactly. A good rule of thumb is to keep quotations to no more
than 10% of your total essay.
It should also be noted that everything apart from quotations must be expressed
in your own words, and you must give the sources or citations of all your
paraphrases, summaries and quotations. Moreover, these citations must be
accurate. One way of making sure of this is by writing down all the bibliographical
material including page numbers when you are making notes from your reading.
(See Chapter 5, Reading and note making for more information.)
Using citations is a fundamental part of university writing. University itself is an
institution for the advancement of knowledge, you can't do a doctorate or a
masters by research unless it adds to knowledge and you can't add to the
knowledge unless you know what has gone before. This is why lack of citation or
errors in citation are of such a concern, because without clear citations you
cannot acknowledge what has gone before. Moreover, inadequate citation of
sources in academic writing can qualify as plagiarism. (For more information on
how to avoid plagiarism, see Chapter 8, Evidence and academic argument.) At
the undergraduate level, you are expected to begin developing these skills right
from the start of your courses.
Essays should be well written
Academic writing should always be clear, concise and logical. The best method of
achieving clarity and logic is through making the structure transparent to the reader.
This will ensure that the reader can find their way through the essay, and that the
essay is therefore coherent.
If you have difficulties with grammar or if English is not your first language, spending
time planning a logical structure for your essay can often have more immediate
benefits than focussing mainly on sentence level grammar issues in your writing.
Many times, students become distracted by easily identifiable grammar problems
and ignore the underlying issues of structure and organisation. While grammar is
important, a logical presentation of ideas is central to successful academic writing.
The academic essay

Activity 6.4: Analysing an academic essay
Read the essay below, which responds to this question:
The change from lay person to nurse can be difficult. Discuss some of the
problems and the ways in which nurses might cope.
Then answer the questions that follow (page 23) about each section of the essay.
Essay
A person may experience many difficulties during the transition period from layperson
to the newly acquired role of nurse. This new role virtually necessitates a whole
change of lifestyle therefore many adaptations must be implemented in order to fulfil
the requirements of that role. Areas of difficulty may include anxiety related to under-
taking patient care and meeting the needs of the patient, for example, washing and
toileting, communication problems and coping with very ill and dying patients. Shift
work and the demands of inadequate staffing levels may also be of concern to the
new nurse along with a possible feeling of loss of identity.
This transition can be called a "status passage - the process of change from one
social status to another" (Bradby, 1990, p.1363). Many nurses have other roles to
fulfil such as those of wife or mother. Some may even have just left home for the first
time in order to take up their role as a nurse - for these nurses the transition period
may be particularly difficult and a complete change of lifestyle.
Some new nurses, particularly those who have low self esteem and high anxiety
levels, may suffer a loss of personal identity during the transition period. They may
feel useless and not worthy of their uniform. In order to cope and retrieve their
personal identity they may need to seek support from their friends and family.
However, this problem seems to be short term and most nurses soon regain their
confidence and are proud of the important role they play as a nurse.
Some expectations of nursing duties may be overwhelming to the new nurse.
Feelings of embarrassment and nervousness may occur, especially if the nurse is
lacking confidence, particularly when washing patients. Exposure of the body,
especially of the opposite sex, may contradict the values the nurse was taught as a
child. However, "breaching the unwritten rules of body exposure is a crucial ingredient
in making the transition from lay person to nurse" (Bradby, 1990, p.1364). A good
way for the nurse to cope with feelings of discomfort while performing this duty would
be to seek the help and support of another nurse. The nurse will soon begin to feel
more concerned about the patient's feelings during this procedure than their own and
will want to look for ways to make the patient more comfortable and relaxed.
Some newly trained nurses may experience difficulty coping with incontinence among
their patients. However, many cope with this through their concern of the humiliation
that may be suffered by the patient and soon overcome their anxiety in an effort to
help their patient. Whatever anxiety the nurse is feeling is often shared by the patient
as well.
The newly trained nurse must have certain communication skills in order to form an
interpersonal relationship with the patients. "An interpersonal relationship is the most
basic form of social interaction. It means that two or more persons are participating in
some sort of relationship" (Humphrey, 1985, p.5). Effective communication is vital to
the care of patients and the nurse should use this skill as part of patient care.
The academic essay

Coping with shift work is a major difficulty in the transition from layperson to nurse.
Shift work "stops nurses from interacting with the society around them" (Knepfer,
1989, p.147). The ability to cope with shift work seems to diminish with increase in
age, probably due to the fact that sleep tends to be more disturbed as a person
grows older. The nurse must make changes with regard to eating, sleep and
recreational patterns in order to cope better with the demands of shift work. For
example, eating and drinking only lightly while working on night shift will minimise
digestive problems and aid sleep during the day (Humphrey, 1985).
Coping with very ill or dying patients poses a major concern for some new nurses and
can often be an extremely frightening experience. The support of other staff is of
extreme importance in dealing with this often unpleasant aspect of nursing. Some
nurses learn to cope by assuring themselves that all they can do is to keep the patient
comfortable and pain free, while others will try to avoid being with the patient as much
as possible in an effort to cope. Support from more experienced staff by way of
discussions is a good way to cope with the associated fears and anxieties of nursing
a dying patient.
Stress can be a major hazard in the nursing profession and the new nurse in particular
may be prone to job related stress. "At some time or another we can expect to
experience emotional and physical problems arising out of the demands of caring for
people" (Bailey, 1985, p.1). Nurses may find that the demands of caring are not
always what they had anticipated and the transition from lay person to nurse may be
stressful because, suddenly so much is expected from them in their new role. Each
area of nursing may bring with it a new form of stress. In order to cope with stress,
the nurse must first identify those situations that are causing stress and work towards
alleviating the stress element of that specific situation. Problem solving skills,
counselling services and stress management/ reduction courses are all helpful for
nurses in coping with stress.
In conclusion, it is evident from the information presented in this paper that there are
many difficulties associated with the change from layperson to nurse. The new role
requires many changes relating to lifestyle and there may be many moments of
anxiety, uncertainty and even fear. The transition is a major step and the nurse will
experience stress associated with this change. However, as the nurse gains exper-
ience and confidence so too will coping mechanisms be gained and the nurse will be
able to enjoy a truly rewarding pleasurable career.
Reference List
Bailey, R. (1985). Coping with stress in caring. London: Blackwell Scientific
Publications.
Bradby, M. (1990). Status passage into nursing: Another view of the process of
socialisation into nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 15, 1220-1225.
Bradby, M. (1990). Status passage into nursing: Undertaking nursing care. Journal of
Advanced Nursing, 15, 1363-1360.
Humphrey, C. (Ed.) (1985). Australian nursing, an introduction. Sydney: McGraw-Hill.
Knepfer, G. (1989). Nursing for life. Sydney: Pan Books.
The academic essay

Introduction:
1. In the margins of the essay, identify how much of the text the introduction
comprises. How does this introduction compare to the introductions you
analysed earlier in this chapter?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. How many parts can you identify in the introduction? With brackets, mark
where each part begins and ends on the essay text. Are any parts missing?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Does the author present a clear plan for the essay in the introduction? In
what order do you expect to find the main ideas?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4. What do you think the author does well in this introduction? Also, what do
you think the author could do to improve the introduction?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
The academic essay

Body
Because the essay deals with two issues the problems (difficulties faced by
the new nurse) and the solutions (the ways to cope with the difficulties), there
are two possible organisational structures for the body paragraphs:
Linear The various problems/difficulties are presented one after
the other in several paragraphs and then the possible
ways to cope are discussed in the next few paragraphs.
Alternating a problem is presented in one paragraph followed by
another paragraph that discusses the solution(s); then
the second problem is presented in the next paragraph
followed by another paragraph that describes its
solution(s), and so on.
1. Does the body in this essay follow one of these two (linear or alternating)
ways of organising information? Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. What is the topic of the first body paragraph? What does the outline for the
essay in the introduction suggest the first topic should be?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Does the author introduce topics in the body paragraphs that are not
mentioned in the essay outline in the introduction? If so, list them here:
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
The academic essay

4. Suggest some ways that the author could improve the relationship
between the introduction and the body paragraphs.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. Generally speaking, what do you think is the greatest strength in these
body paragraphs?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Conclusion
1. How does the conclusion summarise the major points raised in the body of
the essay?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. How does the writer conclude the essay (for example, with a final
statement in the form of something similar to a suggestion, warning,
prediction, optimism, or future direction)?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Has the writer introduced any new idea (that is not implied or stated in the
thesis statement) or made apologies in the concluding paragraph? If so,
identify where this occurs.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
The academic essay

4. Does the writer successfully wrap up the essays major points in this
conclusion? In other words, does the author go beyond merely summarising
and logically conclude the essay? If so, how?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
In conclusion
Academic writing tasks can take a variety of forms. The form, or genre, that you
will use depends on a number of factors, one of the most important being the
purpose of the assignment.
One genre that most students will encounter at some point in their academic
career is the essay. While every assignment is unique, understanding the basic
structure and organisation of an essay will give you a framework you can use to
construct your text. This basic principle also holds true for other academic genres,
as you will discover in Chapter 7.
The academic essay

Activity 6.1: Analysing writing styles
1. Different styles of writing (genres).
a. The essay is more formal; the reflective journal is less.
b. The essay has fully developed paragraphs, incorporates references to
other sources, and has an objective tone. It is less conversational in style
than the other two genres.
c. The reflective journal is more personal. The author is expressing opinions
and observations and examining his/her own experiences. The essay is
less personal the author's presence is much less apparent.
2. Academic writing features.
Academic features Examples
Full forms of words it is possible
Passive voice Professional intervention is required
Formal language children deviate from the normal pattern
Referring to other sources (Zucker 1985); (Harrington 1970);
(Rekers & Mead 1979, 1980)
Extended noun groups a maladaptive caricature of masculinity;
female childhood gender disorders
Activity 6.2: Analysing essay introductions
Introduction 3
Background While patient safety has long been a nursing priority, only recently has
the occupational safety of nurses received attention. These occupational
health hazards include the risk of back injuries, stress, and the dangers
of radiation and infection. Apart from these kinds of risks, hospitals were
thought to be safe places to work
Thesis This paper argues that violence against nurses is a serious problem for
hospitals.
Outline It reviews the literature on the incidence of violence and the effects of
violence on nurses, and suggests strategies to manage violent situations.
Discussion answers will vary.
The academic essay

Introduction 4
Background

Australian society is complex and ever-changing. It is often described as a
classless society, but this is not very accurate. There are various classes in
society, although the differences between them are not as pronounced as in
some other societies, such as in France or Indonesia. Information Tech-
nology is defined as the use of technology in managing and processing
information, especially in large organisations (Wikipedia 2006). Develop-
ments usually refer to changes, and there is an association of ideas that
links developments with improvements, although this is not always the case.
Consider the development of computer viruses, for example.
Thesis It can be argued that the wealthier classes have had much greater access to
IT than the poorer classes.
Outline The internet has had a large impact on many societies.
Activity 6.3: Analysing essay conclusions
Analysis Conclusion
Restatement of thesis
(answers essay
question)
In conclusion, it has been argued in this essay that recent
developments in IT, and particularly the growth of the Internet,
have introduced significant changes to Australian society.
Summary of supporting
arguments/discussion
topics from the essay
body
These changes were seen to be affecting Australian society in
several areas. In most cases the impacts considered in these
areas were found to have both positive and negative implications.
The issue of equitable access to the technology and the skills to
use it remains perhaps the major hurdle in the short term.
Qualification of the
conclusion. Marking out
some of the limits of
the thesis position
However, to reiterate Kiesler (1997, p.10), the "Internet is a
new domain of human activity" and as such a full understanding
of the consequences that this new domain presents is still
unfolding The continually varying context of the Internet entails
that the progression of change and impact on society will also vary.
Final statement that
points to future
considerations
There is no doubt that the Internet has established its value in
certain sectors and proven to be useful in many applications.
Hopefully in the future the disadvantages relating to ICT will be
reduced so that the full value of the Internet can be realised
throughout society.
The academic essay

Activity 6.4: Analysing an academic essay
Introductory paragraph
Structural
analysis
Essay text Comments
Thesis
statement

Outline

Background

(There does
not seem to
be a
statement of
purpose.)
A person may experience many difficulties during the
transition period from layperson to the newly acquired
role of nurse. This new role virtually necessitates a
whole change of lifestyle therefore many adaptations
must be implemented in order to fulfil the requirements
of that role. Areas of difficulty may include anxiety
related to undertaking patient care and meeting the
needs of the patient, for example, washing and
toileting, communication problems and coping with
very ill and dying patients. Shift work and the demands
of inadequate staffing levels may also be of concern
to the new nurse along with a possible feeling of loss
of identity.
This transition can be called a "status passage - the
process of change from one social status to another"
(Bradby, 1990, p.1363). Many nurses have other roles
to fulfil such as those of wife or mother. Some may
even have just left home for the first time in order to
take up their role as a nurse - for these nurses the
transition period may be particularly difficult and a
complete change of lifestyle.
Usually, the introductory
material is contained in
a single paragraph, as
in the introductions
that were analysed
earlier in the chapter.
The author does give
an outline for the
essay and each of the
elements mentioned in
the outline are covered
in the essay, but not in
the order presented in
the outline. For
example, loss of
identity is the last
element mentioned in
the outline, but the first
to be discussed in the
essay.
This introduction
seems to move from
specific to general,
instead of the other
way around. It begins
with the thesis state-
ment, then gives an
outline for the essay,
and then gives some
general statements
about why this
transition is difficult.
The academic essay

Body paragraphs
Structural
analysis
Essay text Comments
Paragraph 1
Topic
sentence

Body
paragraphs
organised in
alternating
fashion

Some new nurses, particularly those who have low
self esteem and high anxiety levels, may suffer a loss
of personal identity during the transition period. They
may feel useless and not worthy of their uniform. In
order to cope and retrieve their personal identity they
may need to seek support from their friends and
family. However, this problem seems to be short term
and most nurses soon regain their confidence and
are proud of the important role they play as a nurse.

Topic: loss of personal
identity the essay
outline suggests that
the first topic will be
anxieties related to
patient care.
Paragraph 2
Topic
sentence

Each body
paragraph
has a well-
defined,
clearly written
topic
sentence

Some expectations of nursing duties may be
overwhelming to the new nurse. Feelings of
embarrassment and nervousness may occur,
especially if the nurse is lacking confidence,
particularly when washing patients. Exposure of the
body, especially of the opposite sex, may contradict
the values the nurse was taught as a child. However,
"breaching the unwritten rules of body exposure is a
crucial ingredient in making the transition from lay
person to nurse" (Bradby, 1990, p.1364). A good way
for the nurse to cope with feelings of discomfort while
performing this duty would be to seek the help and
support of another nurse. The nurse will soon begin
to feel more concerned about the patient's feelings
during this procedure than their own and will want to
look for ways to make the patient more comfortable
and relaxed.

Topic: overwhelming
expectations of
nursing duties:
exposure of the body.
The author could
strengthen the
relationship between
the intro and the body
in two ways:
1. by creating a clear
outline in the intro
2. rearranging the
body paragraphs
to follow that
outline
Paragraph 3
Topic
sentence

Some newly trained nurses may experience difficulty
coping with incontinence among their patients.
However, many cope with this through their concern
of the humiliation that may be suffered by the patient
and soon overcome their anxiety in an effort to help
their patient. Whatever anxiety the nurse is feeling is
often shared by the patient also

Topic: overwhelming
expectations:
incontinence
The academic essay

Body paragraphs (continued)
Structural
Analysis
Essay text Comments
Paragraph 4
Topic
sentence

The newly trained nurse must have certain
communication skills in order to form an interpersonal
relationship with the patients. "An interpersonal
relationship is the most basic form of social
interaction. It means that two or more persons are
participating in some sort of relationship" (Humphrey,
1985, p.5). Effective communication is vital to the
care of patients and the nurse should use this skill as
part of patient care.

Topic: necessary
skills: communication
This topic isnt mentioned
in the essay outline of
the introduction
Paragraph 5
Topic
sentence

Coping with shift work is a major difficulty in the
transition from layperson to nurse. Shift work " ...
stops nurses from interacting with the society around
them" (Knepfer, 1989, p.147). The ability to cope with
shift work seems to diminish with increase in age,
probably due to the fact that sleep tends to be more
disturbed as one grows older. The nurse must make
changes with regard to eating, sleep and recreational
patterns in order to cope better with the demands of
shift work. For example, eating and drinking only
lightly while working on night shift will minimise
digestive problems and aid sleep during the day
(Humphrey, 1985).

Topic:
difficulty/concern: shift
work
Paragraph 6
Topic
sentence

Coping with very ill or dying patients poses a major
concern for some new nurses and can often be an
extremely frightening experience. The support of
other staff is of extreme importance in dealing with
this often unpleasant aspect of nursing. Some nurses
learn to cope by assuring themselves that all they can
do is to keep the patient comfortable and pain free,
while others will try to avoid being with the patient as
much as possible in an effort to cope. Support from
more experienced staff by way of discussions is a
good way to cope with the associated fears and
anxieties of nursing a dying patient.

Topic:
difficulty/concern: ill or
dying patients
The academic essay

Body paragraphs (continued)
Structural
Analysis
Essay text Comments
Paragraph 7
Topic
sentence

Stress can be a major hazard in the nursing
profession and the new nurse in particular may be
prone to job related stress. "At some time or another
we can expect to experience emotional and physical
problems arising out of the demands of caring for
people" (Bailey, 1985, p.1). Nurses may find that the
demands of caring are not always what they had
anticipated and the transition from lay person to nurse
may be stressful because, suddenly so much is
expected from them in their new role. Each area of
nursing may bring with it a new form of stress. In
order to cope with stress, the nurse must first identify
those situations that are causing stress and work
towards alleviating the stress element of that specific
situation. Problem solving skills, counselling services
and stress management/reduction courses are all
helpful for nurses in coping with stress.

Topic:
difficulty/concern: job
related stress
Concluding paragraph
Structural
analysis
Essay text Comments
Restatement
of thesis

Summary of
main points
In conclusion, it is evident from the information
presented in this paper that there are many
difficulties associated with the change from layperson
to nurse. The new role requires many changes
relating to lifestyle and there may be many moments
of anxiety, uncertainty and even fear. The transition is
a major step and the nurse will experience stress
associated with this change. However, as the nurse
gains experience and confidence so too will coping
mechanisms be gained and the nurse will be able to
enjoy a truly rewarding pleasurable career.
No new ideas
mentioned in the
conclusion.

Final statement points
to a hopeful future for
new nurses.

Chapter 7


Introduction
In Chapter 6, The academic essay, you were introduced to the concept of
academic genres and examined the academic essay in light of this concept.
In this chapter, you will explore some of the other academic genres that are
frequently assigned to university students. These genres include:
Research reports
Critical reviews
Annotated bibliographies
Reflective journals
After you have worked through this chapter, you will be able to:
Identify the main structural components of each genre
Describe the purpose behind each genre
Explain some general marking criteria for each genre.
Research Report
In real-world settings, research reports are written for a number of reasons. For
example, a scientist may need to communicate laboratory work to management,
which may base important company decisions upon the results of the report.
Another reason is to archive the work so that it will not have to be done again in
the future.
The main purpose of scientific research report writing at university is to com-
municate the results of your experiments or field research. The process of writing
a scientific report also gives you valuable practice in articulating the theoretical
and empirical bases of a particular experiment, what you did, and what you
interpret your results to mean. This type of assignment at an undergraduate level
at university mimics the style of report you would be required to produce in
postgraduate research and for communication through publication with your
scientific/technical peers.
This section gives a general description of the sections of a scientific report;
however, you should check with your lecturer or tutor about the practices adopted
by your faculty or department, as there may be differences in their approach, style
and presentation requirements.

Format
Unlike an essay, a report has a formalised structure. Taking into account disciplinary
differences, scientific or laboratory reports written by undergraduates, these share
the same format as scientific reports written by academics for publication. Your
tutor or lecturer, however, may have requirements that differ from the format
described below. Be sure to check the format requirements with your instructor
before you begin writing your assignment.
The sections of a scientific report are:
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Appendices
Title
The title of a scientific report is your readers first introduction to your topic; by
choosing a clear, precise title, you can help others quickly determine whether
your report will be useful or relevant to them.
The title should:
be approximately 15 words long;
provide key words for indexing; and
avoid unnecessary words, abbreviations, and jargon.

The title below is not helpful to a reader because it does not contain enough
information about the research contained in the report:
An investigation of physical stimuli
This one is a little better:
An investigation of memory for sentences
By increasing the specificity of the information, this title has improved even more:
Sentence memory: A constructive versus interpretive approach.
Abstract
The Abstract is a concise summary of your report. Like a specific title, an Abstract
helps readers to decide whether they should read the report. Therefore, a poorly
written Abstract can drive readers away from your research.
An Abstract should include:
the main aims or objectives of your research
a description of your methods
a summary of the most important results
a statement of your conclusions and the significance or implications of your
results.
The Abstract should be approximately 200 words long, typed as a single
paragraph, and titled Abstract. You should not include references to tables,
figures, sources, or information that is not included in the report.
Stylistically speaking, your Abstract should be written in plain, precise English.
Although you can assume your readers will have some knowledge of the topic,
they should be able to quickly grasp the most important parts of your research
without having to decipher figures, tables, or abbreviated language.
Because you have so few words in the Abstract, you must make sure that every
one contributes to the meaning; choose them very carefully. Begin by selecting
the key points from each section of the report, and then condensing them over
several drafts.

Introduction
While a well-written title and Abstract will attract the right readers (including your
marker) to your report, the Introduction will tell them exactly what the report is
about and why it is important. Your Introduction can do this by answering these
three questions:
What is the problem?
Describe the problem investigated.
Why is the problem important?
Review the relevant research to provide a rationale.
What solution do you propose?
Briefly describe your experiment: the hypothesis, research questions,
experimental design/method, and justification for the method, if there
are alternatives.
Although the Introduction is located early in the report, it does not necessarily
have to be written early in the process. In fact, writing the Introduction last can be
a very effective strategy; it can be much easier to describe your experiment or
field research after you have finished writing up the results and your discussion.
Your Introduction should move from the general to the specific:
Introduction to the whole field

GENERAL
How your research
fits into the field

Specific aims and
outline of
your research

SPECIFIC

Figure 33: Diagram of an Introduction for a research report

In introducing to your reader the field in which your research is situated and the
research itself, you will often need to provide a review of the literature relevant to
your area. This review will provide your reader with:
an understanding of the conceptual and theoretical background, context,
and justification of the research you are undertaking
an appreciation of the significance of this area in general and your topic in
particular.
Just as your Introduction moves from general to specific, so will your literature
review. Begin with studies that establish the general area, and then introduce
those that deal specifically with your research topic.
As in any academic writing task, it is not enough to merely string together a series
of quotes from different sources. You must incorporate those quotes into a critical
analysis of the research as it relates to your topic. You need to identify what is
missing from the literature to date.
As always, remember to check with your tutor or lecturer about their specific
preferences regarding this kind of review. Some may ask you to create a
separate section for an extensive literature review, while others may require you
to incorporate a few sources in the body of the Introduction.
Methods
In the Introduction, you orient your reader to the wider field and the place of your
research in it; in the Methods section of your report, you describe what research
you did and how you did it. This section may be somewhat easier to write than
others (the Discussion, for example), as you will be simply describing, rather than
analysing or drawing conclusions.
In your description, you briefly summarise the entire process you followed and the
materials you used; it is important that you be accurate and precise in your
description so that others can repeat your results and so that you can replicate
the work later, if necessary. This summary is usually presented in chronological
order, although you may choose to arrange your description by type of procedure,
and then chronologically within each type.
The Methods section should be written in the past tense, since you are describing
an event that has already happened. It can also be effective to focus on the action
(i.e., your experiment) rather than the actor (i.e., you) by using the passive voice.
For example:
A dilution series was performed...
instead of
I performed a dilution series.

On occasion, however, the passive voice can result in an awkwardly constructed
sentence. When this occurs, clarity is preferable to strict adherence to the passive
verb structure.
Also, you may notice that the active voice is becoming more popular in some
scientific reports, and that some report writers use the personal pronoun I. In
some disciplines, this less formal approach to scientific writing is perfectly
acceptable. So check with your tutor or lecturer to determine their preference.
Finally, the description of your methods should be a relatively small part of the
report, so keep it brief. Do not include the results or any discussion in this section.
Results
The Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections of your report are
closely linked. Thinking about these sections as a series of questions can help
you decide what information should be included in each of them:
Section Relationship Question
Introduction Poses a question WHY?
Methods Tells what you did to answer the
question posed in the Introduction
HOW?
Results Tells what was produced by your
Methods that can be used to answer
the question posed in the Introduction
WHAT?
Discussion Tells what Results are significant for
answering the question posed in the
Introduction
SO WHAT?
Figure 34: Relationships between sections of a report
(Adapted from Murison, E. & Webb, C. 1991 Writing a Research Paper)
You should only present results that relate back to the question posed in the
Introduction. This section is a stepping-stone to the Discussion; it presents a
framework upon which the Discussion can be built. It does not explain or interpret
the results; as in the methods section, you are simply describing.
For each experiment or procedure, you briefly describe the procedure in a
sentence or two and report the main results. These results are supported by
selected data: representative (most common) and best case (ideal example). You
will need to use both the past tense to describe results and analyses and the
present to describe what the reader is seeing (e.g., tables, graphs and figures).

Discussion
You may discover that the Discussion section (or the SO WHAT? of the report) is
the most difficult to write. You will be required to interpret your results and present
them to your reader(s) in a way that convinces them that your research is
significant. You cannot do this by merely describing, as you did in the Methods
and Results sections. This is where you will demonstrate how well you understand
the ideas and techniques involved in your research and how your results relate to
other research in the field (as described in the literature youve reviewed).
The Discussion has two main goals:
1. to explain the results of your research
2. to explore the significance of those results.
To achieve these goals you need to:
interpret and explain your results
examine whether and how the questions raised in the introduction section
have been answered
show how your results relate to the literature
qualify and explore the theoretical importance/significance of your results
outline any new research questions or areas for future research that your
results have suggested.
In this section, you will use both the past tense to explain the details of your
results and the present tense to draw conclusions or outline the implications
of your results.
Conclusions
The Conclusions may form part of the Discussion, or they may be written as a
separate section. Check with your instructor to determine which format they
prefer. Wherever they are located, the Conclusions serve the same purpose: to
set down a number of generalisations arising from the Discussion.
If your Conclusions are a part of the Discussion, they will usually be signalled by
phrases such as In summary... If you choose to create a separate section for
the Conclusions, you may want to use the following outline as a model:
generalisations
implications
recommendations for future work.

The generalisations you make in the Conclusions must be related to the question
posed in the Introduction and to the Discussion of your results. So, while the
question is the focus of the Introduction, the answer should be the focus of the
Conclusions.
References
As in any academic writing, you must provide references for the sources you have
used in your report. Any ideas, statistics, or graphics any information at all
that you have brought in from another source must be accurately cited.
Check with your tutor or lecturer to determine which referencing system they want
you to use in your report. (For more information about referencing, see Chapter 8,
Academic argument and evidence.)
Appendices
Information that is not essential to explain your findings, but that supports your
analysis (especially repetitive or lengthy information), validates your conclusions
or pursues a related point should be placed in an appendix (plural appendices).
Appendices are optional. Again, check with your instructor to determine what kind
of information they may want to see in an appendix.
Sometimes excerpts from this supporting information (i.e., part of the data set) will
be placed in the body of the report but the complete set of information (i.e., all of
the data set) will be included in the Appendix. Examples of information that could
be included in an Appendix include figures/tables/charts/graphs of results,
statistics, questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, pictures, lengthy derivations of
equations, maps, drawings, letters, specification or data sheets, computer
program information.
There is no limit to what can be placed in the Appendix providing it is relevant and
reference is made to it in the report. The Appendix is not a catch net for all the
semi-interesting or related information you have gathered through your research
for your report. Rather, it is the information that is directly related to the research
problem or the report's purpose.
Each separate Appendix should be lettered (Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix
B1, Appendix B2, Appendix C, etc). The order they are presented in is dictated by
the order they are mentioned in the text of the report.

Marking criteria
Below is an outline of the aspects of your research report the marker is likely to
consider:
Clear discussion of the theoretical and empirical implications of the
research.
Adequate acknowledgment and exploration of the limitations of the
research.
Logically derived hypotheses from previous research/review of the
literature.
Precisely specified results.
Appropriate use of figures such as tables, graphs, diagrams.
Clear reporting of methodology.
Adequate and sufficient review of previous literature.
Appropriate report structure.
Clear, accurate and appropriately formal expression.
(The information on research report writing was adapted from:
Hamilton College online academic resources at
www.hamilton.edu/academics/resource/bio_lab.html
University of Wollongong's UniLearning website at
http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/main.html
UW Madison Writing Center Handbook at
www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/ScienceReport.html
Virginia Tech Engineering at writing.eng.vt.edu)

Critical review
When you are asked to write a critical review of a book or article, you will need to
identify, summarise, and evaluate the ideas and information the author has
presented. In other words, you will be examining another person's thoughts on a
topic from your point of view.
Your stand must go beyond your "gut reaction" to the work and be based on your
knowledge (readings, lectures, experience) of the topic as well as on factors such
as the criteria stated in your assignment or discussed by you and your instructor.
Make your stand clear at the beginning of your review, in your evaluations of
specific parts, and in your concluding commentary.
Remember that your goal should be to make a few key points about the book or
article, not to discuss everything the author writes.
Understanding the assignment
Critical reviews keep students, lecturers, researchers, and writers up to date with
developments in their field. A critical review has two main purposes:
1. to inform: summarising key elements of a book or article
2. to evaluate: commenting on the texts value.
To write a good critical review, you will have to:
engage in the mental processes of analysing (taking apart) the work. That
is, decide what its major components are and determine how these parts
(i.e., paragraphs, sections, or chapters) contribute to the work as a whole.
read your assignment thoroughly before you read the article or book. Your
instructor may have included specific guidelines for you to follow. Keeping
these guidelines in mind as you read the article or book can be very helpful
as you write your review.
analyse the work. This will help you to focus on how and why the author
makes certain points, and prevent you from merely summarizing what the
author says.
assume the role of an analytical reader. This will help you to determine
whether or not the author fulfils the stated purpose of the book or article,
and enhance your understanding or knowledge of a particular topic.
make the most efficient use of your reading and note making time by being
an active reader. That is, keep relevant questions in mind and jot down
page numbers as well as your responses to ideas that appear to be
significant as you read.

note where the work connects with what you've studied in the course.
Note: The length of your introduction and overview, the number of points you
choose to review, and the length of your conclusion should be proportionate to
the stated word limit in your assignment and should reflect the complexity of the
material being reviewed as well as the expectations of your reader.
Format
The basic structure of a critical review is a summary followed by a critique. The
structure can be further broken down into the following parts:
Introduction
Summary
Critique
Conclusion
Introduction
The Introduction of a critical review provides a context for your evaluation of the
text. It orients the reader to the assignment set by your instructor, the texts, and
your position as reviewer.
Below are a few guidelines to help you write the introduction to your critical review.
Introduce your review appropriately. Begin your review with an
introduction appropriate to your assignment.
If your assignment asks you to review only one book or article and does
not require you to use outside sources, your introduction will focus on
identifying the author, the title, the main topic or issue presented in the text,
and the author's purpose in writing the text.
If your assignment asks you to review the book or article as it relates to issues
or themes discussed in the course, or to review two or more texts on the
same topic, your introduction must also encompass those expectations.
Include some basic information about the text. Be sure to specifically
state the title of the article(s) or book(s). Describe the type of text you will
be reviewing. For example, state whether the book is a memoir, a treatise,
a collection of facts, an extended argument, etc. Alternatively, state
whether the article is a documentary, a write-up of primary research, a
position paper, etc. You may want to include a brief overview of the text
that describes its division into chapters, sections, or points of discussion,
but this is not essential.

You will also need to identify the author(s). If a book, decide what the
preface or foreword tells you about the author's purpose, background, and
credentials; and what the author's approach to the topic is (as a journalist,
a historian, or a researcher). If an article, consider what kind of periodical it
published in and for what kind of audience.
Explain relationships. Explain to your reader how, for example, two texts
on a topic relate to one another. Within this shared context (or under this
"umbrella") you can then review comparable aspects of both texts, pointing
out where the authors agree and differ. In other words, the more complicated
your assignment is, the more your introduction must accomplish.
Establish your position as the reviewer. Give your response to the
text(s) in general terms. This will take the form of your critical evaluation of
the work (your thesis). Explain why you have taken this position and what
criteria you are basing your position on.
Summary
The summary paragraphs of your review will be the centre of your paper, where
you will identify key issues in the text that will be commented upon in the critique.
Below are two options when formulating an organisational structure for your review.
1. Separate summary and critique. You may choose to separate your
summary from you critique. In this case, you will summarise, in a series of
paragraphs, the major points from the text that you plan to discuss; and for
each point, create a topic sentence to serve as the organising principle for
a discussion paragraph in the critique. You will end up with a series of
summarising paragraphs followed by a series of evaluative paragraphs,
linked by topic sentences.
2. Combined summary and critique. Alternatively, you can summarise and
evaluate the major points you have chosen from the book in a point-by-point
schema. This means that you will summarise and evaluate point one within
the same paragraph (or in several if the point is significant and warrants
extended discussion) before you summarise and evaluate point two, point
three, etc. This will allow you to move in a logical sequence from point to
point to point. Here again, it is effective to use the topic sentence of each
paragraph to identify the point from the book or article that you plan to
summarise or evaluate.
Remember, be sure to distinguish consistently between the author's opinions and
your own as you discuss the author's major points.
Keep the summary portions of your discussion concise, and remember that your
task as a reviewer is to re-see the author's work, not to re-tell it.

And, importantly, if you refer to ideas from other books and articles or from lecture
and course materials, always document your sources, or else you might wander
into the realm of plagiarism.
Critique
Your critique should comment on the issues you identified in your summary and
provide an evaluation of the value, credibility, and usefulness of the text(s).
Keep these questions in mind as you write:
What are the author's most important points? How do these relate to one
another? (Make relationships clear by using transitions: "In contrast," an
equally strong argument," "moreover," "a final conclusion," etc.).
What types of evidence or information does the author present to support
his or her points? Is this evidence convincing, controversial, factual, one-
sided, etc.? (Consider the use of primary historical material, case studies,
narratives, recent scientific findings, and statistics.)
Where does the author do a good job of conveying factual material as well
as personal perspective? Where does the author fail to do so? If solutions
to a problem are offered, are they believable, misguided, or promising?
Which parts of the work (particular arguments, descriptions, chapters, etc.)
are most effective and which parts are least effective? Why?
Where (if at all) does the author convey personal prejudice, support
illogical relationships, or present evidence out of its appropriate context?
Conclusion
You will want to use the conclusion to state your overall critical evaluation.
You have already discussed the major points the author makes, examined how
the author supports arguments, and evaluated the quality or effectiveness of
specific aspects of the book or article.
Now you must make an evaluation of the work as a whole, determining such
things as whether or not the author achieves the stated or implied purpose and if
the work makes a significant contribution to an existing body of knowledge.
Consider the following questions:
How well has the author achieved the overall purpose of the book or
article? What contribution does the work make to an existing body of
knowledge or to a specific group of readers? Can you justify the use of this
work in a particular course?

What is the most important final comment you wish to make about the
book or article? Do you have any suggestions for the direction of future
research in the area? What has reading this work done for you or
demonstrated to you?
Marking Criteria
The main function of a critical review is to present an evaluation of a text to a
relevant audience. To do that, you need to:
identify the main ideas of the text clearly
put forward and defend a definite opinion about the value and relevance
of the text
employ a consistent structure throughout your review
use an appropriate academic writing style.
Activity 7.1: Analysing a critical review
Below you will find:
an example critical review written about an article on interactive learning
a sample marking criteria for the critical review assignment.
Read the critical review and then answer the questions that follow (page 16).
These questions are based on the sample marking criteria in Figure 3 (page 17).
Note, these criteria are a useful checklist when writing your own critical reviews;
but, of course, be guided by the marking criteria specific to your School or
subject, when provided.

Example critical review of journal article
Cone, D. (2001). Interactive learning: Enhancing collaborative learning
techniques using mainstream information technology, Journal of Family
and Consumer Sciences, 93 (4): 19-22.
In a research article entitled "Interactive learning: Enhancing collaborative
learning techniques using mainstream information technology", Cone (2001)
argues that the challenge for educators in a complex, global society is to
provide active learning environments that build the relevant skills of
independent learning, problem solving, communication and team work.
More importantly, she proposes that the challenge of creating these
environments can be met by combining collaborative approaches to
learning with everyday forms of information technology such as the Web,
email and chat lines. The article presents a strong case for the educational
compatibility of collaborative learning and mainstream information tech-

nology by establishing that both of these forms facilitate the kind of group
interaction skills that students need if their learning is to be vocationally
relevant. However, Cone offers few concrete examples to illustrate her
many abstract claims and neglects to make any practical recommendations
for her audience of educational professionals. Moreover, while she has
succeeded in constructing a sound scholarly argument based on academic
research, Cone overlooks the more basic social fact that even the most
mainstream forms of information technology are not equally available to
all members of society.
In structuring the body of her article, Cone seeks to demonstrate how
collaborative learning and information technology are educationally
compatible. Cone first defines collaboration and then asserts the benefits
of a collaborative approach to learning. These benefits are understood to
support the development of skills relevant to our rapidly changing society
including active participation by students learning outside as well as inside
the classroom, tolerance for individual differences when working in groups,
creative and critical thinking, and both written and oral communication.
Cone then proceeds to outline a number of parallel educational benefits
supported by the integration of information technology into the curriculum.
Here, an example is given of a research study by Owston (1997, cited in
Cone, 2001) in which students use of email and chat lines outside the
classroom was found to actually boost literacy by allowing practice at
articulating ideas to groups. Cone also summarises research which found
that the use of computer and Internet technology in education has a
positive psychological effect on student attitudes towards learning, self-
concept and student achievement by focusing on more student-centred,
cooperative learning and stimulating an increase in student/teacher
interaction (p.21).
While Cones reasoning for this link between collaborative learning and
information technology is sound and supported by strong scholarly evidence,
the example of students after-school use of email and chat lines is the
only concrete illustration given for how the link works in real situations. The
author is admittedly concerned with issuing a broad challenge to educators
to find ways to take advantage of this link, yet the absence of tangible
examples and practical recommendations does little to assist the reader to
meet that challenge. This limitation in the usefulness of the article is also
exacerbated by the abstract style of much of Cones writing. The style is
not a problem in itself and indeed suited to the articles specialist audience
of academically literate education professionals. However, the authors
reliance on densely worded sentences and technical vocabulary throughout
most of the article can make for difficult reading and contribute to keeping
the argument trapped in the realm of concepts. This outcome seems to
work against Cones implicit interest in changing education to suit the
demands and resources of everyday life.
Finally, putting aside these concerns with the practical value and accessibility
of the article, it is necessary to point out that Cone has failed to account for
the digital divide in access to information technology which still excludes

many members of society from the learning benefits she identifies. While
the situation is slowly improving, research continues to show that access to
even the most basic online services and proficiency in their use is dominated
by the privileged sectors of society (see for example Mehlman, 2000), a
fact that undermines one of the key pillars in Cones argument: that Web,
email, and chat lines can be classified as mainstream and are thus
available for the benefit of a wide cross-section of the population. So, in
sum, while the article presents a convincing scholarly argument for the
educational compatibility of collaborative learning and information
technology, the author falls short of her goal of inspiring change in this
direction by neglecting to adequately show how such change can be
implemented in practical terms that also account for the current social
inequalities in IT access and use.
Questions
1. In the introduction, underline the sentences (or part-sentences) where the
student identifies the authors purpose
2. In the introduction, draw a line alongside the section where the student
presents an overall evaluation of the text.
3. In the summary paragraph, underline the words the student uses to show
he/she is presenting the authors main points.
4. In the critical response paragraph, underline the sentence/s where the
student makes critical comments on the usefulness of the article.
5. Draw a line alongside the section where the student comments on the
accessibility of the article.
6. Underline the final concluding comment.

Sample marking criteria for critical review
Section Criteria Value
Introduction Bibliographic details are accurate and complete and well integrated
into the introductory paragraph
1 mark
Identifies authors purpose in writing the text (to argue, to explain, to
discuss, etc.)
1 mark
Presents overall evaluation of text (How successful was the author
in achieving their purpose? Who would be interested in knowing?)
1 mark

Total value: 3 marks
Summary Stays focused on the authors purpose(s) in the article 1 mark
Covers the authors main points accurately, clearly and sufficiently 2 marks
Paraphrasing is clear, accurate and appropriate; quoting is minimal
and clearly distinguished by quotation marks and page references
2 marks
Critical
response
Builds on the summary and is about 50% of whole review 1 mark
Evaluates the article using three (3) of the following criteria:
Purpose and viewpoint (To what extent has the purpose been
achieved? How convincing was the argument and evidence?)
Audience (Who is the primary audience for the article? How is
this evident in the article?)
Usefulness (How much practical value does the article have
for its audience?)
Importance (How significant is the argument, evidence or
conclusions for the audience? What are the implications?)
Breadth (Does the article cover its topic adequately or are
there gaps?)
Accessibility (How effectively does the author communicate in
writing? Does the style of writing suit the intended audience?)
3 marks
Comments on each issue are adequately developed and supported
with evidence from the article
3 marks
Presentation Paragraph structure, development and linking 2 marks
Spelling, grammar and punctuation (2 marks) 2 marks
Formal, academic style 1 mark
Total assignment value: 20 marks
Figure 35: Sample marking criteria for critical review

Annotated bibliography
An annotated bibliography can be thought of as a series of extremely brief critical
reviews strung together in a single document.
A bibliography is a listing of related sources. Each source included in an annotated
bibliography is evaluated by the writer; this evaluation is called the annotation.
How many of these reviews are required will vary from assignment to assignment.
Some instructors may only require two or three, while others may want an extensive
survey of the available literature.
An annotated bibliography can:
guide a reader to relevant sources on a topic
help the writer become familiar with the literature in a subject area
display the writers depth of reading and research for a particular topic or
subject area.
Format
There are two parts to every entry:
Citation
Annotation
Citation
The citation includes the full bibliographic information for the source (author, year
of publication, title, publisher, place of publication, etc.) You should follow the
referencing system specified by your lecturer or tutor.
Annotation
Each annotation should be concisely written about one paragraph per source. It
may answer some or all of the following questions:
What is the main focus or purpose of the work?
Who is the audience it was written for?
What is its usefulness or appropriateness to your topic?
Are there any special features that were unique or helpful?

What is the authors background and credibility?
What conclusions does the author draw?
What observations or conclusions have you made?
Sample annotated bibliography entries
Book (Harvard referencing style)
Radloff, A., Hermann, A. & Fox, R. 1999, Successful Learning Skills: Your
guide to tertiary studies through open, distance and flexible learning,
Bobby Graham Publishers, Wagga Wagga.
Radloff et al.'s book, Successful Learning Skills, contains strategies to help
students studying in the distance mode to become more effective learners,
and covers areas such as: taking charge of your learning process,
achieving your learning goals, becoming a more effective learner, and
developing your reading and writing skills. This book covers a similar range
of topics to many other study skills books. However, its focus is particularly
on the needs of students studying at a distance, and it is these students
who will find this a valuable resource for getting started and developing
tertiary learning skills. In particular, it is the students returning to study after
a long break who will find working through the checklists and key questions
a useful strategy to identify their strengths as learners.
Journal article (Harvard referencing style)
Goldschneider, F. K., Waite, L. J. & Witsberger, C. 1986, 'Nonfamily living
and the erosion of traditional family orientations among young adults',
American Sociological Review, vol. 51, pp. 541-554.
The authors, researchers at the Rand Corporation and Brown University,
use data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and
Young Men to test their hypothesis that nonfamily living by young adults
alters their attitudes, values, plans, and expectations, moving them away
from their belief in traditional sex roles. They find their hypothesis strongly
supported in young females, while the effects were fewer in studies of young
males. Increasing the time away from parents before marrying increased
individualism, self-sufficiency, and changes in attitudes about families. In
contrast, an earlier study by Williams cited below shows no significant
gender differences in sex role attitudes as a result of nonfamily living.
(The information in this section was adapted from the Queensland University of Technology
Library at http://www.library.qut.edu.au/subjectpath/annotated.jsp)

Marking Criteria
In many ways, an annotated bibliography must meet the same kinds of criteria as
a critical review, though in an abbreviated fashion. Each entry is a mini-review in
itself, and must present an evaluation of that source.
Please refer to the marking criteria for the critical review in the previous section of
this chapter for more detailed information. Also, there is a marking criteria sheet
for an annotated bibliography in the sample unit outline in Chapter 2, Managing
your writing.
Reflective journal
A useful way of keeping track of the things you are learning and the kind of
reactions you are having to your learning experiences is to keep a personal
reflective journal of your activities. Keeping a journal encourages you to think
about your experiences and helps provide insight into what you are learning as
well as how you are feeling about it.
Reflective writing allows you to document your experiences, thoughts, questions,
ideas and conclusions that signpost your learning journey. It provides an opportunity
for you to think critically about what you are doing as a student and why.
Structure
A reflective journal is different from other kinds of academic writing in that it tends
to be relatively unstructured. After giving you a few basic guidelines, your
instructor may leave the final decision of how to structure your journal up to you.
(As always, be sure to check with your lecturer or tutor if you have any questions
about their requirements.)
There are many ways to write a journal; you could choose to write your journal:
as a personal learning journey, tracking and documenting an evolving
understanding of your subject
in terms of issues for example, you may want to explore certain issues or
problems highlighted in the readings that you find interesting
as a critical reflection on classroom activities or materials.
Whatever structure you choose (it could even be a mixture of all three), your
writing needs to demonstrate active and reflective engagement in the issues and
ideas you encounter.

Tips for writing journal entries
Because writing a reflective journal is so different from what you may usually think
of as academic writing, the most difficult part may be just getting started. Here are
some tips to help kick start your writing:
Dont edit as you write. Write your thoughts freely without stopping to
correct your grammar, spelling, or punctuation. Editing can be done later.
Be sincere in your writing; give your honest opinions and reactions to what
you are learning. As in any kind of academic writing, your opinions will
need to be supported, but a journal allows you much more freedom in
expressing them than some other more formalised kinds of assignments.
Dont think of your journal as a work log in which you itemise and record
events, tasks, and statistics. The journal is your means of charting daily
your growth and development both academically and personally.
Make regular, frequent entries instead of waiting to write the entire journal
the week it is due. You will find the journal less of a chore if you take a few
minutes at the end of each day to review your learning objectives and
reflect upon your experiences of the day.
Marking criteria
Again, because a reflective journal is such a personal piece of writing, and because
this kind of assignment can vary so greatly from course to course, it is very
difficult to create a standard list of marking criteria.
Your instructor should provide you with very clear guidelines on how they will
assess your writing. If you have any questions, make an appointment with your
lecturer or tutor and clarify the assignment with them.
(This information on reflective journals was adapted from:
Centre for Learning and Teaching at University of Technology, Sydney at
http://www.clt.uts.edu.au/Scholarship/Reflective.journal.htm
Northwestern Michigan Colleges Service Learning page at
http://www.nmc.edu/socialscience/service-learning/tips.html.)

Activity 7.2: Making personal writing academic
Read the following paragraph from a reflective journal and then answer the
subsequent questions:
Learning grammar and translation skills seems to me to be like a linguistic
security blanket of sorts. These skills are something students can practise by
themselves, and there is little danger of embarrassment in doing drills and
exercises. When it came to my own language learning, to feel truly challenged,
and by extension, truly successful, I had to go beyond what I felt comfortable
doing and explore what I had the potential to do (interacting with others in the
target language, for example). Im not sure that Grammar Translation methods
of language instruction alone could have helped me do that.
1. What are some of the features of this paragraph that make it personal?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Do you think that the writer still manages to be appropriately academic?
Why or why not?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. What are some situations where a reflective writing journal would be useful
or worthwhile to you as a student?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

In conclusion
You will most likely be required to employ a variety of academic genres in your
university courses. While the basic formats and structures described in this
chapter can serve as a starting point, you may need to adapt or alter them to
meet the specific demands of a particular assignment. Check with your lecturer or
tutor to determine their requirements early in the writing process, and do not just
assume that the standard format will be satisfactory.


Activity 7.1: Analysing a critical review
1. Cone (2001) argues that the challenge for educators in a complex, global
society is to provide active learning environments that build the relevant
skills of independent learning, problem solving, communication and team
work. More importantly, she proposes that the challenge of creating these
environments can be met by combining collaborative approaches to
learning with everyday forms of information technology such as the Web,
email and chat lines.
2. The article presents a strong case for the educational compatibility of
collaborative learning and mainstream information tech-nology by
establishing that both of these forms facilitate the kind of group interaction
skills that students need if their learning is to be vocationally relevant.
However, Cone offers few concrete examples to illustrate her many
abstract claims and neglects to make any practical recommendations for her
audience of educational professionals. Moreover, while she has
succeeded in constructing a sound scholarly argument based on academic
research, Cone overlooks the more basic social fact that even the most
mainstream forms of information technology are not equally available to
all members of society.
3. Cone seeks to demonstrate, Cone first defines, Cone then proceeds
to outline, Cone also summarises research.
4. The author is admittedly concerned with issuing a broad challenge to
educators to find ways to take advantage of this link, yet the absence of
tangible examples and practical recommendations does little to assist the
reader to meet that challenge.
5. This limitation in the usefulness of the article is also exacerbated by the
abstract style of much of Cones writing. The style is not a problem in itself
and indeed suited to the articles specialist audience of academically
literate education professionals. However, the authors reliance on densely
worded sentences and technical vocabulary throughout most of the article
can make for difficult reading and contribute to keeping the argument
trapped in the realm of concepts. This outcome seems to work against
Cones implicit interest in changing education to suit the demands and
resources of everyday life.
6. So, in sum, while the article presents a convincing scholarly argument for
the educational compatibility of collaborative learning and information
technology, the author falls short of her goal of inspiring change in this
direction by neglecting to adequately show how such change can be
implemented in practical terms that also account for the current social
inequalities in IT access and use.

Activity 7.2: Making personal writing academic
1. First person point of view; relating classroom theories to personal experience.
2. Answers will vary.

Chapter 8
Academic argument and evidence


Introduction
In most assignments at university, you will be expected to do more than simply
summarise facts or offer descriptions. Instead, you will be expected to develop
arguments to justify judgments and evaluations.
In essays, for example, you will usually need to develop an argument to justify a
thesis position. In a research report, the introduction section often takes the form
of an argument to justify the significance of the research topic, while the discussion
section presents an argument to support interpretations and conclusions about the
findings of the research. Critical reviews can also be considered to present an
argument, one in which the value (strengths and weaknesses) of a text is assessed.
In all of these examples, the basic purpose of the argument is to persuade the
reader of the truth or validity of a point of view or conclusion. In academic writing,
arguments are only persuasive if they are:
supported by good evidence (reliable, credible, and appropriate)
based on sound reasoning and analysis (logical)
balanced (considers a range of alternative views)
clearly and consistently communicated.
Incorporating evidence from academic sources is an important part of any assign-
ment. It is used to provide support for claims that you make, to support a position
and to provide examples. Evidence helps to strengthen your argument in an
academically appropriate way.
It is important to remember that evidence supports the points that you make in
your assignments. Evidence does not speak for you. In any assignment, there
should be an appropriate mix of your own points and comments, and of evidence.
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
Describe what is meant by the term academic argument
Use a framework to create your own argument
Incorporate specific language items to strengthen your argument
Use outside sources as evidence to support your argument
Describe what plagiarism is and how you can avoid it
Explain why referencing is important
Use a referencing system to create in-text citations and reference lists.

Academic argument
We all know how to argue, and you can probably remember an argument youve
had quite recently. Heres an example of a common one you might have heard:
Paul Its your turn to wash up, Kate.
Kate Well, I did it at lunchtime, so its your turn.
Paul But there wasnt much to wash up at lunch, and anyway, I put
the rubbish out, and thats supposed to be your job, so you have
to wash up now.
Kate Mum said its your job to wash up after dinner, and I never
asked you to put the rubbish out.
Paul Mum! Kates not doing her fair share!
The kind of argument you will use in academic writing is similar to an everyday
argument, in that you are trying to persuade someone else to share your point of
view. Lets look at Paul and Kates argument again, using some of the terms of
academic argument:
Paul Its your turn to wash up, Kate.
Thesis statement
Kate Well, I did it at lunchtime, so its your turn.
Paul But there wasnt much to wash up at lunch
First point
and anyway, I put the rubbish out, and thats
supposed to be your job
Second point
so you have to wash up now.
Restatement of
thesis
Kate Mum said its your job to wash up after dinner
Counter-point
(supported by
outside evidence)
and I never asked you to put the rubbish out.
Counter-point
Paul Mum! Kates not doing her fair share!

In academic argument, you will need to engage in reasoned arguments; that is,
you will give reasons to explain and justify your point of view in order to influence
your reader to accept it. These reasons are different from those in the example
above, because they use academic evidence as support and rely on logic and
structure to persuade (rather than an emotional appeal!).

Constructing your argument
To construct an academic argument, you can follow this three-step process:
State your position In a sentence or two, summarise your
argument (this is your thesis statement/claim).
Be sure to indicate which side of the argument
you find most convincing.
Support your argument Show why your position is the most
convincing.
For each main point (or claim), give evidence
(research, theories etc from other authoritative
sources, statistics, examples).
Consider the opposition Assume that your reader disagrees with you.
Consider the following questions:
What could your opponents argue?
What evidence might they have?
How could you persuade a neutral party
that your case and evidence are better?
(Source: Cottrel, S. 1999, The Study Skills Handbook, Macmillan Press, London.)
Before constructing your written argument, it is important to have determined your
position. When you are unsure, it is very difficult to create a persuasive and
cohesive argument. A substantial part of your assignment process involves
coming to a position through reading, note making and thinking. Some people find
that writing can help to clarify their thoughts, but once your thoughts are clarified,
it is important to create a plan before writing your assignment.
The main thread of your argument is your thesis, which is often established
through a series of claims supported by substantiating evidence. The claims are
usually the topic sentences of the body paragraphs.
The following paragraph demonstrates the development of an academic argument;
the analysis in the left-hand column describes each stage of the argument.


Why examine advertising texts with young children?
Claim/thesis
statement
Counter
argument

Mass market television programs, videos, advertisements and
thematically related toys appeal to children of all backgrounds, and
feature strongly in the funds of knowledge (Moll et al, 1992) that young
children bring to educational settings. However, educators
overwhelmingly reject this knowledge or cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1997)
in favour of quality childrens literature and educational programs and
toys. Children whose literacy experiences are predominantly related to
popular culture are often assumed to come from literacy-impoverished
backgrounds which educators believe they need to remedy (Marsh,
2000).
Challenging
counter
argument

Evaluation
These attitudes and practices advantage children from privileged
backgrounds who have access to a range of approved toys and texts,
while disadvantaging working-class children for whom popular culture is
not only what is preferred but often all that is available (Seiter, 1993;
Marsh 2000). When children hear No Barbies at day care, Digimon
cards are banned, Leave Action Man at home and We dont play those
games here as is frequently heard in early childhood centres and
schools around Australia children learn not to talk to educators about
their interests and ideas. For many children, this means that literacy-
learning opportunities are lost.
Elaborating
on and
reinforcing
thesis
statement
Rather than ignoring or banning popular culture, because it is perceived
as inferior or as dangerous for childrens identity formation, educators
need to recognise it as a site of learning for children. We need to ask why
texts such as advertisements are popular and interesting to children and
how they inform their store of cultural knowledge (Luke, 1997).
Figure 36: Analysis of an academic argument
(Source: Arthur, L. 2001, 'Young children as critical consumers', Australian Journal of Language
and Linguistics, vol.24, no.3, pp. 182-194.)
Using the language of argument
The word choices you make when you build your argument can be as important
as the structure and the evidence you use. Well look at two main aspects of
language in this section: connecting words and hedging.
Connecting words
When you make comparisons between texts, or draw conclusions from evidence,
you will need to use words that show the logical connection between ideas.
These words are called conjunctions or transition words (see Chapter 9, Features
of academic writing for more information these words and their usage). They can
be divided into four groups, and each group can be named by the basic conjunction
in its class, for example: and, but, then and so.

Conjunction group Examples
And (adding ideas or elements) And, also; furthermore, in addition, besides; or
But (contrast and comparison) But, yet, though; however, on the other hand;
nevertheless
Then (time sequence) Then, after that, subsequently; at the same
time; previously; soon, meanwhile; first of all,
secondly, finally, in conclusion
So (cause and consequence) So, hence, therefore; consequently; for this
reason, as a result
Figure 37: Conjunction groups
The following text shows some examples of conjunction use marking the relationship
between ideas.
The Board of Studies claims that the new HSC gives students more flexibility in
subject choice. This claim seems to rest on the fact that students no longer have
to select a subject from each of the maths/science and humanities areas.
However, the board has said it is pleased that most students have chosen to
study a subject from one or both of these areas. How can the board be both proud
of greater flexibility and relieved that few students are taking advantage of it?
In addition, the board takes credit for the fact that many more students are studying
vocational education and training courses through TAFE. But how can the increase
in these courses be good if fewer students are studying science and history?
Ultimately, the board's reforms disadvantage the weaker students as well as the
talented. For just as talented students can no longer study advanced level courses
in most subjects, so there are no simpler courses for students who struggle in
mathematics, science and history. And without such courses, many students are
dropping out.
Notice that this text is written as an argument, with the claims of one party, the
Board of Studies, being examined and opposed by counter claims. But this is an
argument written for a general rather than academic audience (e.g. as an opinion
letter in a newspaper) so the claims are supported with rhetorical questions and
unreferenced evidence. This does not detract from its force because arguments
have to be tailored for particular purposes and audiences.
Conjunctions of contrast (however and but) are important in this argument in which
two opposing points of view are presented. The conjunction for signals that a
reason is being given and so the result. The conjunction and signals an addition
to this reason.

Activity 8.1: Using conjunctions in academic argument
1. Choose suitable conjunctions from the list below to complete the sentences.
and but so yet
because where whereas likewise
a. New students are afraid to ask for help ____________ they believe they
should know the answer.
b. Students believe they should know the answer ____________ they are
often afraid to ask for help.
c. Having a goal is one thing, ____________ being motivated is another.
d. Surface learning is often linked with failure, ____________ deep learn-
ing is likely to lead to academic success.
e. Rote learners may not understand what they read. ____________ ,
readers who focus solely on the facts may miss the main idea.

2. Look at the example relationship ideas listed in the column on the left. Add
to the examples of connective words and phrases that signal these relation-
ships listed in the column on the right.
an additional idea also, in addition,
to put an opposite
idea
on the other hand, while,
to put a similar
idea
similarly, compared with,
an example for example,
to put ideas in a
sequence
first, next, since,
to show cause or
reason
because, due to,
to show effect or
result
so, consequently,
to conclude or
summarise
in conclusion,
Figure 38: Connecti ve words and phrases

Hedging, attitude and evaluation
While conjunctions link different aspects of your argument, certain other words
can be used to help you make your argument appear more reasonable or considered.
What is hedging?
As a student and 'apprentice' in academic writing, it is good to be aware of how
experienced writers convey their opinions and arguments. When you make claims,
be cautious. There may be other interpretations of your data, different conclusions
might be drawn by another writer, or you just may not have had the time to ade-
quately research what has already been written about your topic. If any of these
elements of uncertainty or disagreement are present, words like might, could',
'arguably', 'seems', and so on can be used to hedge or soften your claims
Look at the sentence "She will get a high mark". The speaker is certain about the
fact. But the speaker can express different degrees of certainty in the following ways:
She will undoubtedly get a high mark.
She will probably get a high mark.
She will possibly get a high mark.
It is possible that she will get a high mark.
It seems likely that she will get a high mark.
I think that she will get a high mark.
She may get a high mark.
Hedging allows you to communicate to your reader how willing you are to commit
to certain facts or opinions.
As academic writers, we recognise there are few universal truths, so it is rarely
appropriate to use terms such as always or never, or to make claims as if they
are incontestable. Instead, words like 'tends' or 'sometimes' can be used to make
your claims more tentative.
Look at the claim: Studying at university is a good experience. This claim may
not apply to all students and, therefore, needs to be modified. This could be done
in a number of ways including:
Studying at university tends to be a good experience.
Studying at university is often a good experience.
Studying at university is generally a good experience.
Sometimes studying at university is a good experience.

Why is hedging used in academic writing?
An important reason for the cautious presentation of claims in academic writing is
that there are many topics of academic study where the 'truth' is not obvious or
provable. In the social sciences and humanities especially (but also in the 'hard'
sciences such as physics and geology), knowledge is debated and the meaning
of 'facts' is disputed. Different interpretations of knowledge are possible, and
disciplines grow by testing current ideas, by looking for solutions to problems, by
argument and counter argument, and by the development of new theories.
How is hedging used?
Whenever you analyse an issue, you will use a mixture of 'straightforward' and
'attitudinal' language. Sometimes you just want to report and describe. Sometimes,
you want to evaluate. It is when writing to evaluate that it is most often appropriate
to apply hedging strategies.
Look at the 'report' text in the box on the following page. Notice the differences in
language between the first two sections and the third. In the first two sections
(Theory and Research), there are no hedges. The verbs include:
examined, reasoned, are affected, to assess, toured, reported, showed
The language gives the impression that this part of the research is straightforward.
Now look at the third section (Applications); the writer discusses the meaning and
implications of the research. These are less straightforward. In this section:
Some words hedge or modify ideas, e.g., 'Relationships appear to be
supportive'; 'perhaps because'.
Reporting verbs (ones which tell what a person says) are more tentative or
cautious, e.g. 'The investigation suggests'.
The writer's attitude to and evaluation of the research becomes more
obvious, e.g. 'important implications'; 'particularly supportive'; 'vitally important'.

Theory. Brenda Bryant (1985) examined children's everyday support
environments as important sources of support for their social and emotional
development in middle childhood. Bryant reasoned that children are affected not
just by the environments others establish for them, but also by the ones they
select and create for themselves
Research. To assess children's environmental supports seven- and 10-year
old children each toured their neighbourhood with an investigator and reported on
important aspects of their personal and social worlds - friends, relatives .. etc.
The findings showed that children's networks of social support expand with age.
Ten-year-olds had established more complex mesosystem relationships than had
7-year-olds
Applications. Children's own social networks and community ties, not just those
of their parents, have important implications for children's socioemotional
development. Relationships with pets and with adults outside the immediate
family sphere appear to be particularly supportive, perhaps because both offer
unconditional acceptance of children's feelings Bryant's investigation suggests
that it is vitally important to foster children's informal ties to kin and community
during middle childhood.
(Extracts from Laura Berk's 1991Child development, 2
nd
ed., p. 18, publishers: Allyn and Bacon.)
Activity 8.2: Using hedging
The 'hedging' words and phrases have been deleted from the three paragraphs below.
1. In the first two paragraphs, insert an appropriate hedge to replace the
underlined words to make the statements more tentative.
The feeling of content overload leads students to take a surface approach
to their work. Dealing with the information becomes of prime concern and
so the student does not get to the deeper skills of analysing, applying and
synthesising. It is the latter approach that leads to success in these courses
(Baker, 1991, p. 2).
The stress felt by students about the practical examination adversely
affects their approach to learning. When students feel that an assessment
situation is threatening they adopt a mechanical, rote, surface learning
approach that is not helpful to their results (Baker, 1991, p. 3).

2. In the third paragraph, determine where the hedges belong and then insert
them in the appropriate places.
When nursing older patients, nurses focus on custodial care rather than
rehabilitation. This means that in the health assessment interview of the
older patient, nurses base questions on problems with bathing, feeding
and medications. However, the interview with a younger patient focuses on
activities such as work or sport. Aged people are perceived as having less
social worth because they are not engaged in paid employment.
Using evidence
In Chapter 5, Reading and note making, we briefly touched on the importance of
using information from outside sources in academic writing. You also learned
about the differences between direct quotations, paraphrases, and summaries,
and how to use them in the notes you make from your reading.
In this section, well look at some techniques you can use to make good use of
your sources, as well as ways you can effectively incorporate them into your writing.
Using published sources as evidence
Of the features of persuasive academic argument identified above, a basis in
evidence is the most fundamental. But how do you know what kinds of evidence
are good or credible? The two types of evidence analysed in the table on the
following page are personal evidence and expert evidence.


Type of
evidence
such as ... will be per-
suasive to ...
because ...
PERSONAL
anecdotes or examples
from your own or
colleagues experience
you (and
perhaps your
lecturer)
it works; it is real to you
(if you are asked to relate
your ideas to your readings)
EXPERT
and
RESEARCH
theories, or
statements quoted from
writers who are authorities
on the topic, and
published in refereed
journals
statistical and factual data,
published in Government
reports, etc
original qualitative or
quantitative research
(such as surveys, case
studies, interviews,
experiments)
lecturers,
supervisors;
professionals
in your field
it shows your concern with
who produced the evidence
and why as well as what
and how
it shows your awareness
of the context and history
of ideas in your subject
it shows your awareness
of how knowledge is
shared in your profession
this evidence has (often)
been rigorously checked
Figure 39: How evidence is persuasi ve
Using sources critically
In undergraduate assignments, the evidence you use will most often consist of
quotations or summaries or reports of the findings of other people's research or
arguments. It is important to recognise the limitations of this evidence. To begin
with, you need to be sure that the evidence you are using is itself credible. You
will be more confident of this if you are reading known or respected writers, or
textbooks published by academic publishers, or from refereed journals (i.e.
journals where articles are reviewed by experts in their field before publication).
If you are using second-hand quotations or reports - that is, where an original
source is being reported by another writer - you need to be confident that the
original is being quoted accurately. When you are reading sources that interpret
other documents, you need to be aware of the writer's assumptions and the
purpose for which sources are being used. These assumptions and purposes
may colour an author's reading of another text.
Finally, you need to be careful not to take quotations out of their context. Ensure
that you do not quote or paraphrase a sentence from a book and give it a
meaning in your assignment which is different from the meaning in its source.
(For more information on critical thinking and reading skills, see Chapter 4,
Thinking critically.)

Fitting evidence into the structure of your assignment
Here are some general guidelines for where quotations or references typically
appear in two kinds of academic writing, the essay and the report. Always check
with your lecturer, however, on course expectations for an assignment.
Essay Report
Introduction: Few if any references.
The introduction shows the way the
essay is organised, the major topics,
and your argument.
Body: Use references to support your
explanation or argument.
Conclusion: Few if any references.
No new points
Introduction: This stage establishes
aims of the report. References are
used in a literature review to show
what is already known about the topic
Methodology and Results: Few if
any references
Discussion: References are used to
discuss the meaning of the results,
and to compare the results with
previous research addressed in the
literature review

Figure 40: Guidelines for the use of evi dence

supports explains
EVIDENCE
REASON
CLAIM

supports
Using evidence to support and develop claims
Figure 6, below, illustrates how the two essential forms of support for an argument
are reasons and evidence. Reasons provide the logic of an argument and evidence
is the basis for your reasons.

Figure 41: Supporting a claim
(Source: Booth, W., Colomb, G. G. & Williams, J. M. 2003, The Craft of Research, The University
of Chicago Press, Chicago, p.149.)

Look at the two paragraphs below. Text A appears to be a collection of unanalysed
quotations, whereas Text B uses sources to support a claim about the importance
of reflection.
Text A
According to Mezirow (1990, p. 5), reflection 'is generally used as
a synonym for higher-order mental processes'. Reflection is the
process of 'turning thought back on action' (Schon, 1983, p. 50).
Through reflection teachers 'can surface and criticize the tacit
understandings that have grown up around the repetitive exper-
ience of a specialized practice' (Schon, 1983, p. 61).

Text B
Reflection is a distinguishing feature of critical thinking about
teaching. Although reflection is sometimes associated with 'higher
order mental processes' (Mezirow, 1990, p. 5), it might be more
useful to emphasise its relationship to action. For Schon (1983),
reflection is the process of 'turning thought back on action' (p. 50).
Without reflection, our teaching practice can stagnate. Reflective
teachers, however, can 'surface and criticise the tacit under-
standings' (Schon, 1983, p. 61) that tend to make teaching routine
and repetitive. These tacit understandings might include beliefs
about what students are capable of learning and assumptions
about how students learn. Thus, reflection looks forward as well
as backward. It is oriented to practicality and change, not to
undirected mental activity.
claim

quotations
contrasted

quotation
explained
Creating a context for these pieces of evidence, by contrasting and explaining
instead of merely listing, results in a far more effective use of these sources.
This context can be created in a variety of ways. Look at how the writers in the
four texts on the following page use evidence for different purposes, such as, to
define, to elaborate on, support a claim, or to give research information.
Notice that the use of direct quotations is limited. In Text A, the writer does not
use the whole of the original sentence. In Text B, the original is paraphrased (i.e.
the writer has rewritten the text in her own words). In Text C, sources are used
one at a time, and in Text D, references are used to make a claim, which the
writer expands on.


Text A
Stress from long working hours, the continual urgency of an acci-
dent or intensive care unit and lack of gratitude can be factors in
premature burnout. In Tappen (1983, p. 351), burnout is described
as "a state of exhaustion, a depletion of energies that seems to be
a particular problem for people in helping professions"...
Claim

Definition
Text B

Nurses often feel awkward about discussing their work with people
who are not nurses. This awkwardness might be due to a public
perception that nursing is concerned primarily with tasks which
are dirty because of their connection with the excretory functions
of the body (Lawler, 1991, p. 218)...
Claim (effect)

Causes
Text C

Violent behaviour in health care settings may have wider social
causes. Poverty and unemployment contribute to a patients
sense of powerlessness, and impair patients ability to under-
stand and control situations (Whittington, 1997). Violence toward
nurses may also reflect increased violence in society (Whittington,
1997), or be related to sexism (Wondrak & Dolan, 1992). Sexist
attitudes to women as being weak and submissive contribute to
violence against women generally. However, nurses are par-
ticularly vulnerable because of their stereotyped media image...
Claim (effect)

Elaboration
(causes)

Text D
Both economists and geneticists agree that information from
genetic testing is valuable whatever the health consequences of
the test (Brown, 1998; Smith, 1998). For most people who receive
genetic testing, the results will be negative, and their wellbeing
may be improved by reassurance of knowing that their risk is low.
When testing produces a positive result, the health gain depends
on the appropriate use of an effective intervention. However, there
are few interventions without side effects, so risks have to be
balanced against effectiveness to determine net health outcomes.
Claim (effect)

Elaboration

Activity 8.3: Identifying how evidence is used
Read the following paragraphs. Underline the principal claim in each, and identify
how the evidence is used to support that claim (e.g. effect, solution, explanation).
Identification Paragraph
There is strong evidence that men and women have different
ways of knowing. In Women's ways of knowing, Belenky et al.
(1986) report on a fascinating study of women's educational
experiences and problems. Their research was informed by the
feminist perception that "conceptions of knowledge and truth that
are accepted today have been shaped through-out history by
the male dominated majority culture" (p. 5). This view was
confirmed by the women's stories about their fears, failures and
successes in education.
Belenky, M.F., Clinchy, B.M., Goldberger, N.R., & Tarule, J.M. (1986).
Women's ways of knowing. New York: Basic Books.
Multiskilling is emphasised in the combined law courses, which
have great professional advantages. For example, an arts/law
graduate may not only be a journalist and a lawyer, but also a
graduate who can view each of the disciplines from the pers-
pective of the other. Multiskilling recognises that graduates of
the combined law program may choose not to practise law, but
rather treat the degree as complementing the other degree and
its career options.
Undergraduate courses at UWS (2001). p. 64
I have fiercely maintained one personal rule in all my so-called
"popular" writing. I believe - as Darwin did when he published all
his books for general audiences - that we can still have a genre
of scientific books suitable for and acces-sible alike to profes-
sionals and interested laypeople. The concepts of science can be
presented without any compromise, without any simplification
counting as distortion, in language accessible to all intelligent
people. I hope that this book can be read with profit both in
seminars for graduate students and on the businessman's
special to Tokyo.
Gould, S. J. (1989). Wonderful Life. London: Penguin, p. 16
In the Olympic arena the gap between heartbreak and triumph
can be minuscule. In the women's 4 x 100 metres relay heats, a
dropped baton ends Australia's chances. Hours later the 4 x 400
team breaks an Australian record that has stood for more than
two decades and storms into the finals. It's true - sport really can
be life with the volume turned up.
Editorial (2000).The Weekend Australian, September 30 - October 1, p. 38
Figure 42: Identifying the use of evidence

Analysing and synthesising sources
When you read and prepare to write an argument, you need to look for similarities
and differences in what you read. For example, sometimes you will notice that
authors have different philosophies or theories and therefore interpret evidence in
different ways. This process of breaking down ideas from a variety of sources into
groups of similarities and differences is called analysis.
When you use evidence you will also need to synthesise it. That means you need
to recombine those related ideas from various sources by highlighting their
similarities or differences, rather than write paragraphs in which ideas are not
organised systematically.
Grouping sources
Look at the table below, notice how the synthesised version of the original text is
more concise. This is because it avoids repeating similar ideas.
Original Synthesised
Research studies that have been carried out
previously have shown that parents experience a
number of psychological responses when they
are informed of the diagnosis. Kovacs et al. (1985)
found that during the initial stage of diagnosis
parents of newly diagnosed children with insulin
dependent diabetes felt guilt, denial, numbness,
resentment, shock, anxiety, sadness and disbelief.
Likewise, Hauser et al. (1986) found that dismay,
discomfort, sadness ... and guilt were also
obvious in their experience. Hatton et al. (1995)
found that parents experienced shock, anger,
fear, grief etc...
Research studies have shown
that parents experience a number
of psychological responses when
they are informed of the diagnosis
of insulin dependent diabetes.
These include feelings of guilt,
denial, dismay, resentment,
shock, anxiety, fear, sadness and
disbelief (Kovacs et al.*, 1985;
Hauser et al., 1986; Hatton et al.,
1995).
Figure 43: Comparison of two paragraphs that incorporate sources
* et al. means 'and others'. Where a book or article has six or more authors, et al. is
used (as a summary) in the first and subsequent references to that work. Where a book
or article has three to five authors, all authors must be named in the first in-text
reference, but et al. is used in subsequent references. However, all authors must be
named in the Reference List.

Comparing and contrasting sources
An important aspect of synthesis is comparison and contrast. Comparison means
showing points of similarity, and contrast means showing points of difference. In
essays, contrasts between different writers or different theories might be made in
separate paragraphs. Sometimes contrasts are made in the same paragraph.
In the text below, two different approaches to deciding what methods are most
appropriate for carrying out social science research are contrasted. Key phrases
in the comparison are in bold print.
When the new discipline of social science began, it followed closely the methods
of science. Science has often been thought of as objective, or free from opinion
and prejudice, and social science has had a history of copying this 'scientific'
method by collecting objective data. However, the usefulness of scientific
method for social scientists has been questioned. Some social scientists
began to ask how social phenomena could be studied 'objectively' when human
society and individual thought and action are so deeply 'subjective'. Thus quant-
itative social research - research which reduces social phenomena to
numbers and statistics - has been criticised for being overly objective or
positivistic, and for ignoring dimensions of human behaviour that cannot be
measured. The consequence is that social scientists today are more likely to
recognise the value of interpretive methods which acknowledge the thoughts and
assumptions of the researcher, and to express the results of this research in
words, not numbers.
Integrating evidence with your comments
Evidence should not be used by itself to make a point. Each paragraph should be
a balance between your own points and comments and the supporting evidence.
It would not be appropriate, for example, if quotes and paraphrases from other
sources made up most of your essay. Your own comments may come in the form
of explanations for the evidence, reasons, links, critical commentary or examples.
Your voice needs to lead your argument. As the writer you make the claim (in
your voice), which is then supported by the evidence. The text below provides an
example of the evidence supporting the points that the writer is making.


The inequity in the distribution of wealth in Australia is
yet another indicator of Australia's lack of
egalitarianism. In 1995, 20% of the Australian
population owned 72.2% of Australia's wealth with the
top 50% owning 92.1% (Raskall, 1998: 287). Such a
significant skew in the distribution of wealth indicates
that at least in terms of economics, there is an
established class system in Australia. McGregor
(1988) argues that Australian society can be
categorised into three levels, the upper, middle and
working classes. In addition, it has been shown that
most Australians continue to remain in the class into
which they were born (McGreggor, 1988), despite
arguments about the ease of social mobility in
Australian society (Fitzpatrick, 1994). The issue of
class and its inherent inequity, however, is further
compounded by factors such as race and gender
within and across these class divisions.
The relative disadvantage of women with regard to
their earnings and levels of asset ownership indicates
that within classes there is further economic inequity
based on gender...

Figure 44: Expressing your voice in academic writing
(Source: UniLearning, Academic writing, University of Wollongong at
http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/academic4bi.html)
The topic sentence, or
a statement of the
writer's intended claim
for this paragraph
The evidence here is
used to support and
elaborate on the claim.
Paraphrased material
is integrated into the
paragraph as sup-
porting evidence for
the writer's claim.
The writers comment
indicates wider reading
and an understanding of
contradictory argument.
New topic sentence
linked to last sentence
of previous paragraph;
impersonal academic
voice being used to
express the writers
educated opinion/claim.
Supporting evidence is
provided to validate
writer's claim/opinion.
The writers voice
makes the significance
of this evidence obvious
by linking it to the issue
of class.
Again, the writers
academic voice is
clear. Here the writer
is creating links with
the following paragraph,
which contains the next
aspect of the argument.

Using note making to achieve a balance
The best time to start recording your own comments is when you read and make
notes for your assignment. A good note making system has room for your own
comments to be recorded next to the relevant content information.
In Chapter 5, Reading and Note Making, we looked at a students example of the
three-column note making system. As you may remember, the first column is
used to record bibliographic information and later may be used to code the notes
according to an essay plan. The second column is used for content, which is
paraphrased and summarised in note form. The third column is used to record
your own thoughts, examples and comments in relation to the essay question.
The example notes in Figure 10, on the following page, come from a text
addressing the issue:
In what ways does acknowledging sources in academic writing allow
students to demonstrate their academic learning at university?
Look at these notes and comments, and then read the paragraph developed from
them in Figures 11 (page 22) and 12 (page 23). The paragraph starts with the
main point of the paragraph (or topic sentence), and continues with a balance of
explanation, evidence and critical comment (supporting sentences). Notice how
the evidence is only used to support points and critical comment already made by
the writer.

Analytical note making from sources (3-column system)

Figure 45: Three-column note making system
(Source: Parker, P. 2005, Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney)

Analytical paragraphs developed from notes

Figure 11: Example of notes integrated into analytical paragraphs

Analytical comments integrated into paragraphs

Figure 12: Example of analytical comments integrated into paragraphs

Note making and the structure of a paragraph
As can be seen in the example on the previous page, the three-column note
making system can lead directly to the structure of the body paragraphs of your
essay. The comments column allows you to find your voice in relation to your
response to the essay question. Your voice makes the claim in the topic sentence
of the body paragraph. This claim is then elaborated on in the supporting sentences
with evidence quotes, examples, facts, data. Your voice weaves through this
evidence by way of explanations, interpretations and evaluations. Your comments,
therefore, are a vital component of your note making in terms of your voice
leading an argument
It is usually important when researching and making notes to make sure you have
covered a range of views on a topic, particularly if research throws up conflicting
findings. It is then important to make sure that your writing shows you are aware
of the conflict.

Activity 8.4: Analysing the use of evidence
Using too little evidence or conflicting evidence without explanation can be just as
bad as using too much evidence. The following paragraph was written by a
student on this essay question:
After reading the paragraph, the marker made these comments.
This evidence conflicts you need to reconcile the different findings
Is this evidence relevant? How does it relate to smoking?
How?
Who? Why?
Where is your reference for this?
Read the paragraph of student writing, below; notice the references to outside
sources. Now, write the comments from the list above in the margins where you
think the marker would have written them.
Student writing
Management should consider issues surrounding passive smoking
because of the effects of allergies. Zussman (1970, p.1) found
that patients tested positive to tobacco leaf extracts. McDougall
and Gleich found no negative effects from tobacco smoke.
However, legislation has made it possible for most smokers and
non-smokers to use public facilities happily. But there are some
people on both sides who are still not satisfied with the arrange-
ments. If the manager had to choose, it would be better to make
the premises non-smoking because only twenty per cent of the
Australian population smokes.

Incorporating evidence with quotations,
paraphrases and summaries
In this chapter, weve looked at what academic argument is, and how evidence is
an important part of it. Now well turn to the actual mechanics of how to incorporate
evidence in your writing.
Building on the discussion of quotations, paraphrases and summaries in Chapter 5,
Reading and note making, well look at ways you can use each of these techniques
in your writing.
Quoting
Quoting involves using the exact words of another. When you use a quotation in
your writing, you are inserting another persons work, word-for-word, into your own.
There are many ways to incorporate quotations into your argument. Shorter
quotations tend to work well when integrated into sentences; longer quotations
can stand-alone.
Choose quotations that have something important to add to your argument. They
need to be fitted into your own framework, and not used as a substitute for your
own ideas, or as isolated points. Dont write paragraphs that look like a collection
of quotations.
Keep in mind that some lecturers and tutors have specific limits to how much of
your essay can consist of direct quotations. Check with your instructor if you have
any questions.
Here are some guidelines to help you determine when to use quotations:
1. Material quoted from another author's work should be reproduced word for
word. These direct quotations must be accurate; they must follow the
wording, spelling and punctuation of the original source.
2. Direct quotations should be used sparingly. Generally speaking, direct
quotations should constitute less than ten percent of the work. Also,
quotations are not counted in the word limit. Students whose work is filled
with lengthy direct quotes tend to demonstrate limited understanding of the
topic under investigation.
3. Quotations should only be used when:
the original words of an author are expressed so concisely and
convincingly that one cannot improve on the wording
documentation of a major argument is necessary and passing
reference would not suffice

the author wishes to comment upon, refute or analyse ideas expressed
by another author
changes through paraphrasing may cause misunderstanding or
misinterpretation (Deakin University, School of Education, 1992, p.4).
4. It is not considered good style to commence a paragraph with a lengthy
quote. Moreover, if a lengthy quote is used, it does not constitute a
paragraph. Further, it is important that students link their own ideas to the
quoted material. If this is not done, the marker is likely to question the
reason for inclusion of the quote.
5. When quoting, always provide the citation (author, year and specific
page/s) in your text and include the citation's full bibliographic details in the
reference list at the end of your text.
Short quotations
Short quotations of a word, phrase or sentence/s are incorporated seamlessly
into your text and are enclosed in quotation marks, and depending on which
referencing style you follow, they are either single (Harvard) or double (APA).
Note: All examples in this section follow the APA system of referencing. Also, the
quoted material, from an American source, retains the American spelling.
Example 1:
When investigating the 'placebo effect', Smith (1982, p.276) stated that "it
disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner".
Example 2:
Smith (1982, p.276) found that "the 'placebo effect' verified in previous
studies, disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner ".
Smith's study can be criticised. He did not clarify the behaviours being
studied, nor did he explain how they were being studied.

Long quotations
Long quotations of more than forty words are lead into the quotation with a colon.
They are displayed in a freestanding block set off from the main text by a line space
above and below. These 'block' quotations are indented one centimetre from the
left and right margins and do not use quotation marks around the quoted material.
Example:
When caring for clinically depressed clients it is vital that a suicidal lethality
assessment is undertaken. This view is supported by Miller (1982, p. 57)
who asserts that:
It is imperative that all clinically depressed people must be con-
sidered as a suicide risk until there is convincing evidence to the
contrary. Further, all suicidal threats should be taken seriously.
Moreover, it is essential that a suicidal lethality assessment be
undertaken at the outset of therapy.
It is acceptable to cite the date and page either after the author, or at the end of
the quote.
Changes from the source
The first letter of the first word in a quotation may be changed to a capital or lower
case letter. The punctuation at the end of a sentence may be changed to fit the
syntax (grammatical arrangement of words).
Omitting material
It is quite acceptable to omit some material from a direct quote. When doing so,
use three ellipsis points (...) within a sentence to indicate that you have omitted
material from the original source. Four ellipsis points are used if a full stop was in
the original work.
Example:
Brown (1992, p.10) believes that "...intellectually disabled people...are
entitled to the same employment opportunities as all other members of
society".
Inserting Material
This practice is also acceptable. When inserting material, use square brackets,
not parentheses, to enclose material inserted in a quotation:
Example:
Jones (1989, p.12) claims that he "feels [it is important] that all nurses
should comply with the ICN Code of Ethics".

Use of [sic]
[Sic] is used when the writer notes a mistake in the author's original work, such as
grammar, spelling and sexist language.
Example 1:
When Elder (1980, p.2) spoke of "practising [sic] nurses as change agents
for the future... he did not explore the ways in which nurses could effect
such changes.
Example 2:
Elder (1991, p.3) has further explored the notion of the changing and
futures roles of nurses. He claims that "...she [sic] will further develop her
[sic] skills in reflective practice to reach this goal.
Integrating quotations
When students use quotations, they often make the mistake of not integrating the
quotation into a well-formed sentence or paragraph. Sometimes sentences are
copied from sources and written without any links to the preceding or following
sentences. Example 1 shows this type of unintegrated quotation. Sometimes
quotations form part of a writer's own sentence, but the sentence is clumsy or
repetitive. Examples 2 and 3 show this type of poor integration.
Example 1:
Stress is undesirable when it is a negative rather than positive aspect of
life. "While stress is viewed as inevitable and a desirable aspect of life as it
supports activity and involvement, of concern is when positive stress turns
into negative stress (commonly called 'distress')" (Bernard,1999, p. 10).
Rewritten version
Stress can be positive when it leads a person to greater involve-ment in life and
job satisfaction. But "when positive stress turns into negative stress (Bernard,
1999, p. 10), the consequences of this 'distress' for the individual are unhealthy.
Example 2:
According to Boscrup (2001), she says that womens share of agricultural
work has increased rather than decreased where modern technology has
been introduced.
Rewritten version:
According to Boscrup (2001), womens share of agricultural work has increased
rather than decreased where modern technology has been introduced.

Example 3:
Although evidence of the validity of Freud's anal stage of development with
regard to toilet training can be found in (Patterson, 1998), where the child
is pressured beyond his physical abilities to control the muscles involved in
staying dry and clean, with resulting behaviour of anger and frustration on
the part of both mother and child.
Rewritten version:
Freud has been criticised for over-emphasising the sexual nature of child devel-
opment. Nevertheless, Patterson (1998) details some evidence which supports
Freud's description of the anal stage of development. Patterson's studies show
that when the child is pressured beyond his physical abilities to control the
muscles involved in staying dry and clean, both mother and child become angry
and frustrated.
Activity 8.5: Integrating quotations
Rewrite each sentence so that the quotation is integrated smoothly and in a
grammatically acceptable manner.
1. Murray (1997, p.15) has defined health as Health is complete physical,
mental and social well-being.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Kivung (2000, p. 238) reports that in 1981 our records show that 57 men
were convicted of sexual offences against women.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. As (Pearson 1999 p. 69) states that self motivation to learn is preferable
to motivation imposed by external sources.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

4. Taking into account what Sir Holloway (1999, p. 38) pointed out, is that,
there are acute social issues that are confronting education planners.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. According to Goddard (2001, p. 193) clearly stated that teachers must
know when and how to intervene.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
6. In Holts (2002, p. 382) quote he stated that schools must be places
where children feel at home.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is a good way to demonstrate that you have understood your sources;
you cannot put someone elses ideas into your own words if you havent first
absorbed and understood those ideas.
Unlike a direct quotation, a paraphrase brings anothers ideas into your writing,
but not their exact words. It is more detailed than a summary, because it is not so
closely focussed on main ideas.
Six steps to writing an effective paraphrase
1. Read and reread the original material until you understand its meaning.
2. Set the original aside and take notes, using synonyms for key words. Note
technical words do not have to be changed. Write your paraphrase from
memory and your notes.
3. Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to remind you later how you
envisage using this material. At the top of your notes, write a key word or
phrase to indicate the subject of your paraphrase.
4. Check your version with the original to make sure that it accurately
expresses all the essential information in a new form.
5. Use quotation marks to identify any unique term or phraseology you have
borrowed exactly from the source.
6. Record the source (including the page) in your notes so that you can
credit it easily if you decide to incorporate the material in your paper.
(Source: 'Paraphrase: Write it in your own words' from the Purdue Online Writing Lab at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu)

Problems with paraphrasing
The following extract is from an original source. Below this is an extract from a
student's essay this example has been plagiarised from the original source.
Compare the two texts:
Original material from textbook:
The dissatisfying nature of industrial or clerical work is no longer disputed.
Many of today's employees prefer a greater level of involvement in their
jobs than was previously assumed. Many desire more self-control and a
chance to make a greater contribution to the organisation.
From: Schuler, R., Dowling, R., & Smart, S. (1988). Personnel/Human Resource
Management in Australia, Sydney: Harper & Row.

Example from student essay:
The nature of industrial/clerical work is dissatisfying. Employees want more
involvement in their jobs, more self-control and an opportunity to make a
greater contribution to their organisation.
In the student's example, you can see that many of the same words have been
used there has been very little effort to paraphrase the content and no acknow-
ledgement of the source has been provided. Below is a suggested rewording for
the student's essay that does not plagiarise the original passage:
Suggested rewording:
It has been argued that workers have grown increasingly dissatisfied with
their work. In an analysis of industrial and clerical workers' experiences,
Schuler et al (1988) claim that many workers desire greater opportunities
for participation and self-control in the workplace.
(Source: Mchawala, C. (2005). Plagiarism online resource. Available from University of South
Australia's Learning Connection web site at
http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/learn/LearningConnection/?PATH=/Resources/workshop%2Dpl
agiarism/Plagiarism+Online+Resource/&default=welcome.htm)

Summarising
Summaries, basically, are made up exclusively of the main ideas of a text using
your own words. They present a broad overview, usually much shorter than the
original text. Often, summaries identify the author's purpose or thesis as well as
the author's approach.
When writing a persuasive analytical piece of work, a summary must be based on
a logical structure that is your own way of seeing the topic. It must use authoritative
research literature in order to support your way of seeing the topic. You have to
choose those ideas from the literature that are useful to support your thesis and
show the inadequacies of other ideas that contradict your thesis. There is no point
in just summarising what various authors have all said.
Compare the two paragraphs below:
Paragraph showing summary
only
Paragraph showing author's
point of view
Dickson (1984: 12) maintains that
television violence has a marked
effect on the development of the
child. Brown (1985: 176) says that
children who watch a great deal of
televised violence could be affected
for many years. The Television
Broadcasting Tribunal (1982: 16)
recommends that we should limit
the number of hours per week of
programmes showing violence
during childrens viewing times.
That television violence has a
considerable effect on the
development of the child is not
disputed. Both Dickson (1984: 12)
and Brown (1985: 176) have shown
through extensive experiments that
the majority of children are affected
by television violence, Brown
having extended the base of her
research to longitudinal studies
which reveal that this effect is quite
long-term. In the face of such
convincing evidence, the Television
Broadcasting Tribunal has been
compelled to act in order to reduce
the impact that increased television
viewing could have on children. The
Tribunal has recommended (1982:
16) that the number of hours per
week of violent programmes should
be limited during childrens viewing
times. In spite of these
recommendations, however, there
continues to be a significant level of
violence in programmes which are
broadcast at prime viewing times
for children.
Figure 13: Comparison between simple summary and point of view
Notice the
references.
They focus
only on what
the authors
have said
Note that the
focus is on the
ideas and the
argument.

Introducing evidence: author or information focus?
There are two main ways you can choose to introduce your paraphrases,
quotations or summaries. This evidence can have an:
author focus where the cited author is part of the sentence and only the
year is placed in brackets. This occurs when you wish to
make the author an explicit part of your point or explanation.
This is useful when comparing writers or theorists.
For example:
Beder (2002) argues that a corporate agenda dominates
discussion about the state of the environment.
information focus where the author is included in the brackets along with the
year. This occurs when you wish to make the issue, topic
or your point of view the focus, and use the sources for
support.
For example:
It is argued that a corporate agenda dominates discussion
about the state of the environment (Beder, 2002).
A corporate agenda dominates discussion about the state of
the environment (Beder, 2002).
Reporting verbs and phrases to introduce quotations
Whether you are introducing quotations or paraphrases, reporting verbs and
phrases help to integrate the source material smoothly into your text. Reporting
verbs and phrases have several purposes:
They introduce the quotation
They identify the source of the quote
They interpret the cited author's attitude towards the quoted material.
Accordingly, reporting verbs have different meanings:
They carry varying degrees of conviction and commitment
They communicate a positive or negative attitude.

When introducing a quote, therefore, it is important to choose an appropriate
reporting verb. Below are some common verbs and phrases to introduce another
author's facts or ideas, opinions or arguments, suggestions or research results
Common verbs to introduce quotations:
states highlights describes remarks
adds agrees contends clarifies
affirms contests implies demonstrates
disagrees offers predicts questions
theorises justifies confirms reasons
disputes puts forward counters elaborates
illustrates argues observes rejects
Common phrases to introduce quotations:
Facts or ideas
According to X ...
X comments that ...
Reference to x reveals that ...
As X has indicated ...
X notes/stresses/emphasises that ...
As X points out ...
X has drawn attention to the fact that ...

Opinions or arguments
X has expressed a similar view ...
X feels/believes/maintains that ...
X claims/insists that . . .
The work of X asserts that . . .
X warns/challenges that . . .
X criticises that . . .
X is convinced that . . .

Suggestions
Research by X suggests that ...
X's study into Y recommends that ...
X proposes/advises/urges that ...
Research results
In an article study, X found that ...
A study by X shows/indicates that ...
In their analysis, X reveals that ...

Plagiarism and your own voice
Sometimes poor use of evidence can result in plagiarism. Some examples include:
Failing to use quotation marks when copying the exact words from a
source. If you want to use the exact words, you must reference the source
and use quotation marks around the cited material.
Submitting the work of another student. The work may have been obtained
from a student who has done the course previously or from a similar course
in another institution.
Failing to acknowledge other writers ideas. Even if you paraphrase an
idea from another writer you must still provide a reference.
Taking key sentences from the original source, making only minor alter-
ations to the sentence structure or vocabulary and presenting it as
paraphrased information.
It is the last kind of plagiarism that often causes students the most difficulty
because it can be hard to put another writers ideas into your own words. Look at
the following text from an original source. Then compare the students version
with the suggested rewording.
Original material from journal article
This suggests that nursing professionals may have an important window
of opportunity to intervene with patients in the hospital setting or at least
introduce the notion of not resuming tobacco use on hospital discharge.
The size of the effect may be dependent on the reason for hospitalisation.
Rice, V.H. & Stead, L. F. (2001). Nursing interventions for smoking cessation.
Student text
It has been suggested that there may be a window of opportunity for
nurses to intervene in hospitals by introducing to patients the idea about
not resuming smoking on hospital discharge. The reason for hospitalisation
will influence the size of the effect (Rice & Stead, 2001).
Suggested rewording
Nurses may be able to influence whether patients resume smoking when
they leave hospital. However, the extent of this influence may depend on
why a person was hospitalised in the first place (Rice & Stead, 2001).
Notice how the student text in the example above still sounds as if it is written in
the voice of Rice and Stead. Voice is used here to describe the tone or expression
of the author's writing. It is important to use your own voice when paraphrasing as
this will show the reader that you understand the idea as well as make your writing

more cohesive. Even though you use evidence from a variety of sources to
support your ideas, your writing will sound as if it is written in the one voice yours.
Occasionally, you may be tempted to use someone elses words or ideas in your
writing without acknowledging the source. Deliberate plagiarism can be difficult to
prove, but the damage you can do to your academic career is not worth the risk.
Computer programs designed to detect plagiarism in student writing are becoming
more sophisticated, and are in use on many university campuses. The conse-
quences of a lecturer discovering that you have deliberately plagiarised range
from re-submission to failure and exclusion from a course.
Avoiding plagiarism
To avoid plagiarising, you need to:
acknowledge all sources of information that you use in assignments. This
involves putting a reference to each source within your text, either as an in-
text or footnote reference, and then giving the full bibliographic details of all
your sources in a reference list or bibliography at the end of your text.
understand completely the varying arguments in your sources
be clear about your own position or thesis and the purpose of your essay
interpret the information from your sources to develop your own argument.
It is important to try to interpret the source as much as possible in your own
words. Then your lecturer can see that you understand the ideas and concepts in
your sources and that you can use these to develop your own argument. You are
not expected to be able to express the ideas as well as the original author did.
However, you are expected to interpret these ideas for the purpose of your own
assessment task.

Referencing
Accurate and consistent referencing can ensure that you will not inadvertently lapse
into plagiarism. There are many reasons for referencing. They include:
showing that you have researched a topic before writing about it
developing your own understanding of issues, concepts and debates in the
topic you are writing about
acknowledging the sources of your arguments
allowing others to locate those sources for review
acknowledging the importance of building on existing knowledge.
In addition to the information presented below, further assistance with referencing
(including links to style guide web sites, the universitys plagiarism policy, and
information about citing electronic information) can be found on the UWS Library
web site.
There are two parts to documenting your sources. The first is to put an in-text
reference to each source within the text of your essay. The second is to compile
a reference list that gives the full bibliographic details of all your sources at the
end of your essay.
In-text references
In-text references acknowledge the source of an idea and provide a link to the full
bibliographic details in the reference list. Different disciplines will use different
referencing systems and you will need to clarify which system is appropriate for
each of your subjects.
In-text referencing tips
Acknowledge the source of ideas by referencing both within the text and in
the reference list.
Use short rather than long quotations, and use only the part of a sentence
that is relevant for your purpose. Quote the cited words exactly as they are
written in the original text, and enclose these words with quotation marks.
Paraphrase the original source by writing the ideas in your own words and
acknowledging the source.
Be consistent in your style of referencing. That is, do not mix different
styles. Use a referencing guide and follow it exactly.

Write the full referencing details as you research on a card or in a
workbook or computer file. If you copy down exact words from the text, use
quotation marks in your notes and include the page number(s).
Use reporting phrases to introduce your references seamlessly into your
text. For example:
According to X,
X argues that
To quote from X, " "
As X points out,
Check the referencing details for a textbook on the 'publishing history'
page (at the beginning of the book). This will give you all the information
you need to write a full reference. See example below.
Academic English for Australian Students

Published and distributed by
Blue Harbour Publishers, 50 Quay Street, Sydney, 2000, Australia.

Copyright Frank Brown 2000

All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of
criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.

ISBN 0 123 45678 9
ISSN 0 123 45679 8
Figure 14: Example of the publishing history page of a textbook
From this page, the full bibliographic details (APA style) are as follows:
Brown, F. (2000). Academic English for Australian students. Sydney: Blue
Harbour Publishers.

The reference list
A reference list and/or a bibliography is the second step in documenting your
sources. A reference list contains the full bibliographic details of each source that
you actually referred to in your text. A bibliography is a list of additional sources
used for background reading but has not specifically been referred to in your text.
Usually, only reference lists are required, unless an individual lecturer also asks
for a bibliography as evidence of wider reading.
The reference list (and/or bibliography) is attached to the end of your text. It not
only documents the cited work/s but it also provides the information necessary to
specifically identify and retrieve each source.
To make it easy for the reader to retrieve (and then read) your sources, your
referencing details must be accurate and complete. As a rule of thumb, each
entry in your reference list should contain authorship details (e.g. surname and
initials), year of publication, title of work, publisher and place of publication. These
details vary depending on the source type (e.g. books, periodicals etc.). For
selected examples of entry details of various source types using different refer-
encing styles, see the table on page 43.
Remember, sources (or references) cited in the body of your work must appear in
the reference list. Correspondingly, each entry in the reference list must be cited
in your text.
Alphabetical ordering of references
Reference lists must be arranged in a logical way. The following steps will help
you to do this:
1. Arrange entries in alphabetical order by the surname of the first author.
The Sort command in MS Word can be a real time-saver for this step.
2. Alphabetise letter by letter. Remember that "nothing precedes something":
Brown, J. R. will precede Browning, A. R.
3. Order multiple entries by the same author by the year of publication, the
earliest first. Thus, Brown, J. R. 1978 will precede Brown, J. R. 1992.
4. Order single-author entries to precede multiple-author entries beginning
with the same surname. Thus, Kaufman, J. R. 1981 will precede Kaufman,
J. R. & Cochran, D. F. 1978.
5. Alphabetise references with a corporate author by the first significant word
of the corporate name. For example, The Schizophrenia Fellowship of NSW
will appear in the 'S' rather than the 'T' section of the alphabetical list.

6. Use the word 'Anonymous' only if work is signed 'Anonymous' as if it were
a true name. If there is no author, then use the title of the work and
alphabetised the entry by the first significant word of the title. For example,
Anonymous 1991, 'The concept of horizontal violence in nursing' (a
personal position paper) would be entered with the 'A's.
'Suicide, the not-so easy way out', 1992. would be entered with the 'S's.
Abbreviations in reference lists
Abbreviations are often needed in the reference list for parts of books and various
publications. Again, depending on the style of referencing you use, these details
can vary. Check your guides for details. However, as a rough guide, use the
following abbreviations:
Abbreviation Stands for ...
chap. chapter
edn. edition
rev. edn. revised edition
2
nd
edn. second edition
ed. or eds. editors(s)
p. or pp. page(s)
vol. volume
vols. volumes
no. number
n.d. no date
Figure 15: Abbreviations in reference list entries
Referencing systems
The table on the following pages contains examples of three different referencing
systems. Look at each one carefully and note their similarities and differences.


Referencing
System
Source
Type
Format of reference
Author, A. A. (Publication year). Title of book. Location:
Publisher.
Book
Shapell, R.T. (1998). Understanding health and wellness.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Author, A. A. (Publication year). Title of chapter. In B. C.
Editor (Ed.), Title of book (p pp). Location:
Publisher.
Chapter in
edited book
Gray, D. (1999). Indigenous health: The perpetuation of
inequality. In J. Germov. (Ed.). Second Opinion:
An introduction to health sociology (pp. 57 74).
Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Author, A. A. (Publication year). Title of article. Title of
journal, Volume number (issue number), p pp.
Journal
article
Chanock, K. (2000). Comments on essays: do students
understand what tutors write? Teaching in Higher
Education, 5 (1), 95 105.
Author, A. A. (Date of copyright/last update) Title of page.
Retrieved day/month/year from URL.
Web page
Greater Hattiesburg Civic Awareness Group, Task Force
on Sheltered Programs. (2004). Fund-raising
efforts. Retrieved January 10, 2004, from
http://www.hattiesburgcag.org
(Author, Date, p. #)
APA
(American
Psychological
Association)
In-text
citation
(Shapell, 1998, p. 206)
Author, A. A. Publication year, Title of Book, Publisher,
Location
Book
Shapell, R.T. 1998, Understanding health and wellness,
New York, Mcgraw-Hill.
Author, A. A. Publication year, Title of chapter in Title of
Book, ed. B. C. Editor, Publisher, Location
Chapter in
edited book
Gray, D. Indigenous health: The perpetuation of
inequality In Second Opinion: An introduction to
health sociology, ed. J. Germov, Melbourne,
Oxford University Press
Author, A. A. Publication year, Title of article, Title of
Journal, Volume number, issue number, p pp
Journal
article
Chanock, K. 2000, Comments on essays: do students
understand what tutors write? Teaching in Higher
Education, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 95 105.
Author/editor. (Last update or copyright date), Title,
[Online], Publisher, Available from: <URL> [Date of
access].
Web page
on Sheltered Programs. 2004, Fund-raising efforts
[Online], Available from
http://www.hattiesburgcag.org [January 10, 2004].
(Author, Date: p. #)
Harvard
(author/date)
In-text
citation
(Shapell, 1998: p. 206)


Referencing
system
Source
type
Format of reference
Author, Adam Allen. Title of Book. Location: Publisher,
Publication Year.
Book
Shapell, Roger. Understanding health and wellness. New
York: Mcgraw-Hill, 1998.
Author, Adam Allen. Title of Chapter. Title of Book. Ed.
Byron Charles Editor. Location: Publisher,
Publication year. p pp.
Chapter in
edited book
Gray, David. Indigenous health: The perpetuation of
inequality Second Opinion: An introduction to health
sociology. Ed. John Germov. Melbourne: Oxford
University Press, 1999. pp. 57-74.
Author, Adam Allen. Title of Article. Title of Journal
Volume (Year): p pp.
Journal
article
Chanock, K. Comments on Essays: Do Students
Understand What Tutors Write? Teaching in Higher
Education, 5.1 (2000): 95 105.
Author, Adam Allen. Title of Page. Title of Site. Access
date. Available: URL. Date of copyright/last update.
Web page
on Sheltered Programs. Fund-raising efforts.
January 10, 2004. Available:
http://www.hattiesburgcag.org. 2004
(Author Page #)
MLA
(Modern
Language
Association)
In-text
citation
(Shapell 206)
Figure 16: Referencing style comparison
When using these various referencing systems, keep the following points in mind:
There is no one universally agreed upon format for web page references.
The key is to create a reference that is consistent with the referencing style
you are using and to use it consistently throughout your text. For more
information, refer to the UWS Librarys links to citing resources at
www.library.uws.edu.au/citing.html
When creating an in-text citation, be aware of the following:
Page numbers are required for direct quotes; page numbers are often
helpful when citing paraphrases, but not required.
Any information that you provide in the sentence itself does not have to
appear in the citation. For example:
According to Chanock (2000), tutors comments must be clear.
Tutors comments must be clear (Chanock, 2000).

In conclusion
Academic argument is the basis for much of the writing you will do at university.
Many of the texts you will encounter in your reading will make use of it as well.
Learning to recognise and understand the arguments of others, and to construct
your own, are valuable outcomes of university study.
A major part of writing a well-reasoned argument involves incorporating evidence
from outside sources. Your ability to do so demonstrates that you are capable of
translating information from one context to another which means that you have
truly understood that information.
Evidence can be incorporated in the form of quotations, paraphrases or summaries.
Each has their uses, and each has their drawbacks. But what they all have in
common is that they must be referenced wherever they appear in your writing.
Referencing allows you to show how widely you have read and researched your
topic, while giving credit to those whose work has added to the knowledge base.
Failure to reference is a serious breach of academic standards, with serious
consequences.
There are several referencing systems to choose from; you should always check
with your instructor to determine which they prefer you to use in your assignments.

Activity 8.1: Using conjunctions in academic argument
1. Suitable conjunctions:
a. because
b. so
c. but
d. whereas
e. Likewise
Activity 8.2: Using hedging
These are not the only correct answers to this exercise. You may have something
similar but not identical to these.
1. Replace underlined words with an appropriate hedge.
a. The feeling of content overload leads students to take a surface approach
to their work. Dealing with the information becomes of prime concern
and so the student may not get to the deeper skills of analysing,
applying and synthesising. It is the latter approach that most often
leads to success in these courses (Baker, 1991, p. 2).
b. The stress felt by students about the practical examination can
adversely affect their approach to learning. When students feel that an
assessment situation is threatening they tend to adopt a mechanical,
rote, surface learning approach that is rarely helpful to their results
(Baker, 1991, p. 3).
2. When nursing older patients, many nurses focus on custodial care rather
than rehabilitation. This means that in the health assessment interview of
the older patient, nurses generally base questions on problems with
bathing, feeding and medications. However, the interview with a younger
patient usually focuses on activities such as work or sport. Aged people
may be perceived as having less social worth because they are not
typically engaged in paid employment.

Activity 8.3: Identifying how evidence is used
Identification Paragraph
Claim
Elaboration

There is strong evidence that men and women have different
ways of knowing. In Women's ways of knowing, Belenky et al.
(1986) report on a fascinating study of women's educational
experiences and problems. Their research was informed by the
feminist perception that "conceptions of knowledge and truth that
are accepted today have been shaped throughout history by
the male dominated majority culture" (p. 5). This view was
confirmed by the women's stories about their fears, failures and
successes in education.
Belenky, M.F., Clinchy, B.M., Goldberger, N.R., & Tarule, J.M. (1986).
Women's ways of knowing. New York: Basic Books.
Claim
Exemplification

Definition
Multiskilling is emphasised in the combined law courses, which
have great professional advantages. For example, an arts/law
graduate may not only be a journalist and a lawyer, but also a
graduate who can view each of the disciplines from the
perspective of the other. Multiskilling recognises that graduates
of the combined law program may choose not to practise law,
but rather treat the degree as complementing the other degree
and its career options.
Undergraduate courses at UWS (2001). p. 64.

Claim

Elaboration
I have fiercely maintained one personal rule in all my so-called
"popular" writing. I believe - as Darwin did when he published all
his books for general audiences - that we can still have a genre
of scientific books suitable for and accessible alike to profes-
sionals and interested laypeople. The concepts of science can
be presented without any compromise, without any simplification
counting as distortion, in language accessible to all intelligent
people. I hope that this book can be read with profit both in
seminars for graduate students and on the businessman's
special to Tokyo.
(Gould, S.J. (1989). Wonderful Life. London: Penguin, p. 16)
Claim (effect)
Cause
In the Olympic arena the gap between heartbreak and triumph
can be minuscule. In the women's 4 x 100 metres relay heats, a
dropped baton ends Australia's chances. Hours later the 4 x 400
team breaks an Australian record that has stood for more than
two decades and storms into the finals. It's true - sport really can
be life with the volume turned up.
(Editorial, The Weekend Australian, September 30-October 1 2000, p. 38)

Activity 8.4: Analysing the use of evidence
Management should consider issues surrounding passive smoking because of
the effects of allergies. [Zussman (1970) found that patients tested positive to
tobacco leaf extracts.] (2) [McDougall and Glieich found no negative effects from
tobacco smoke.] (1) [However, legislation has made it possible for most smokers
and non-smokers to use public facilities happily.] (3) [But there are some people
on both sides who are still not satisfied with the arrangements.] (4) [If the
manager had to choose, it would be better to make the premises non-smoking
because only twenty per cent of the Australian population smokes.] (5)
1. This evidence conflicts you need to reconcile the different findings
2. Is this evidence relevant? How does it relate to smoking?
3. How?
4. Who? Why?
5. Where is your reference for this?
Activity 8.5: Integrating quotations
1. 1.Murray (1997) has defined health as complete physical, mental and
social well being (p. 15)
The word health was repeated unnecessarily in the quotation. The text is less
interrupted if the page number is placed at the end of the sentence.
2. Kivung (2000) reports that in 1981 57 men were convicted of sexual
offences against women (p. 238).
The writer did not use quotation marks to indicate a direct quote. It is acceptable
to selectively omit words (our records show, for example) from a direct quote;
however, all remaining information that appears between the quotation marks
must appear exactly as it was written in the original text.
3. Pearson states that self motivation to learn is preferable to motivation
imposed by external sources(1999, p. 69).
Information included in the citation cannot be the subject of the sentence. The
sentence must make grammatical sense if the information included in brackets is
removed. Date and page number can be moved to the end of the sentence.
4. Sir Holloway (1999) points out that there are acute social issues
confronting education planners (p. 38).
The quotation marks were missing from the direct quote and many unnecessary
words (Taking into account..., is that...) were inserted into the sentence.
5. Goddard clearly states that teachers must know when and how to
intervene(2001, p. 193).
It is not necessary to use both According to before the authors name and
clearly stated after. Choose one or the other.

6. According to Holt (2002), "schools must be places where children feel at
home" (p. 382).
Holt did not make this statement as a quote; it was a part of his article. The writer
of the essay included it in their essay as a quote.

Chapter 9
Features of academic writing


Introduction
Some aspects of academic writing are common to all assignment types and
writing situations. For example, all kinds of academic writing contain paragraphs
that must have clear structure, logical organisation, and smooth flow of information
within and between paragraphs, or cohesion. And in most kinds, formal language
predominates.
In this section, we will look at some of these aspects in detail. When you have
completed this chapter, you will be able to:
Define and identify a topic sentence
Describe different methods of organising and developing a paragraph
Group connective words according to their function and insert them into
your writing
Use pronouns to make the connections between your ideas clear
Recognise and employ the characteristics of academic language.
Paragraph writing
A paragraph is a group of sentences that develops a common theme or topic.
Paragraphs may be long or short, but in academic texts, such as essays, paragraphs
of about one hundred words are quite common.
Topic sentences
Lecturers expect students to write well-formed paragraphs. As we will see, the
form or structure of a paragraph depends on the writer's purpose. For example, a
paragraph of comparison and contrast will not have the same structure as a
paragraph that classifies. Also, a paragraph that summarises a book might just
list the chapter contents, without much development of ideas, like this:
Chapter one outlines the history of whaling in Australian waters. Chapter
two describes in detail the role of whaling in the early years of the colony. In
chapter three, the author describes the spread of whaling in the nineteenth
century. In the fourth and fifth chapters

By contrast, a paragraph in the body of an argument essay might show quite a
different progression of ideas, and a different overall structure. It will most likely
have a topic sentence that introduces the paragraph. Here is an example, with
the topic sentence underlined.
Pronunciation is one area of second language acquisition where children
seem to have an advantage over adults. Whereas adults normally retain an
accent long after they have reached fluency, children usually manage to
speak a second language with little or no accent (McLaughlin, 1984, p. 53).
This difference has been attributed to biological causes. For example,
Lenneberg (1967, cited in McLaughlin, 1984, p. 46) claims that after puberty
"the brain has lost its plasticity". The result is that children possess a capacity
for excellent phonological representation, which adults have lost.
Notice the following features of the essay paragraph:
The first sentence introduces the paragraph topic (pronunciation of English)
The third sentence begins with a phrase ('this difference') that summarises
the second sentence
The fourth sentence adds to sentence three by giving one example of a
'biological cause'
The last sentence offers a conclusion.
Despite their different purposes, content and structures, the two paragraphs have
this in common: each has a definite structure and is confined to a single topic
(whaling, pronunciation).
As you read, look for topic sentences. You will find them in most paragraphs, but
in well-written academic texts, they will be more common.
Activity: 9.1 Topic sentences
Below are three paragraphs. Read each one, and then from the choices given,
select the most appropriate topic sentence for each of the paragraphs.
Paragraph 1
The Federal Government deals with matters such as defence and immi-
gration. State governments deal with matters such as public transport and
public education. Local government deals with matters such as provision of
garbage services and maintenance of local roads and parks.
Circle the appropriate topic sentence from the following:
a. The Federal government is the most important level of government.
b. Australia has a unique system of government.
c. There are three levels of government in Australia, with different
responsibilities.

Paragraph 2
His basic policy on Aboriginal affairs has not changed but his tone certainly
has. He seems to have belatedly realised he was missing a mainstream
wave. The Prime Minister is now trying to catch up, without jettisoning views
he has held so long and so forcibly that he could not credibly abandon them.
a. The Prime Minister did not join the reconciliation marches.
b. When John Howard speaks on Aboriginal affairs these days, he sounds
like a man with his mind increasingly on the judgement of history.
c. John Howard gave the annual Menzies lecture in Sydney yesterday.
Paragraph 3
On the one hand, there are those who believe that soil erosion is linked to
...exploitation by national and international elites, rich landowners, large
companies and so on [which] push the poor below subsistence level. They
are then forced to mine the soil - extracting fertility without restoring it -
simply to survive (Blaikie, in Harrison, 1996, p.265). On the other hand are
the Neo-Malthusians, who argue that it is population growth that leads to
soil erosion in West and Central Africa and South Asia, where increased
numbers of people place pressure on marginal areas (Harrison, 1996, p.265).
In this situation, technology is a factor that can help reduce erosion, rather
than contribute to it, through the use of conservation techniques.
a. There is debate as to the factors which contribute to soil erosion, with
arguments being split down ideological lines.
b. It has been confirmed that population growth contributes to soil erosion
and not technology which can actually help reduce erosion.
c. In many countries population growth has resulted in soil erosion.

Ways of organising and developing paragraphs
Paragraphs can be organised in many different ways. The kind of paragraph you
write depends on your purposes, your topic, and the type of text you are writing
(for example, a summary or an essay).
Whatever your paragraph topic, it is useful to begin by making notes on what you
already know. Ask yourself questions like:
What does --- mean?
What is an example of ---?
What is the history of ---?
What are the effects of ---?
What are the causes ---?
How is --- similar to ---?
How is --- different from ---?
These kinds of questions should help you to define your ideas, extend them, and
make them more explicit.
Once you have developed your ideas in this way, you should be able to see an
organising pattern growing out of this development. It is also possible to combine
patterns to create an effective paragraph. In this section, we will look closely at
three methods of organisation:
Classification
Compare and/or contrast
Cause and effect

Classification
Paragraphs that classify information group different items by common traits. You
might structure a classification paragraph in this way:
Topic sentence Identifies what is to be classified and the categories
used
Support sentences Give more information about each of the categories
Concluding sentence
(optional)
Summarises and links to next paragraph
Figure 1: Organisation of classification paragraph
(Source: Academic Skills Office, University of New England at
http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/aso/pdf/p-class.pdf)
When you write a classification paragraph, you might use vocabulary like:
can be divided into ... is a part of ...
is a type of ... fits into ...
falls under ... is grouped with ...
belongs to ... is related to ...
can be classified as ... is associated with ...
(Source: Davies, M. Paragraphing, Readability, and Punctuation)
Example of a classification paragraph
All things can be divided into two large groups: living and non-living. Likewise,
living things can be divided into plants and animals. A key distinction is that
plants make their own food through photosynthesis, whereas animals must
consume other living things. Animals can be divided into vertebrates and
invertebrates, and further sub-divided into mammals, reptiles, amphibians,
fish and birds. Plants can be classified as either flowering or non-flowering.

Paragraphs that classify can be represented by tree diagrams. The tree diagram
below represents the example classification paragraph from the previous page.
Tree diagram
Things

Living Things

Non-living
Things

Plants

Flowering

Non-flowering
Animals
Vertebrates Invertebrates

Mammals

Amphibians

Reptiles
Fish

Birds

Figure 2: Example of a tree diagram

Compare and/or contrast
Compare and/or contrast paragraphs are useful when you are asked to look for
similarities and/or differences between things or ideas. A comparison focuses on
similarities while a contrast focuses on the differences. You may be asked to both
compare and contrast or to only compare or contrast.
When you write a compare and/or contrast paragraph, you have two main options
for organising your support sentences. You may choose to discuss the things or
ideas feature by feature, as illustrated in Option A below, or you may want to
describe one thing or idea at a time including all its features, as in Option B.
Topic sentence Identifies the topic and the intention to compare and/or
contrast X and Y. Comments on the degree of similarity
and/or difference
Support sentences Describe and compare features
Option A Option B
Feature 1 Describe X, describe Y
identify similarities and differences
Describe X Features 1 3
Describe Y Features 1 3

Describe and discuss points of similarity
and/or difference
Concluding sentence Summarises and interprets differences and/or
similarities
Figure 3: Organisation of compare and/or contrast paragraph
(Source: Academic Skills Office, University of New England at
http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/aso/pdf/p-comp.pdf)

A compare and/or contrast paragraph might use vocabulary for:
Comparison: Contrast:
is similar to ... in contrast ...
in the same way... however ...
similarly on the other hand ...
both ... differs from ...
again yet ...
equally while ...
likewise unlike
as well but
correspondingly whereas ...
(Source: Davies, M. Paragraphing, Readability, and Punctuation)
Example of a compare and contrast paragraph
In research on approaches to learning, a distinction is often made between
deep learning and surface learning. The basic difference in approaches is that
deep learning is an active process whereas surface learning is passive. Active
learning involves skills such as planning and relating new information to prev-
iously learned information. Surface or passive learners tend to be dependent
on teachers and lack organisational skills. The learning strategies of deep
learners include looking for main ideas, and reading critically. Surface learners,
on the other hand, adopt strategies such as focussing on 'facts' and learning
by rote. Although surface learning strategies can be important in some subjects
or in some stages of learning, deep learning is more likely to lead to under-
standing and success in university studies.

Paragraphs of comparison and contrast can be represented in tables. The table
below breaks down the example paragraph on the previous page.
Table
Topic Deep learning Surface learning
Approach Active:
planning & relating ideas
Passive:
teacher-dependent,
poor organisation
Features Look for main ideas
Read critically
Focus on facts
Rote learning
Effects Long-term success Limited long-term value
Figure 4: Organisation of a comparison/contrast paragraph
Cause and effect
Cause and effect paragraphs show how situations or events are influenced or
caused by others. A cause and effect paragraph may show several causes
(reasons) for a certain event or situation and you might structure it in this way:
Topic sentence Describes the cause and effect relationship
Support sentences Describe each of the causes that led to the effect
Concluding sentence
(optional)
Figure 5: Organisation of cause/effect paragraph with focus on causes
A cause and effect paragraph might use the following vocabulary:
so/so that ... for this reason ...
therefore... because of ...
consequently due to
as a result ... hence ...
thus in that case


Example paragraph that shows a range of causes
To understand why some countries have higher birth rates than others it is
necessary to appreciate some economic and cultural factors peculiar to those
countries. Levels of education and affluence, for example, are known to have
an impact because birth rates are usually lower in developed countries than
they are in less developed countries. Birth rates are higher in countries where
children are a necessary part of the family labour force. Families are more
likely to have children if the children are needed to work the farm. This factor
may be relevant also to the observation that countries which have higher
levels of urbanisation tend to have lower birth rates. Another factor relevant in
developed countries seems to be the high cost of educating and raising
children. In countries where education is valued and costs are high, families
tend to restrict the number of children that they have.
Sometimes, however, you may have to focus on the various effects (results or
consequences) of an event or situation, and you might structure your paragraph
in this way:
Topic sentence Describes the cause and effect relationship
Support sentences Describe each of the effects of the cause
Concluding sentence
(optional)
Figure 6: Organisation of cause/effect paragraph with focus on effects
Example paragraph that describes a series of effects
When tropical rainforest is eradicated much more than just trees are lost and
in time the entire eco-system is destroyed. Countless animal and plant species
must either adapt to their dramatic new environments or perish. Human popu-
lations are displaced and their cultures and sources of livelihood are disrupted
or lost. Fragile, tropical soils become infertile and prone to erosion which can
cause widespread damage. Regulated stream flows are replaced by alternating
foods and droughts. When deforestation is extensive local climate may become
drier; valuable sources of timber, food crops, medicine, and industrial goods
are lost. These losses in turn can contribute to a range of social, economic
and political problems.
(Source of paragraphs: Unilearn 1996. Academic literacy skills: a guide to successful essay writing.)

Cause and effect paragraphs can be represented in flow charts. We will use the
'Causes' paragraph, on the previous page, as an example:
Flow chart
Figure 7: Cause and effect flow chart
Other organising patterns
Other common forms of organising information in paragraphs include:
general to specific
problem and solution
claim and evidence
claim and counter-claim
chronological (time)
most important to least important
Look for examples of these organisational patterns as you read.

High
birth
rates

Low levels
of
education/
affluence

Low cost
of
educating/
raising
children

Children necessary
part of workforce

Low levels of
urbanisation

Activity 9.2: Organising paragraphs
1. Read the following text. It classifies and compares types of bilingualism.
Types of bilingualism
Researchers have identified two main types of bilingualism. These types are 'co-
ordinate' and 'compound'. The differences between these types are believed to
result from the way in which the languages had been learned.
In coordinate bilingualism, the person learns the languages in separate environ-
ments. The words in each language are kept separate by the brain, and each
word has its own specific meaning. An example would be a person who learned
Chinese at home and English at school. Because the languages were learned in
different environments, it is believed that the brain organises and stores each
language separately. This would mean that the Chinese word jia would have one
meaning, and the English word home its own meaning.
By contrast, in compound bilingualism, the person learns and uses two languages
in the same environment, so the brain does not represent or store the languages
separately. Thus, a child who learned both English and Chinese in the home would
give words a common meaning. The English home and the Chinese jia would be
represented by the brain in the same way. Although there are two labels, English
and a Chinese one, the concept would be the same.
According to this interpretation, for compound bilinguals the languages are inter-
dependent, whereas for coordinate bilinguals the languages are independent. The
compound bilingual has one set of meanings but two sets of words. The coordinate
bilingual has two sets of meanings and two sets of words.
2. Look at how the bilingualism text has been represented in the table below.
Study the table carefully and then reread the bilingualism text.
Type of bilingualism
Features
Coordinate Compound
Context where
language is learned
Different Same
Example of context Chinese at home, English
at school
Chinese and English at
home
Word meanings Specific to each language Common
Word examples jia, home jia, home
How meanings are
stored in brain
Two sets of meanings, two
set of words
One set of meanings, two
sets of words s
Figure 8: Break down of bilingualism text

3. In your own words and without looking back again at the original text, write
a paragraph which classifies and compares types of bilingualism based on
the information in the table. (You neednt include all the information. The
main aim is to construct a clear, well-organised paragraph.)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Cohesion
When sentences and paragraphs flow smoothly from one to another, they are
said to have cohesion. Cohesion can be improved by strengthening the ties
between pieces of information or ideas.
There are a number of ways to strengthen ties in a text, we will explore two:
Connective words (conjunctions and transition signals)
Pronoun reference

Connective words
Connective words are those words that signal changes and movements in the
text to the reader. Connective words include both conjunctions and transition
signals. These words signal the logical relationships between ideas in a text so
that the reader can easily understand the relationship between the parts of a text.
The effectiveness of a text is increased if the logical relationships that exist
between clauses within a sentence
between sentences
between paragraphs
are highlighted through the use of conjunctions and transition signals. (For
information on the role of connective words in academic argument, see Chapter
8, Academic argument and evidence.)
Both conjunctions and transition signals serve the same function; however, they
do so in different situations.
Conjunctions are words that are used within sentences to join clauses or
parts of a sentence together
Transition signals are used to join sentences, idea groups and paragraphs
together.

Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words that are used within sentences to join clauses or parts of
a sentence together.
Below is a list of conjunctions you can use in your writing; it is not exhaustive - but
it should give you a few ideas.
Function Conjunction
Adding information and or
Contrasting information but
yet
although
despite
even though
while
whereas

Comparing information and
like
as
both...and
Ordering information
chronologically
after
before
since
when
Causational/reasoning because
as
since
now that
for
then
Conditional if
unless
in case
provided that
Concluding information so
Figure 9: Conjunctions and their functions
Remember, conjunctions that share the same functional category are not neces-
sarily interchangeable. Check a grammar handbook for more detailed information
about how to use a particular conjunction.

Activity 9.3: Using conjunctions
Read the sentences below. Then choose an appropriate conjunction to complete
each sentence. There may be more than one correct answer.

1. Peter enjoyed the course _____________ he felt uneasy about the test.
(and despite yet unless although)

2. Salmon fisheries have succeeded _______________ the underwater
(after if as but because)
geography ensures fish are plentiful in the region.

3. There are many users of this kind of accounting information,
_________________ trade unions and customers.
(now that such as however for example for)

4. This method of extraction is used by chemical companies
_______________ mineral mining companies.
(and provided that in addition to like or)

5. Inflation and unemployment have reached their lowest levels in a decade
____________ of the booming export sector.
(whereas like since as a result because)
Transition signals
Transition signals are used to join sentences, idea groups and paragraphs together.
Use these expressions carefully be sure the one you choose has a function that
is appropriate to your meaning. And be wary of overuse!
Again, this isnt an exhaustive list, but it will give you a good start.

Transition signals
Function Transition signal
Adding information in addition
additionally
moreover
furthermore
besides
in fact
also
and
Contrasting information on the other hand
in contrast
nevertheless
however
on the contrary
by comparison
Comparing information similarly also
Ordering information
chronologically
after that
before that
then
at first
since then
next
previously
formerly
firstly
secondly
lastly
eventually
gradually
finally
thereafter
subsequently
Causational/resultative as a result
as a consequence
consequently
therefore
thus
hence
accordingly
since
Conditional otherwise indeed
Concluding information in conclusion
in summary
finally
in short
Exemplifying information for example
in other words
such as
for instance
that is
to illustrate
Figure 10: Transition signals and their functions
(Sources:
Ascher, A 1993, Think About Editing: A Grammar Editing Guide for ESL Writers, Heinle & Heinle
Publishers: Boston.
Oshima, A & Hogue, A 1991, Writing Academic English, 2nd edn, Addison Wesley: California.)

Activity 9.4: Using connective words
Underline any connective words (conjunctions and transition signals) that you find
in the following passage on nursing skills. Using terms from the table on the
previous page, describe the function of these connective words.
Fox's argument seems valid: appropriate feeding and hydration are essential
to the provision of adequate patient care. However, the author fails to
acknowledge the excessive demands placed on nurses and the potential
usefulness of nursing assistants. In addition, the evidence used in this article
is anecdotal and the language is highly emotive.
Ideally, nurses would always use their knowledge and skills in attending to
patients' dietary needs and they would use feeding times to intervene and
refer as appropriate; however, this is not always possible. Nurses in many
hospitals are required to perform the jobs of more than one person due to
understaffing. Therefore, they do not have enough time to personally feed
every patient and to monitor the patient while doing this. As a result, feeding
duties may have to be handed to untrained assistants. Fox fails to acknow-
ledge this fact.

Pronoun reference
Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns. We use pronouns to avoid
specifying or repeating information that is already clear. If we do not refer to
information clearly and consistently throughout the text, the thread of the meaning
is lost and the 'chain' is broken. This can result in the reader of your text being
unsure of the point you are making or being unable to follow your argument.
When using pronouns, therefore, it is important to use them consistently, as it will
not only strengthen the ties between bits of information, but it will also help the
reader to understand the connections between ideas clearly.
Recognising pronouns
Pronouns are words like I, me, this, those, everybody, nobody, each other, who,
which. Many of them act as substitutes or 'replacements' for nouns or noun
phrases in the context. A singular noun phrase is replaced by a singular pronoun,
and a plural noun phrase is replaced by a plural noun. For example:
[A] What sort of car is this? [B] It's a convertible hatchback.
[A] What cars are those? [B] They're station wagons.
Pronoun types and their uses
Pronouns take many forms and have many different uses. We will look at four:
personal, quantifier, demonstrative and relative pronouns.
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns are classified according to
person: 1
st
, 2
nd
, 3
rd
person
number: singular, plural
gender: masculine, feminine, non-personal
case: subjective, objective, possessive

A lot of unnecessary worry

Subjective case Objective case Possessives
singular plural singular plural singular plural
1
st
person I we me us my/mine our/ours
2
nd
person you you you you your/yours your/yours
3
rd
person he
she
it
they
they
they
him
her
it
them
them
them
his
her/hers
its
their/theirs
their/theirs
their/theirs
Figure 11: Personal pronouns
The choice of person, number and gender is decided by meaning, which is supplied
either by the context outside the language, as in the example on the previous
page, or by the noun phrase to which the pronoun refers. Pronouns, generally,
point back to a noun or noun phrase, for example:

can affect your work. It can also make you ill.

Quantifier pronouns
Quantifier pronouns represent quantity or amount either in a specific or non-specific
way. Again, the choice of number is consistent with the context or noun/noun
phrase to which the pronoun refers. In the example below, the quantifier refers to a
non-specific element outside the text:
As someone said, one goes into academic life because one can't stand
office hours.
Some of the more common quantifiers are listed below:
Singular only Singular or plural Plural only
everyone / everybody all both
anyone / anybody any few
someone / somebody some several
no one / nobody none many
each / much / one more -----
either / neither most -----
Figure 12: Quantifier pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are used to point to things They express contrast between
what is 'near' and what is 'distant', whether in space, time or emotional distance,
in terms of the speaker and listener. For example:
[shop assistant referring to two sets of earrings, one of which she is
holding (these) and another set which a customer is holding (those)]
Why don't you take these? Those look far too large.
Singular
reference
Plural
reference
Speaker
oriented
Listener
oriented
this
that
these
those
this
these
that
those
Figure 13: Demonstrati ve pronouns
Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns (see Figure 14 below) link different types of sub clauses to the
main clause. This linking is achieved by means of pointing back to the noun/noun
phrase immediately before:

The lecturer who teaches physics is American.
The choice of relative pronoun depends on whether the reference is to:
a person, animal or thing (personal/non-personal)
a subject or an object
possessive meaning

personal non-personal
subjective who, that
objective who(m), that
which, that
possessive whose of which, whose
Figure 14: Relati ve pronouns


Activity 9.5: Identifying pronouns
Read the following paragraph. Then, underline the pronouns and specify each
pronoun's type.
Dave brought me a chart clipped from his evening newspaper. It showed
the responses of American executives to the question, "How many hours
should there be in an average workday?" The majority of the executives
interviewed favoured the status quo: 57 percent of them voted for the
eight-hour day. However, Dave was excited because 10 percent favoured
a seven-hour day. That was enough to get him started on a fantasy about
how fifty years from now everyone will consider an eight-hour day a violation
of human rights. But when I asked him to add up the numbers further down
the chart, he stopped gloating. A significant portion of the executives who
were polled 11 percent of them, in fact thought everyone should buckle
down to nine- and ten-hour workdays. Dave and I decided not to pay atten-
tion to the vote of anyone who could show such ignorance of human nature,
and we used the clipping to light our barbecue.
Finding a pronoun's antecedent
As we have seen, there are a number of ways you can use to refer back to the
subject within your text. For example, you can replace key subject words with
personal, demonstrative or relative pronouns. But in all cases, the pronoun pointing
back to the noun/noun phrase, or antecedent, must be clear and consistent.
An antecedent is the noun or noun phrase that comes before a pronoun and
establishes the pronoun's meaning. Consider these two examples:
There's gravy on the table. Please clean it up.
Mario and his friends are washing the dishes while they plan the bowling
tournament. That's almost too good to be true.
Without the antecedents (the words in italics), the pronouns (in bold) would have
no meaning. In the third sentence, the antecedent of that is the entire previous
sentence.

Activity 9.6: Identifying antecedents
Read the passage below. Then look at each numbered pronoun (in italics). Decide
what noun or group of nouns the pronoun is referring back to. Write this in the
space provided in the table below.
Each campus of UWS has its(1) own unique history and its (2) own atmos-
phere. Some campuses have large numbers of students enrolled, and they
(3) are vibrant and busy. Most students get attached to their (4) campus
and they (5) will try to study exclusively on that (6) campus. UWS has links
with universities in Asia, the Pacific, Europe and USA. These (7) provide a
range of study opportunities for both students and staff. Whenever
possible, we (8) encourage our (9) students to study overseas as part of
their (10) study program.
(1) its (6) that
(2) its (7) These
(3) they (8) we
(4) their (9) our
(5) they (10) their

Making pronoun references clear
Pronouns help to tie a text together by their referring back to something, but if the
reference point (antecedent) is unclear, it can make the text confusing to read. It
is important, therefore, that a pronoun should clearly refer to its antecedent rather
than be ambiguous or indefinite.
Ambiguous reference
This occurs when the pronoun could refer to two possible antecedents.
Ambiguous Clear
After the nurse and the patient have learned
to trust each other, she will feel more conf-
dent making difficult decisions.
The patient will feel more confident making
difficult decisions after she has learned to
trust the nurse.
In the ambiguous sentence, the pronoun she could refer either to the nurse or to
the patient. The reference has been made clear by restructuring the sentence.

Indefinite reference
Indefinite reference most often occurs with the pronouns they, it, or you.
Indefinite Clear
A list of ways to save water during the
drought has been included with your water
bill. They suggest watering your garden
before 8 a.m. or after 8 p.m.
The council has included a list of ways to
save water during the drought with your
water bill. They suggest watering your
garden before 8 a.m. or after 8 p.m.
In the indefinite sentence, there is no word for they to refer to. In the clear one,
the reference point for they is more specific, in that it was the council that sent
the list.
Finally, make sure the distance between the pronoun and its antecedent is kept
close to help avoid ambiguity in your writing.
(Sources:
Carter, R & McCarthy, M 2006, Cambridge Grammar of English, Cambridge University Press.
Leech, G & Svartvik, J 1994, A Communicative Grammar of English, 2
nd
edn, Longman Group:
London.)

Activity 9.7: Identifying and correcting problems with pronoun reference
Explain how the pronoun reference is ambiguous in the following sentences and
how it could be corrected.
1. When Gloria set the jug on the glass-topped table, it broke.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Tom told James that he had won the lottery.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. The experts they claim that time management and stress management are
important considerations when studying.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. In the encyclopaedia, it states that male moths can smell female moths
from several miles away.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Formal language
Formal language is used in most academic work. When you use it depends on
what your lecturer expects and what is appropriate for your task, topic and
audience. Generally, you would use formal language in essays, reviews and
reports, but for tutorial participation, oral presentation and reflective journal
writing, you would use a more informal language and writing style.
As a rule, formal language is appropriate in situations where:
the relationship between the speaker or writer, and the audience is distant
rather than close (e.g. a public lecture, an undergraduate essay)
the topic is technical.
When in doubt about the formality of a situation, check with your lecturer and read
your unit outline for feedback or advice.
Guidelines for writing in a formal academic style
In order to achieve a formal academic style of writing:
use the specialised vocabulary/technical terms of your discipline rather
than everyday terms
use 'scholarly' rather than everyday vocabulary
use formal rather than conversational language.

Specialised vocabulary
Academic writing often uses specialised words or phrases. These are often
'technical' words that have no 'everyday' equivalent, because they refer to technical
objects or procedures, or because they describe abstract concepts of a particular
field. For example:
The main functions of the circulatory system are to carry oxygen and nutriments to
the tissues and to carry away carbon dioxide and other waste products produced
by the metabolic processes in the cells.
A specialised dictionary, such as a dictionary of nursing, sociology, linguistics or
law, can be very helpful in clarifying these technical or abstract meanings.
One of the dangers of writing in an academic style is the overuse of 'big' words to
impress the reader. This can get in the way of your message being clearly under-
stood. Aim to write clearly by using simple language to express complex or deep
ideas, and incorporate specialised vocabulary where you need to.
Scholarly vocabulary
Formal academic writing also involves using 'scholarly' rather than everyday
vocabulary. Look at the following text.
A baby who won't stop crying can drive anyone to despair. You feed him, you
change him, you nurse him, you try to settle him, but the minute you put him down
he starts to howl. Why? The most common reason baby cries is hunger. Even if
he was just recently fed he might still be adapting to the pattern of sucking until
his tummy is full and feeling good until it empties again. When he was in the
womb, nourishment came automatically and constantly. Offer food first; if he turns
away from the nipple or teat you can assume it's something else. It happens that
babies go through grumpy, miserable stages when they just want to tell everyone
how bad they feel. Perhaps his digestion feels uncomfortable or his limbs are
twitching. If you can't find any specific source of discomfort such as a wet nappy
or strong light in his eyes, that's okay, he might simply be having a grizzle.
Perhaps he's just lonely.
Figure 15: Crying babies text
(Source adapted from: Eggins, S. 1994, An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, 2nd
edn, Continuum: London.
In the above 'Crying babies' text, there are a number of language features that
can be classed as too 'informal' for an academic text. Two of these are phrasal
verbs (e.g. put down, turn away) and imprecise descriptors (e.g. good, bad).

Phrasal verbs
English often has two (or more) choices to express an action or occurrence. The
choice is often between a phrasal verb and a single verb. Often in lectures and
other instances of everyday spoken English, a phrasal verb is used. However, for
written academic style, the preferred choice is a single verb wherever possible; in
particular, one that conveys a precise meaning. Compare:
Researchers looked at the way strain builds up around a fault (less formal
style).
Researchers observed the way strain accumulates around a fault (more
academic style).
Imprecise descriptors
English has a very rich vocabulary derived from many languages. Because of
this, there may be more than one way to express an idea. For an academic writing
style, you should choose words that are more formal and precise.
Activity 9.8: Choosing vocabulary that is more formal and precise
Which of the italicised words in the following sentences would be more suitable
for an academic paper?
a. The government has made good / considerable progress in addressing
some of the current environmental issues.
b. The results of a lot of / numerous different projects have been pretty
good/encouraging.
c. A loss of jobs is one of the things that will happen / consequences if the
process is automated.
Supply a more academic word or phrase for the one italicised in each sentence.
d. The reaction of the officials was sort of negative.
e. The economic outlook is great.
f. One of the bad points about such drugs is the possibility of uncomfortable
side effects.

Formal forms
In order to achieve a more academic or 'authoritative' writing style you should use
formal forms rather than everyday conversational forms. Look at the 'Crying
babies' text again (page 27) and notice the less formal elements. These include:
contractions (won't, can't, he's, it's)
colloquial vocabulary and idioms (tummy, drive anyone to despair)
personal language (You feed him, you change him ...)
gender specific language (refers to babies in general as 'he' or 'him')
rhetorical questions (Why?)
conversational intensifiers (just, simply) and expressions of judgement (okay).
However, in academic writing you should avoid these conversational forms and
use more formal ones. The following are some recommendations for maintaining
a formal academic writing style.
Do not use contractions or abbreviations
Contracted forms of words are acceptable in a spoken formal presentation
but never in formal writing. Instead you should use full forms of words.
Compare the example informal sentences (below) containing contracted
and abbreviated words with the more formal ones:
Informal: Export figures won't improve until the economy is stronger.
Formal: Export figures will not improve until the economy is stronger.

Informal: Integrated circuits are used in computers, TVs, digital cameras, etc.
Formal: Integrated circuits are used in all electronic devices, including
computers, televisions and digital cameras.

Do not use colloquial vocabulary and idioms
Slang or colloquial words/phrases (such as bloke, kid, lots of) and expres-
sions should be avoided in formal academic writing. Instead use neutral,
categorical terms (such as man / person, child) or more formal alternatives
(such as many or a large number of). Compare the example informal sent-
ences (below) containing colloquial vocabulary and idiomatic expressions
with the formal ones:
Informal: The future of the Federal funding is up in the air.
Formal: The future of the Federal funding is uncertain.

Informal: By and large, despite all the hype, the policy remains unchanged.
Formal: Overall, despite all the publicity, the policy remains unchanged.
Avoid personal language
Another characteristic of academic writing is objectivity. The idea behind
objectivity is to focus on the information itself rather than on the writer or
the reader of the information. For this reason, most academic assignments
are written in an impersonal manner that is using the third person pronoun
(it, they). This achieves distance because you are writing about something
or someone not to them.
Where the focus is on information or issues, your lecturer may not expect
you to be a participant in the text. So, avoid the first pronoun I, we, us.
Your lecturer probably does not expect to be included in the text either. So,
avoid the second person pronoun you. For example:
Personal (writer focus) Impersonal
We have a great deal of air pollution from
cars in Sydney.
Sydney has a great deal of pollution from cars.
There is a great deal of air pollution from
cars in Sydney.

Personal (reader focus) Impersonal
If you smoke while you are pregnant, you
may harm your baby.

Smoking during pregnancy may be harmful
to the foetus.
A foetus may be harmed if the mother
smokes during pregnancy.

Figure 16: Comparison of personal and impersonal language
Whether and when you can write from a personal perspective can be tricky.
On the one hand, your views may not be explicitly wanted, such as in
essays where an I believe ... or an I think ... sort of statement is usually
inappropriate. On the other hand, your views about what you think and feel
or may have observed or learnt, such as in reflective journals, writing from
a personal perspective is essential.
If you are not sure about whether it is appropriate to use I think ... sort of
opinion words, there are alternatives. Sometimes, you can just leave out
such words. For example, instead of writing I think teachers should give
positive feedback, you could write Teachers should give positive feedback'.
Alternatively, in an essay introduction, you can foreground your sentence
with a noun/noun phrase or third person pronoun. For example, instead of
writing I will argue that , write This essay argues that or It will be argued
that Correspondingly, in an essay conclusion, instead of writing I have
focussed on you can write In this essay, the focus has been on ...
Remember, if in doubt, you can ask your lecturers or tutors what they
expect. You can also read academic texts in journals to help you know
what kinds of personal language are used by others.
Avoid gender specific language
Students need to avoid gender specific language in their choice of words, as
this is unacceptable in academic writing. One way to eliminate gender bias
is to avoid using the words he or she, and his or her where the person is
referred to in general terms. For example, instead of writing 'The lecturer
will explain to his students ...', you could write 'The lecturer will explain to
his or her students ...', but this is rather awkward. Better to use the plural
form: 'The lecturer will explain to their students', or rephrase the sentence:
'The lecturer will explain the procedure to students'.
Another way to eliminate gender specific language is to use non-discriminatory
words such as supervisor for foreman, or police officer for policewoman.
You can find extensive listings of these gender-neutral words in various style
manuals (go to the library for these) or on the Internet.
Avoid the rhetorical question form
Disciplines and departments will vary in the extent to which rhetorical
questions are an acceptable way to raise issues. While they are accept-
able in a spoken academic presentation (as a form of rhetoric to include
the audience), they should be avoided in a formal written text.

Avoid conversational intensifiers and expressions of judgement
While objectivity and formality is valued in much academic writing, your
values and assumptions can nevertheless be discerned by your 'value-
laden' words. These words can often reveal your bias without the explicit
identification of your personal point of view. For example, you can choose
to make your judgement or bias clear when describing your position on an
issue or theory by using terms such as clearly or obviously, must or
should. However, conversational intensifiers and/or expressions of
judgement are inappropriate; for example:
Surely, it can be concluded that the model operates with a laughable
definition of culture.
These methods of helping patients seem alright but they just have not
been tested properly.
(Sources adapted from:
Morley-Warner, T 2001, Academic writing is ..., 2
nd
edn, CREA Publications: Sydney.
Swales, J M & Feak, C B, 1994, Academic writing for graduate students: A course for nonnative
speakers of English, University of Michigan Press: USA.
Webb, C 1992, Writing in an academic style, Learning Assistance Centre, University of Sydney.)

Activity 9.9: Using formal style
Look at the example paragraph below The informal language and opinion phrases
have been underlined. Following this is a rewritten paragraph in a more formal style.
Example paragraph:
I think - and I know most Australians agree with me - the USA influences
us too much. I mean, look at things like kids wearing baseball hats back to
front, eating McDonalds, and drinking coke; watching American movies;
using American slang like 'dude' or 'guy' instead of 'bloke' or 'cobber'; and
listening to American music. What's wrong with Aussie stuff? We might as
well sign up to be the 51
st
state.
Rewritten version:
The influence of American culture on Australia is immense and it is undes-
irable. Take, for example, the baseball hat worn back to front, the proliferation
of fast food restaurants like McDonalds', and the domination of the beverage
market by Coca Cola provide unavoidable everyday examples. Also,
American slang words, such as 'dude' and 'guys', have largely replaced
their Australian counterparts, 'bloke' and 'cobber', at least among younger
Australians. Furthermore, American singers and entertainers dominate radio
station play lists and music video shows on television. These inroads into
Australian culture and language, arguably, amount to an American imperialism,
or a de facto recruitment of Australia into a worldwide American culture.
1. In the paragraph below, underline the informal language and opinion phrases.
In my opinion, adults think differently from children. Lots of theorists agree
with me. One of these is Jack Mezirow. He says that adults are more
critical than children and adolescents, i.e. they start to question the things
they used to believe. Lots of others say that adults think in ways that are
different from children. What they seem to be saying is that adults don't
just follow a sort of formal logic. What they really do is adjust the way they
think and behave to different situations. They are flexible.

2. In the space provided, rewrite the paragraph in a more formal academic style.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
(Adapted from S. Brookfield, 1995, Becoming a critically reflective teacher, Jossey-Bass: San
Francisco, p. 220)
In conclusion
Becoming familiar with the language characteristics that distinguish academic
writing from other forms will help you produce the quality of writing expected at
university.
One such characteristic is clearly organised paragraphs. Paragraphs can be
developed in a variety of ways, depending on the writing task and your purpose.
Another is cohesion. Cohesion is when your writing expresses ideas clearly and
logically through various devices including connectives and pronoun references.
Using these devices will help you to create writing that is effective.
Finally, most academic writing employs formal language, although not all assign-
ments will require the same level of formality. Check with your lecturer or tutor to
find out their preference for each assignment.

Activity 9.1: Topic sentences
Paragraph 1 c)
Paragraph 2 b)
Paragraph 3 a)
Activity 9.2: Organising paragraphs
Sample answer ONLY. Many other versions possible.
According to researchers, there are two distinct types of bilingualism, with
the differences arising from the context in which the languages are learned.
The two types are coordinate and compound bilingualism. In coordinate
bilingualism, the learner acquires the two languages in separate contexts,
for example Chinese at home and English at school. The word meanings
are specific to each language, so that there are two sets of meanings and
two sets of words. In contrast, the compound bilingual learner acquires
both languages in the one context, which results in there being common
meanings for concepts, even though there are two different labels for each
concept. The compound bilingual thus has one set of meanings and two
sets of words.
Activity 9.3: Using conjunctions
1. although
2. because
3. such as, for example
4. and, in addition to
5. as a result, because

Activity 9.4: Using connective words
Fox's argument seems valid: appropriate feeding and hydration are essential
to the provision of adequate patient care. However, the author fails to
acknowledge the excessive demands placed on nurses and the potential
usefulness of nursing assistants. In addition, the evidence used in this article
is anecdotal and the language is highly emotive.
Ideally, nurses would always use their knowledge and skills in attending to
patients' dietary needs and they would use feeding times to intervene and
refer as appropriate; however, this is not always possible. Nurses in many
hospitals are required to perform the jobs of more than one person due to
understaffing. Therefore they do not have enough time to personally feed
every patient and to monitor the patient while doing this. As a result,
feeding duties may have to be handed to untrained assistants. Fox fails to
acknowledge this fact.
Activity 9.5: Identifying pronouns
P = personal Q = quantifier D = demonstrative R = relative
Dave brought me (P) a chart clipped from his (P) evening newspaper. It (P)
showed the responses of American executives to the question, "How many
hours should there be in an average workday?" The majority of the executives
interviewed favoured the status quo: 57 percent of them (P) voted for the
eight-hour day. However, Dave was excited because 10 percent favoured
a seven-hour day. That (D) was enough to get him (P) started on a fantasy
about how fifty years from now everyone (Q) will consider an eight-hour
day a violation of human rights. But when I (P) asked him (P) to add up the
numbers further down the chart, he (P) stopped gloating. A significant portion
of the executives who (R) were polled 11 percent of them (P), in fact
thought everyone (Q) should buckle down to nine- and ten-hour workdays.
Dave and I (P) decided not to pay attention to the vote of anyone (Q) who
could show such ignorance of human nature, and we (P) used the clipping
to light our (P) barbecue.
Activity 9.6: Identifying antecedents
(1) its each campus (6) that the campus they study on
(2) its each campus (7) These the links with other unis
(3) they some campuses (8) we university staff
(4) their most students (9) our UWS students
(5) they the students (10) their UWS students

contrasting
information
adding
information
adding
information
contrasting
information
resultative/
causational

Activity 9.7: Identifying and correcting problems with pronoun reference
1. It could refer to either the jug or the glass-topped table. Rewritten version
might be:
The glass-topped table broke when Gloria set the pitcher on it.
2. He could refer to either Tom or James. Rewritten version might be:
After Tom won the lottery, he told James about it.
3. They is superfluous to this sentence. Only one subject (The experts) is
needed per clause. Rewritten version might be:
The experts claim that time management and stress management are
important considerations when studying.
4. It (states that) adds unnecessary words. Although grammatically correct,
the sentence is clumsy. A more refined version might be:
According to the encyclopaedia, male moths can smell female moths
from several miles away.
Activity 9.8: Choosing vocabulary that is more formal and precise
a. The government has made good / considerable progress in addressing
some of the current environmental issues.
b. The results of a lot of / numerous different projects have been pretty
good/encouraging.
c. A loss of jobs is one of the things that will happen / consequences if the
process is automated.
The given words below are example answers only. Others are possible.
d. The reaction of the officials was fairly negative.
e. The economic outlook is positive.
f. One of the disadvantages about such drugs is the possibility of
uncomfortable side effects.
Activity 9.9: Using a formal style
1. Underline informal language and opinion phrases.
In my opinion, adults think differently from children. Lots of theorists agree
with me. One of these is Jack Mezirow. He says that adults are more critical
than children and adolescents, i.e. they start to question the things they used
to believe. Lots of others say that adults think in ways that are different from
children. What they seem to be saying is that adults don't just follow a sort of
formal logic. What they really do is adjust the way they think and behave to
different situations. They are flexible.

Chapter 10
Grammar in academic writing


Introduction
When thinking about academic writing, students often ask, which is more important
having good ideas or having good grammar? Or, to put it another way, which
will cost you more marks poor ideas or poor grammar?
The answer to these questions is that both are important. It is impossible to separate
the content of your writing (your ideas) from the words and structures you use to
communicate it (your grammar). If you have the most insightful, original ideas, but
you do not communicate them clearly and appropriately, your writing will not be
successful. Conversely, if you write a grammatically perfect essay, but have nothing
interesting or useful to say, you will most likely not have answered the task.
Even though these two things good ideas and appropriate grammar are equally
important, it is possible to deal with them at different stages of the writing process.
Because the issues surrounding structure and the organisation of ideas deal with
large chunks of text (and can require a great deal of moving things around and
rewriting), it is usually best to begin considering these as early in the writing
process as possible.
Grammar, on the other hand, is more concerned with what is happening at the
sentence level. Often, these problems are more easily identifiable (by having
someone proofread your writing, for example), and can be repaired by changing
or moving a few words. Because these changes can be made fairly quickly and
will affect a relatively small amount of text, it may be better to think about them
later in the writing process.
In this chapter, we will look at several two main areas of grammar that affect
academic writing:
Sentence construction
Agreement and consistency
After you have finished working through this chapter, you will be able to:
Define key grammatical terms that will help you improve your writing
Identify and correct structural problems within your sentences
Identify and correct problems with unnecessary shifts inside your sentences.


Grammatical terms
The grammar of any language simply refers to the way we put words together to
create meaningful sentences, both when we speak and when we write.
Grammar tells us how to create meaningful messages out of strings of words like:
successful the is writing practice key to
the respect and teacher mutual classroom in both students expect
Knowing the grammar of English means we are able to reorder these meaningless
strings of words into a meaningful sentences like:
Practice is the key to successful writing.
Teacher and students both expect mutual respect in the classroom.
What this means is that you understand more about grammar than you may think
you do. If you are able to communicate with another person, you are using
grammar, and using it successfully.
A great deal of the knowledge most of us have about grammar, however, relies
on how we use it, rather than how we talk about it. In order for us to examine the
role of grammar in academic writing, we need to agree on some terms we can
use to talk about it.


The table below lists some common grammatical terms, their meanings and some
examples.
Grammatical
term
Meaning Example
Noun A word that identifies a person,
thing or concept
My car is old.
Her thoughtfulness was much
appreciated by all.
Verb A word (or words) that tells us
what happens in a situation (a
doing, being, or behaving word)
I read my notes every night.
The botanist has written a
fascinating book about moss.
Adjective A word that tells us more about a
thing (e.g. its colour, appearance,
or quality)
We looked up at the black sky.
It's a difficult and complex idea.
Adverb A word that modifies a verb or an
adjective
I wrote quickly.
The project was financially viable.
Preposition A word that precedes a noun
group and tells us where, when or
how, what, for how long, etc.
They were spotted at the park.
Things changed after they left.
Conjunction A word that joins bits of language
together
It was windy and rainy all day.
The soil erosion was severe.
Consequently, the pasture was
of poor quality.
Determiner A word in front of a noun that
indicates whether it is definite,
indefinite, a number or quantity
a/the long day
much evidence
Subject A noun or noun phrase (usually)
that refers to who or what does
the action
Bob played his harmonica.
Sustainable projects are a priority.
Phrase A group of words that make up
different elements of a sentence
A group of words
They retrieved the data from the
hard drive
Clause A group of words containing (at
least) a subject and a verb.
Before his guests arrived, Tom
had a sherry.
Sentence A group of words that contains a
subject and a verb, begins with a
capital letter and ends with a full
stop, and is a complete idea
Before his guests arrived, Tom
had a sherry.
Figure 46: Common grammatical terms

Activity 10.1: Identifying subjects and verbs:
In each of the sentences below, underline the subject and circle the verb. The first
sentence has been done for you.
Note, sentences 8 10 have two clauses. The clause break is indicated by //.
Mark the subject and verb in both clauses.
Remember that a subject can be made up of other constituents other than a noun
or noun phrase.

1. Another important issue is the location of the house.
Another important issue is the location of the house.
2. Examinations are stressful for most students.
3. A new edition of the book is expected within a month.
4. Understanding the topic from a variety of perspectives is one aspect of
critical thinking.
5. Justifications for the project are few indeed.
6. Always successful yet sometimes controversial, the 2006 Sculpture by the
Sea exhibition will run for two weeks in November.
7. Students with high aptitude need designated time to work at their own level.
8. It loses some points for the visuals, // but overall the movie is cute and funny.
9. Today, accountants do not have a shared world view, // but they do have a
common code of ethics.
10. An ecological perspective brings out aspects of social and political rights, //
which the liberal paradigm has neglected (Pezzoli, 1997, p.557).

Sentence construction
In this section, well consider several aspects of sentence construction. First, well
explain the role of punctuation in grammar and sentence construction and why it
is important. Then, we will look at the different types of punctuation errors that
result in:
Ambiguous meanings
Run-on and fused sentences
Sentence fragments
Along the way, well establish how different kinds of clauses relate to each other.
Finally, well go through some basic rules you can use to punctuate sentences.
The role of punctuation
When we speak, we use things like tone of voice or pauses to group words and
ideas to organise our communication. In written communication, punctuation
plays this role.
Simply put, punctuation can not only group written strings of words, but it can also
alter greatly the meaning of a sentence.
Lynne Truss, in her book Eats, Shoots and Leaves (2003), recounts a story of a
panda going into a caf and ordering food. After having eaten and on his way out,
the panda fires two shots into the air inside the caf. He is challenged by a waiter
who asks why he has endangered the lives of the customers. The panda tosses
him a wildlife manual and tells him to look it up. The waiter turns to the entry on
the Panda and discovers this badly punctuated entry:
Panda: large black and white bear like mammal, native to China. Eats,
shoots and leaves.

Comma misuse creating ambiguity
The misuse of punctuation can cause a sentence to be interpreted in ways you
did not intend and can result in sentences in which the meaning is not clear.
These types of punctuation errors are usually to do with the comma usage.
The following sentence can be interpreted differently, depending on whether
commas are used or not. Its meaning is ambiguous.
Ambiguous Clear
Books, which are unavailable in the
library, will be removed from the
reading list.
Books which are unavailable in the library
will be removed from the reading list.
Figure 47: Ambiguity with comma usage
In the ambiguous sentence, the presence of the two commas suggests that all
books will be removed from the reading list. In the clear sentence, we understand
that it is only the unavailable books that will be removed from the reading list. So:
where information is nonessential to the preceding word, commas are used.
where information is necessary to define (or limit) the preceding word,
commas are not used.

Activity 10.2: Clarifying ambiguous meanings
Describe ways in which the meaning of the following sentences can be changed
when you add commas:
1. Parents who have tickets will be admitted to the concert.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. The dessert made with fresh raspberries was delicious.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Taxis which carry more than one passenger can use bus-only lanes.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
In the following sentence, the meaning is unclear without a comma.
Unclear Clear
When we finished eating the dog
barked.
When we finished eating, the dog
barked.
Figure 48: Clarifying meanings with commas
The meaning becomes clear when the comma is inserted after 'eating'. We
understand that 'we' is not eating the 'dog'.
In a sentence, we use commas after introductory ideas. These ideas can function
as adverbs. In other words, they tell you when, where, how, or why the main event
in the sentence occurred. Placing a comma after the introductory idea tells readers
that the opening phrase has come to a close and the main part of the sentence is
about to begin. Also, these clauses or phrases can be used as adjectives to des-
cribe the noun that is immediately following. In this case, a comma tells the reader
that they are about to learn the identity of what is being described.

Activity 10.3: Using commas after introducing information
In the following sentences, decide where the comma should be placed. State,
also, whether the introductory idea is acting as an adverb or an adjective:
1. When Irwin was ready to eat his cat jumped onto the table.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Knowing that he would be late John called his friend and apologised.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Near a small stream at the bottom of the hill we discovered an abandoned
shelter.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. Because complex problems are often left for experts to solve practical and
commonsense solutions can be overlooked.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Punctuation in sentence construction
In the previous section, we looked at punctuation and unclear meanings. In the
next two sections Run-on sentences and Sentence fragments we will be
dealing with punctuation in sentence construction. But first, we'll review some
useful terms.
Overview of phrases, clauses and sentences
When we talk about how words are grouped together, there are three main
groupings to consider - phrase, clause and sentence.
Phrase a group of words that acts as a building block for a clause or
a sentence, each group having its own function:
on to the platform
at ten fifty-five
Clause a group of words that acts as a building block for a sentence,
and contains (at least) a subject and verb:
When the train finally pulled into the station
Sentence a group of words that consists of phrases and clauses,
contains both a subject and a verb, and expresses a
complete idea:
When the train finally pulled into the station, at ten
fifty five, all the passengers rushed on to the platform.
Generally speaking, we can say that all sentences are clauses, but not all clauses
are sentences.

The basic structure of clauses and sentences
A clause is a group of words that contains (at least) a subject and a verb. There
many types of clauses but the principal types are independent, dependent and
coordinate.
Independent clauses
An independent clause contains a subject and a verb, and expresses a complete
thought. It can stand alone as a sentence, for example:
S V
He
People
smiled.
talk.
In addition to a subject and verb, most clauses also contain some of the following:
one or more objects (which may be direct or indirect):
S V O
She wrote a book.
S V I. O. D. O.
She sent me the book.
a complement (after verbs such as be, become, look, seem).
Complements provide some description or characteristic of the subject:
S V C
The book became a best seller.
one or more adverbials (which give information about how, when, where,
why, who, how far, how long, what for, to what extent etc):
S V C A A
She is a student at UTS now.
S V A A
It rained steadily all day.
From these examples, you can see that the basic structure of clauses is:
S V (O) (C) (A)
NB: The brackets indicate that objects, complements and adverbials do not
occur in every clause.

A sentence consists of one or more clauses. A simple sentence contains only one
clause, which is independent (this is sometimes called the main clause).
Other sentences, such as complex, compound or compound complex sentences,
may contain an independent clause together with other clauses. The other clauses
fall into two main types: dependent and coordinate.
Dependent clauses
A dependent clause is one that depends on another. This dependence (or
unequal status) is set up by a subordinating conjunction such as when, while, if,
that or who at the beginning of the clause. (For further examples of these
conjunctions see Chapter 9, Features of academic writing.) A dependent clause
cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It must be together with, or form part
of, an independent clause.
Example complex sentence:
sentence

When you arrive at the airport, give me a call.

dependent clause independent clause
(or main clause)
Activity 10.4: Dependent or independent clause
Read the following clauses. State whether they dependent or independent.
1. On Sundays I read the newspaper in bed
2. After opening the window to let out a huge insect
3. During their long stints of flying


Coordinate clauses
Coordinate clauses are clauses that are attached to other clauses by one of the
coordinating conjunctions: and, or, but or yet. Coordinate clauses are of equal
status as the clauses they are attached to.
Example compound sentence:
sentence

Vitamins occur in all foods but no one food contains all the vitamins.

independent clause coordinate (independent) clause

Example compound complex sentence:
Tobacco smoke produces carbon monoxide,

independent clause sentence
which is a poison and which weakens the heart.

dependent clause coordinated (dependent) clause
(Source: Thompson, R A 2003, Sense and System in English sentences, Languagematters: NSW.

Run-on sentences
A run-on sentence is a sentence which includes more than one complete idea: it
is a series of sentences that run together and are joined by commas instead of
full stops. For example:
The student needed help with her essay, she made an appointment
with her tutor.
The clauses that make up the above sentence are complete ideas. They should
stand as sentences on their own rather than being connected by a comma.
To repair this sentence, it can be repunctuated in three ways, by adding:
a full stop to make the run on sentence a complete sentence by itself
a conjunction
a semicolon and a connecting word followed by a comma to separate the
two clauses.
For example:
Correction Sentence
Full stop
* The student needed help with her essay.
She made an appointment with her tutor.
Conjunction
The student needed help with her essay, so
she made an appointment with her tutor.
Semicolon and connecting word
The student needed help with her essay;
consequently, she made an appointment with
her tutor.
Figure 4: Ways to correct run-on sentences
* These simple sentences show no relationship between the two ideas expressed
in each sentence. Showing relationships, as with the other two examples, is
valued in academic writing.

Fused sentences
Similar to run-on sentences, fused sentences are sentences with no punctuation
between them. Here is an example:
Consent must be voluntary that is consent must be freely given without any
coercion or pressure from anyone.
Fused sentences can be repunctuated in the same way as run-on sentences:
Correction Sentence
Full stop
Consent must be voluntary. Consent must be
freely given without any coercion or pressure
from anyone.
Conjunction
Consent must be voluntary, and [it] must be
freely given without any coercion or pressure
from anyone.
Semicolon and connecting word
Consent must be voluntary; that is, consent
must be freely given without any coercion or
pressure from anyone.
Figure 5: Ways to correct fused sentences

Activity 10.5: Correcting run on and fused sentences
Using the methods described above, correct the following sentences.
1. Tell me what you eat, I will tell you what you are.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Each workshop will meet for one hour please register at the Student
Learning Unit office.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

3. Sustainable development is now official policy of the United Nations
environmental concerns have become institutionalised.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. There is much evidence for global warming many refuse to acknowledge it.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Sentence fragments
Sentence fragments are strings of words that have been punctuated as a sentence
but they are not valid sentences. That is, they don't contain all the elements nec-
essary to create a sentence. Sentence fragments are usually incomplete ideas;
for example:
Although the composition of the student body has changed dramatically.
This sentence does not convey a complete idea. If these words were spoken to
you, you would expect the person to tell you the rest of the idea.
Compare the following sentence to the previous:
Although the composition of the student body has changed dramatically,
little variation in instructional techniques has been apparent in Australian
universities until recently.
Notice how this revised sentence presents a whole idea, made up of a supporting
idea (clause 1) attached to the main one (clause 2). Notice, also, how the word
'although', in the first clause, is putting a condition on the main clause. Therefore,
this first clause is a dependent clause, and, as we learned earlier, it can't stand
on its own. Instead, it depends on the main clause to complete its meaning.

Dependent clauses by themselves are sentence fragments. To correct sentence
fragments, you can turn them into complete sentences in the following ways:
1. Join a dependent clause to an independent clause (as above)
2. Remove the subordinating conjunction (e.g. although):
The composition of the student body has changed dramatically. Little
variation in instructional techniques has been apparent in Australian
universities until recently.
Activity 10.6: Correcting sentence fragments
Correct the following sentence fragments using the methods described above.
1. The population increased dramatically. Because of the growth of agriculture.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. In time, the cities became more crowded. Though many people remained
on farms.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Despite the efforts of the medical community. Overcrowding in the cities
provided opportunities for diseases to spread.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Activity 10.7: Consolidation types of sentence errors
Read the following paragraph. Correct any sentence fragments, run-on or fused
sentences you may find:
The election campaign is in its final stages two candidates remain. A
Liberal victory would signal a continuation of the same basic policies, a
Labor victory would usher in a new era of social programs. Many of the
nations problems will persist in either case. Some would argue that a
spiritual change must occur before effective political change is possible.
Because political decisions will always reflect the peoples deeper systems
of values.
Punctuation overview
Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction.
Example: I would like to read that book, but there are no copies in the
library.
Use a semicolon before a connecting word and a comma after.
Example: Students have complained to the library; therefore, a copy
has been ordered.
A semicolon alone can be used between two independent clauses.
Example: McNeils book is highly recommended by the lecturer; I need
to read it before I write my essay.
A colon alone can be used between two independent clauses, usually
when the second explains or clarifies the first.
Example: The witness did not accurately report the events that had
occurred: this caused serious problems for the accused.

Apostrophes
Before moving on to other aspects of sentence construction, it is useful to consider
the correct use of apostrophes. The short section below only considers the
apostrophe in relation to s, as it is this usage that seems most problematic for
writers. The apostrophe has several uses:
to show ownership or a relationship of some kind between two nouns
to show that a word has been contracted.
Here are three short rules to keep in mind.
Rule 1
If the word is plural (and countable), and if the plural noun doesn't show
ownership or a relationship with another noun in the sentence, then you do not
need an apostrophe.
Example:
Most of the names of Australian opera singers are not well known within
Australia.
We can check whether an apostrophe is needed by testing if the words can be
counted: 1 name, 2 names etc; 1 opera singer, 2 opera singers etc. The same
test can be applied to the sentence below:
Works by Cossington Smith and Pisarro will be shown at the Art Gallery for
several months.
Once again the countable test applies. Works is a countable noun and has no
relationship with another noun, so no apostrophe is needed. Months is also a
countable noun, so no apostrophe is needed.

Rule 2
If the word can be expanded into two words, then you do need an apostrophe.
The apostrophe is used to show that something has been left out.
Examples:
Its an interesting time in history. It is an interesting time in history.
Here, the apostrophe is needed to take the place of the missing 'i' in 'is'.
Its got real potential. It has got real potential.
The shopping centres been re-
vamped in an attempt to attract
more customers.
The shopping centre has been
revamped ...
In both the above examples, the apostrophe is needed to take the place of the
missing 'ha' in 'has'.
Note: In academic writing, you should avoid contractions. Instead, write the
words in full. Contractions are used in spoken and informal writing situations (For
more information on formal academic writing style, see Chapter 9, Features of
academic writing).
Rule 3
If the word shows a relationship or has a sense of ownership between two nouns
then you do need an apostrophe. The apostrophe indicates this relationship or
ownership.
Examples:
Howard's government The government of Howard
The Department of Education's
current policy on homework
The current policy of the Department
of Education

Contraction or possessive pronoun it's or its
Examples:
Contraction: Its = it is Its a great opportunity to prepare for university
study.
It's = it has Its been a wonderful time of sharing dreams
and ambitions.

Possessive pronoun: Its The scarecrow lost its straw hat.
The government has developed some
controversial policies. Its chances of re-
election may be affected.
Figure 6: Identifying differences in meaning between its and its
Activity 10.8: Apostrophe usage
1. Add apostrophes, where needed, in the following sentences.
a. Everythings connected to everything else.
b. There are many environmental challenges facing the community
locally, nationally and globally.
c. There are three contrasting views about nature; natures fragile, natures
robust and natures robust within limits.
d. The business communitys been encouraged to donate goods and
services.
e. The boards chair is very experienced and brings wisdom and insight to
the position.
2. Discuss the differences in meaning with apostrophe usage of these two
sentences.
a. The schools academic achievement was acknowledged by the Minister.
b. The schools academic achievements were acknowledged by the Minister.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Agreement and consistency
One important factor in constructing effective sentences is ensuring that they
have agreement and consistency. In this section, we will be considering the
following areas:
1. Subject/verb agreement
2. Consistency in point of view
3. Consistency in tense
4. Consistency in mood
Review of some grammatical terms
As weve explored in previous sections, there are two common characteristics
that a group of words must have to be called a sentence. A sentence must:
have a subject and a verb
express a complete thought.
Before exploring subject and verb agreement in sentences, we will review some
grammatical terms.
Subjects and verbs
Activity 10.9: Defining and identifying subjects and verbs
1. How would you describe a subject and a verb? What do they do in a
sentence?
A subject: ______________________________________________________
A verb: ______________________________________________________
2. In the paragraph on the following page, underline the subjects and circle
the verbs.
To help identify the subject, try asking yourself who or what is most closely
connected to the verb. For example:
The explosion caused a panic. What caused a panic? The explosion did.
People in hot climates like
driving air-conditioned cars.
Who like driving air-conditioned cars?
People in hot climates do.


A recent new theory about dreams has ignited the worlds scientific com-
munity. A simple new solution to the mystery of dreams has been proposed:
we dream to forget and our dreams are the dustbins of the mind. According
to the new theory, dreaming is a deliberate process of unlearning by which
humans clear the mind of unwanted problems.
Person and number
Other terms that will also be useful in this section are person and number.
Person, in grammatical terms, divides nouns and pronouns into three groups:
first person the speaker or writer (I, me, we, us)
second person the listener or reader (you)
third person everybody else (he, him, she, her, it, they, Mr. Jones,
love, a peanut)
Number, as you might guess, refers to how many of a thing there are:
singular (one)
plural (many).
We use these terms to describe the form the verb takes. In the table below, the
verb to give illustrates these forms:
Singular Plural
First person I give we give
Second person you give you give
Third person he/she/it gives they give
Figure 7: Number and person agreement

Subject and verb agreement
A subject and verb are considered to be in agreement when they are consistent
both in person and in number. That is, if the subject is third person singular the
verb is singular as well. For example:

Authentic learning relates theory to everyday issues and future concerns
Disagreement between a subject and verb is very distracting for your reader,
especially if it occurs frequently in a text. Fortunately, its quite easy to repair,
and, with practice, easy to spot.
A word of warning: Use your grammar checker very cautiously for subject and
verb agreement. These checkers cannot be relied on to
locate the true subject of a sentence. They tend to choose
the noun closest to the verb, which isnt always the subject,
as well soon see.
Subject and verb agreement guidelines
Following are some guidelines to help you to check for subject and verb agreement
in your sentences.
1. Make the verb agree with its subject, rather than with a word (or
words) that comes in between.
Most students can easily recognise verb agreement errors that have to do
with number (singular or plural) in short sentences. Mistakes tend to happen
in long sentences, especially when a phrase giving more information about
the subject appears between the subject and its verb:
Examples:

The tulips in the pot on the balcony need watering.

A set of golf clubs costs about eight hundred dollars.
3
rd
person singular

Phrases beginning with the prepositions 'as well as', 'in addition to',
'accompanied by', 'together with', and 'along with' do not make a
singular subject plural.
Example:

The governor, as well as his press secretary, was shot.
Sometimes this additional information is a relative clause.
Example:

His arguments, which do not follow from a clearly stated thesis and
rarely lead to a logical conclusion, are unconvincing.
Remember, try to keep subjects and verbs close together in the sentence.
Example:

His arguments are unconvincing; they do not follow from any clearly
stated thesis and rarely lead to a logical conclusion.
Also, try stripping away the words between the subject and the verb to help
you isolate the word (or word group) that is the subject.
2. Treat most compound subjects connected by 'and' as plural.
A subject with two or more parts is said to be compound. If the parts are
connected by and, the subject is nearly always plural.
Example:

Policy and planning were often on the agenda.

When the parts of the subject form a single unit or when they refer to the
same person or thing, treat the subject as singular.
Example:

Strawberries and cream was a last minute addition to the menu.

Sue's friend and advisor was surprised by her decision.
When a compound subject is preceded by 'each' or 'every', treat the
subject as singular.
Example:

Each tree, shrub, and vine needs to be sprayed.
With compound subjects connected by 'or' or 'nor', make the verb agree
with the part of the subject nearer to the verb.
Examples:

A driving license or credit card is required.

Neither the childrens behaviour, nor the adults reactions were
appropriate.
3. Treat most indefinite pronouns as singular.
Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific persons or things. Even though
the following quantifier pronouns may seem to have plural meanings, in
formal English, they are treated as singular:
anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither,
none, no one, someone, something.
Examples:

Everyone on the team supports the coach.

Each of the questions asked by the audience was answered.

A few quantifier pronouns - 'all', 'any', 'some' - may be singular or plural,
depending on the noun or pronoun they refer to.
Examples:

Some of the ideas presented by the group are highly original.

Some of the discussion was irrelevant.
4. Make the verb agree with its subject even when the subject follows
the verb.
Verbs ordinarily follow subjects. When this order is reversed, sentences
beginning with there is or there are are inverted; that is, the subject
follows the verb.
Example:

There are surprisingly few new ideas in the whole thesis.
Occasionally you may decide to invert a sentence for variety or effect.
When you do, check to make sure that your subject and verb agree.
Example:

At the back of the room are a small aquarium and a birdcage.
5. Who, which, and that take verbs that agree with their antecedents.
An antecedent is the noun or noun phrase that pronouns (like who, which,
and that) refer back to.
Example:

Take a suit that travels well.
In this example, that is the pronoun, and suit is its antecedent (the word it
is referring to). Therefore, the verb travels must agree with suit.

Problems can arise with the constructions 'one of the' and 'only one of the'.
As a rule, treat 'one of the' constructions as plural, 'only one of the' as
singular.
Example:
Our ability to use language is one of the things that set us apart from
animals.

Our ability to use language is the only thing that sets us apart from
animals.
6. Some nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning take a
singular verb.
Example:

The news about the war is not good.

Economics is the topic for todays seminar.
7. Titles of works and words mentioned as terms are singular.
Example:

Lost Cities describes the discoveries of many ancient civilisations.

Controlled substances is another term for illegal drugs.


Activity 10.10: Subject and verb agreement
In the following sentences, choose the correct form of the verb provided.
1. The CEO of the company, along with his Vice Presidents, (attend/attends)
the shareholders meeting regularly.
2. Every man, woman, and child (enjoy/enjoys) feeling valued by others.
3. Grammar and punctuation (is/are) very important parts of academic writing.
4. There (is/are) some difficult issues to be faced by the researchers.
5. Only one of the students (is/are) prepared for the oral presentation.
6. Physics (was/were) my favourite subject at school.
Consistency in point of view
The point of view in a piece of writing is the perspective from which it is written;
for example:
first person I or we
second person you
third person he/she/it or they.
The first person is a good choice for informal letters and writing based primarily
on personal experience such as journal writing. The second person works well
for giving advice or explaining how to do something (as in much of the study
guide you are now reading). The third person is the most appropriate for formal,
academic writing.
Shifting this point of view without a good reason can be distracting for a reader.
For example:
A girl who is looking for her first job knows you'll find help there.
Within a sentence or a paragraph, pronouns and verbs should be consistent with
the dominant point of view unless the writer deliberately wants to shift the reader's
attention to another character or object.

Activity 10.11: Identifying shifts in point of view
In the following sentences, identify where the point of view shifts and then rewrite
the sentence to eliminate the problem.
1. When you are alone, one may observe details more closely than when one
is among friends.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Reflecting is an important part of learning, people must be able to slow
down and consider what you've been experiencing.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. When we think about how we spend our lives, you are often surprised at
how our actions reflect your hidden values.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. As a species, humankind has always responded well when our survival
has been challenged, and they'll do so again now.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Consistency of tense
Consistent verb tenses clearly establish the time frame of the actions being
described. When a passage begins in one tense and shifts without warning or
reason, your reader can become confused and/or irritated.
Activity 10.12: Identifying tense shifts
Identify the tense shifts in the following paragraph and suggest ways to remedy
the shifts.
Camus regards the judgment of whether life is worth living as the funda-
mental question of philosophy. He considered this question the starting
point for determining meaning in life. He says that without an attempt to
articulate meaning, one is left trapped in absurdity; moreover, he argued
that absurdity is a form of suicide.

Consistency of mood
Mood refers to the purpose of a sentence. In other words, it is what the writer
wants to do with a piece of communication. For example, the writer may want to:
make a statement of fact or give an opinion (indicative mood):
We should use public transport.
ask a question (interrogative mood):
Should we use public transport?
give advice or orders (imperative mood):
Use public transport!
As with needless shifts of point of view and tense, unnecessary shifts in purpose
can be as distracting, and they should be avoided.
Activity 10.13: Identifying shifts in mood
Identify the mood shifts in the following sentences, and then rewrite these
sentences to remedy the problem.
1. Experts in the field warn against over-prescribing antibiotics. Also, inform
patients of unintended drug interactions.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. The author clearly indicates that the current policy is a failure; therefore,
change the laws that are the foundation of the policy.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Recognising grammatical errors
With practice, you can learn to recognise your own grammatical errors. Follow
these steps to help you to improve the grammar in your writing:
1. Determine whether the mistake is carelessness or a pattern.
If you find a single run on sentence (for example) in your assignment,
theres probably not much to worry about. Just fix it and move on. If you
notice several, however, it would be a good idea to spend some time
working with constructing sentences. If you don't understand the gram-
matical principles behind sentence construction, come up with some
strategies to avoid this kind of error in future drafts; for example, consult a
grammar book, or perhaps your tutor.
2. Prioritise your errors.
Decide which of your grammar errors are the most serious and address
them first. Problems that interfere with your readers ability to understand
your writing are the most serious.
3. Practise, practise, practise.
The best way to improve your writing is to practise. When you write, be
conscious of the patterns of grammatical errors you have identified in
previous writing situations; this is the first step toward avoiding them
altogether. Play with your own writing write and rewrite your sentences to
see how the grammatical and structural changes you make can affect the
meaning of the sentence.
4. Understand that grammar counts.
As you learned at the beginning of this chapter, how you put words and
sentences together to create meaningful statements is what grammar is all
about. Communication in any situation requires you to use grammar in
academic writing, youll be expected to use it more consciously. The key
concept here is communication grammatical errors can interfere with
your ideas being clearly understood. Your markers are looking for assign-
ments that clearly communicate a writer's ideas, and by paying attention to
grammar when editing your work, this can help your assignment to be
more effective in getting its message across.

(Adapted from: The Australian National University, Common Grammatical Errors)

In conclusion...
Grammar and ideas are inseparable components of academic writing. It is usually
better to focus on your grammar later in the writing process, but that doesnt make
it any less important.
The grammar issues you identify during your writing sessions are those that you
will want to be especially vigilant in locating during your editing sessions. This
familiarity with grammar in general and your own problems, in particular, will be
very valuable as you carefully edit and proofread your text a major focus of
Chapter 11, Editing, proofreading, and receiving feedback.

Activity 10.1
2. Examinations are stressful for most students.
3. A new edition of the book is expected within a month.
4. Understanding the topic from a variety of perspectives is one aspect of
critical thinking.
5. Justifications for the project are few indeed.
6. Always successful yet sometimes controversial, the 2006 Sculpture by the
Sea exhibition will run for two weeks in November.
7. Students with high aptitude need designated time to work at their own
level.
8. It loses some points for the visuals, // but overall the movie is cute and
funny.
9. Today, accountants do not have a shared world view, // but they
do have a common code of ethics.
10. An ecological perspective brings out aspects of social and political
rights, // which the liberal paradigm has neglected. (Pezzoli, 1997, p.557).
Activity 10.2: Clarifying ambiguous meanings
1. Parents who have tickets will be admitted to the concert.
Only parents with tickets will be admitted.
Parents, who have tickets, will be admitted to the concert.
All parents will be admitted, because they all have tickets.
2. The dessert made with fresh raspberries was delicious.
Out of all the desserts made, it was the one with fresh raspberries that was
delicious; the others may not have been.
The dessert, made with fresh raspberries, was delicious.
There is only one dessert, and it was delicious.

3. Taxis which carry more than one passenger can use bus-only lanes.
Of all the taxis, it is those with more than one passenger that can use the
bus lanes.
Taxis, which carry more than one passenger, can use bus-only lanes.
All taxis can use the bus lanes, because they all carry more than one
passenger.
Activity 10.3: Using commas after introducing information
1. When Irwin was ready to eat, his cat jumped onto the table. Adverb
2. Knowing that he would be late, John called his friend and apologised.
Adjective
3. Near a small stream at the bottom of the hill, we discovered an abandoned
shelter. Adverb
4. Because complex problems are often left for experts to solve, practical and
commonsense solutions can be overlooked. Adverb
Activity 10.4: Dependent or independent clause
1. Independent
2. Dependent
3. Dependent
Activity 10.5: Correcting run on and fused sentences
1. Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are.
Tell me what you eat; I will tell you what you are.
2. Each workshop will meet for one hour, so please register in the Learning
Skills Unit office.
Each workshop will meet for one hour; please register in the Student
Learning Unit office.
3. Sustainable development is now official policy of the United Nations; as a
consequence, environmental concerns have become institutionalised.
Sustainable development is now official policy of the United Nations;
environmental concerns have become institutionalised.
4. There is much evidence for global warming, but many refuse to
acknowledge it.
There is much evidence for global warming; many refuse to acknowledge it.

Activity 10.6: Correcting sentence fragments
1. The population increased dramatically because of the growth of
agriculture.
2. In time, the cities became more crowded, though many people remained
on farms.
3. Despite the efforts of the medical community, overcrowding in the cities
provided opportunities for diseases to spread.
Activity 10.7: Consolidation types of sentence errors
Corrections are indicated in bold type.
The election campaign is in its final stages; two candidates remain. A
Liberal victory would signal a continuation of the same basic policies, while
a Labour victory would usher in a new era of social programs. Many of the
nations problems will persist in either case. Some would argue that a
spiritual change must occur before effective political change is possible,
because political decisions will always reflect the peoples deeper systems
of values.
Activity 10.8: Apostrophe usage
1. Add apostrophes, where needed, to the following sentences.
a. Everythings connected to everything else.
b. There are many environmental challenges facing the community
locally, nationally and globally. (No apostrophe needed)
c. There are three contrasting views about nature; natures fragile,
natures robust and natures robust within limits.
d. The business communitys been encouraged to donate goods and
services.
e. The boards chair is very experienced and brings wisdom and insight to
the position.
2. Discuss the differences in meaning with apostrophe usage of these two
sentences.
a. The schools academic achievement was acknowledged by the
Minister.
Here, the apostrophe before the 's' denotes the academic
achievement of one school.
b. The schools academic achievements were acknowledged by the
Minister.

Here, the apostrophe after the 's' denotes the academic
achievement of more than one school.
Activity 10.9: Defining and identifying subjects and verbs
1. Describe what a subject and a verb are and what they do.
The subject is the noun or noun group and it tells us who or what does the
action
The verb is the word (or words) that tells what happens in a situation (a
doing, being, or behaving word).
2. Underline the subjects and circle the verbs.
A recent new theory about dreams has ignited the worlds scientific com-
munity. A simple new solution to the mystery of dreams has been proposed:
we dream to forget and our dreams are the dustbins of the mind. According
to the new theory, dreaming is a deliberate process of unlearning by
which humans clear the mind of unwanted problems.
Activity 10.10: Subject/verb agreement
1. attends
2. enjoys
3. are
4. are
5. is
6. was
Activity 10.11: Identifying shifts in point of view
1. Point of view shifts from you to one.
When you are alone, you may observe details more closely than when
you are among friends
2. Point of view shifts from people to you.
Reflecting is an important part of learning, people must be able to slow
down and consider what you've been experiencing.

3. Point of view shifts from we to you. The shift from the plural we to the
singular you is especially distracting.
When we think about how we spend our lives, we are often surprised at
how our actions reflect our hidden values.
4. Point of view shifts from humankind (our) to they.
As a species, humankind has always responded well when our survival
has been challenged, and well do so again now.
Activity 10.12: Identifying tense shifts
Corrected text indicated in bold.
Camus regarded the judgment of whether life is worth living as the funda-
mental question of philosophy. He considered this question the starting
point for determining meaning in life. He said that without an attempt to
articulate meaning, one is left trapped in absurdity; moreover, he argued
that absurdity of a form of suicide.
Activity 10.13: Identifying shifts in mood

1. Experts in the field warn against over-prescribing antibiotics. Also, inform
patients of unintended drug interactions.
Re-written version:
Experts in the field warn against over-prescribing antibiotics. Also, they
encourage doctors to inform patients of unintended drug interactions.

2. The author clearly indicates that the current policy is a failure; therefore,
change the laws that are the foundation of the policy.
Re-written version:
The author clearly indicates that the current policy is a failure, and he
believes that the solution is to change the laws that are the foundation of
the policy.
declarative mood
imperative mood
declarative mood
imperative mood

Chapter 11
Editing, proofreading, and receiving feedback


2006, Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney
323
Introduction
Throughout this book, weve discussed the importance of viewing writing as a
process. In this section, well look at the final steps in that process editing and
proofreading your writing and receiving feedback.
Imagine you've got to the stage where you've done most of the hard work of
researching and drafting your assignment, you will discover that the process isn't
over yet. Editing and proofreading are the next crucial steps in the writing process.
It allows you to present a polished piece of work that indicates to your marker that
youve taken the assignment and all the learning it entails very seriously.
Interpreting the feedback you receive is the final interaction youll have with a
particular assignment, but it is also the first step of the writing process for your
next assignment. What you learn from that feedback should influence in some
way all the other writing you produce.
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
Describe what place revising, editing, and proofreading has in the writing
process
Create different drafts of your work that will help you to improve your
assignment
Use a checklist to help you edit and proofread your work
Interpret the feedback you receive on your assignment and apply it to
future assignments.

324
Editing and proofreading
Students often think that they need to write only one draft of an essay, correct any
mistakes they find and hand it in. Some students tend to leave only enough time
for one draft. More realistically, students need to work through several drafts to
come up with the best possible finished product. For this to happen, you will need
to:
Revise your initial ideas
Edit for content and structure
Check the validity of content
Proofread for grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
Revising initial ideas
After getting your ideas down in the first draft, careful revision will help you to
improve and refine your assignment. When you revise, you are producing a new,
altered version of your text. Each succeeding draft is different in some way from
the one that preceded it, and with each draft, you move towards your goal of a
well-written assignment.
Following is a guide to help you to revise your writing at each stage of the editing
processes:
Compose a rough first draft. This is where you focus on getting all your
ideas written down according to your plan or outline. Remember; avoid any
revising or editing at this stage.
Compose a shaping draft. In this stage, you deal with macro issues such
as purpose, clarity of discussion or argument, and structure.
Compose a style draft. Here, you are concerned with paragraphing,
sentences and word choice.
Compose an editing draft. This stage involves you in proof reading and
working on grammar, punctuation and spelling.
Compose a final draft. This is where you review your references and
check your presentation requirements before submitting it for assessment.

325
Editing for content and structure
After completing each draft, you should be in a position to stand back to get an
overview of what you have written. In fact, this constitutes the writing process.
Editing is the overall term we use for deciding whether the content is appropriate
for the task, and checking that the structure and format are suitable. Editing for
grammar and punctuation (or proofreading) is the final step in the editing process.
Typically, most students think that editing is merely checking their spelling and
punctuation. In doing this, they are most likely to pay attention to the text at the
word or sentence level and ignore the overall shape of the assignment. Instead,
you should concentrate firstly on decisions about structure and format and
appropriateness of content, and then edit for spelling and punctuation.
You need to remember that the editing process may involve re-writing, and you
should allow sufficient time to do this well. A useful rule of thumb is to set aside a
third of your total time for editing.
Ideally, you also should try to leave some time between each draft. This will allow
you to be more objective in assessing the effectiveness of your writing.
Use the marking criteria provided by your lecturer to help you to focus your
editing. Apply the criteria to your assignment as a checklist to ensure you have
met all the requirements.
Where there are no marking criteria, the questions in the checklist on the
following page can be used as a guide.

326
Editing checklist

Overall
Does the assignment answer the question/address the task?
Have I used the correct format (i.e., heading, sub-headings, tables, etc.)?
Is there a clear line of argument?
Is the thesis supported by connected arguments?
Is the discussion logical?
Is all the material relevant?
What further information is needed?
Is there evidence of critical thinking?
Are statements backed up with evidence?
Are judgements and evaluations appropriately qualified?

Introduction
Does it demonstrate an understanding of the question?
Does it have a thesis statement?
Does it indicate what will be discussed?

Body
Does each topic sentence clearly state the main idea of each body
paragraph?
Is each body paragraph adequately developed and supported with
evidence?
Are ideas linked with smooth transitions?
Does the material in the paragraphs support and develop the thesis?

Conclusion

Does the essay end with a separate paragraph that reiterates the main
points of the essay and confirms or qualifies the thesis?
Figure 49: Editing checklist

327
Checking the validity of content
After editing the structure and format, it is important to review the content and its
appropriateness for the task that is, its validity. Reviewing content is the part of
editing which looks at the information you have included. You might ask yourself:
Is the information appropriate for the topic?
Is there sufficient material?
Is there any material that is redundant because I have already said it
before or which is not relevant to the topic?
Is the information accurate and up to date?
Have I selected my quotations to support my argument?
Have I relied too much on authors' words when I should have used my own?
Have I strictly limited the number of quotations?
Have I been careful not to use quotations as substitutes for my own words?
Proofreading for grammar, punctuation and spelling
When you are satisfied with the structure and content of the essay, it is time to
proofread for grammar, punctuation and spelling. Markers are often unduly influ-
enced by the presence of obvious errors such as misspelt words and inappropriate
use of punctuation, so make sure such mistakes are dealt with by careful editing.
If you know that the mechanics of grammar are your weakness, you should try as
many avenues as possible to improve these skills, and take particular care with
your proofreading.
Here are some tips you can use while proofreading:
Check your references. Make sure that you have listed your references
accurately. Remember that if you have cited an author (whether in a direct
quotation or a paraphrase), you must acknowledge the source. For more
information about citations and references, see Chapter 8, Academic
argument and evidence.
Step back from your work. Leave some time between your last revision
and proof reading the final essay draft. If you proofread when your mind is
fresh, you are able to be more objective about your work. Dont leave it
until the last minute. You cant proofread effectively in a rush.
Read out loud. This enables some objectivity in your proofreading, and it
will allow you to hear awkwardness and mistakes in your writing that you
might not notice in reading silently.

328
Check for typical errors. Review your lecturers comments on past
assignments to identify errors that you make repeatedly.
Check your wording. Editing also involves checking that you have used
your words correctly. You should also check the accuracy of any 'technical'
terms, and make sure their meaning is clear to your reader.
Check your visuals. Pictorial material, such as graphs, tables, figures,
and diagrams, must be positioned as closely as possible to the text it
applies to. Make sure you have labelled them clearly and appropriately.
Check, also, that you have accurately acknowledged the sources which
you have copied, and included a key for your own tables.
Be thorough. Read slowly and carefully. Dont just skim. You may have
accidentally left out a word, sentence or even a paragraph. Occasionally,
pages are put in the wrong order. Be careful to read through the final hard
copy of the essay, exactly as it is to be submitted.
The questions in the following checklist can be used as a guide.
Proofreading checklist

Punctuation
Are commas and end punctuation used correctly?
Are there any run on sentences or sentence fragments?

Referencing
Are quotes enclosed in quotation marks?
Is all quoted or paraphrased material referenced correctly and consistently
both in-text and in your reference list?
Does the information in the reference list follow the guidelines of the
referencing system?

Spelling
Has the spell checker located any misspelled words? (Be aware that spell
checkers are not always sensitive to context dont just change the word
because it tells you to. Ensure the suggestion it makes is accurate.)
Figure 50: Proofreading checklist

329
Receiving feedback on your assignment
When an assignment is returned to you, take time to read the feedback and consider
which parts of the assignment were done well and which parts could be improved
upon. Of course, the mark you get for an assignment is in itself part of the feedback.
It provides a reference point and signals the overall standard you have achieved.
However, often comments made by the lecturer actually tell you more about the
strengths and weaknesses of your work.
You should use this information to improve your writing for the next assignment.
Even if your assignment has not received a good mark, any constructive comments
made by your lecturer should help you to decide which aspects need improvement
and how this might be achieved.
Useful feedback should:
be linked to the assessment criteria
provide constructive comments
advise you about any additional help you may need.
There are different ways of assessing work and lecturers use different types of
feedback. In some cases, lecturers may give each student a mark, and provide
only general feedback about the entire class's assignments. This is usually a
summary of the overall strengths and weaknesses of the assignments.
Many lecturers do try to give students individual feedback, so that students can
learn from it and develop a sense of their own progress. If you need to discuss
the mark you have received, it is appropriate to make an appointment to see your
lecturer.

330
Lecturer expectations
The table below identifies what lecturers often expect in written assignments.
Explicit language, structure and argument
Language: Words are to be selected carefully; specialised academic
vocabulary is to be used.
Structure: Texts have a clear structure. For example, essays have an
introduction, body and conclusion. Paragraphs have a clear
(often a single) focus or topic. Ideas in texts are linked by
logical connectors such as first, in conclusion, furthermore, so
and in contrast.
Argument: Essays have a clear argument, supported with appropriate
evidence. They do not just retell knowledge.
Appropriate language
Hedging: Claims and conclusions are hedged or tempered with words
like could, may, this suggests.
Distance: The writers personal voice is not obvious, i.e. the first person
(I) is avoided, emotional words are avoided, and passive verb
constructions are frequent (e.g. The findings are discussed
instead of I discuss the findings).
Formality: Texts such as essays and reports are typically written in a
formal rather than informal or colloquial style.
Academic values
Critical thinking: Students need to question as well as understand and apply
what they read and learn. They must also learn to reason and
write in the ways that are common in their discipline.
Acknowledging
sources:
Students must acknowledge other texts. They are expected to
build on other texts through summary, paraphrase, and
quotation. In this way, they transform knowledge, and dont just
retell it.
Referencing Students should reference their sources accurately and
conform to a recognised style, such as APA (American
Psychological Association), Harvard etc.
Genre
awareness:
Students need to learn and understand the purposes and
structures of summaries, essays, critical reviews, literature
reviews, etc.
Figure 51: Lecturer expectations

331
Although the lecturer expectations described in Figure 3 (on the previous page)
are typical, these expectations are variable. Expectations can vary between sub-
jects, lecturers, and assignments or tasks in the same subject. Some lecturers, too,
hope or expect that students will be creative, not just conformist, when they write. In
all cases, it is important to clarify what the lecturer wants.
Ask for examples of writing that are similar to the task you are completing; get
feedback before you submit an assignment; and read journals from your area of
study to get a feel for how experienced authors write.
Marker comments
The following table provides examples of the types of comments that markers may
give on your assignments. Alongside these comments are strategies for developing
ways to improve your work and references to the relevant chapters of this guide.
Marker comment Strategy
You havent done enough
reading and therefore your
essay is poorly researched
Use the library to research relevant material if
you cant find appropriate material you may need
to consult a librarian.
Youve given lots of inform-
ation but you havent really
analysed the material
You need to refrain from just using description in
your essay, and instead apply critical thinking and
analytical writing skills to the topic. See Chapter 8,
Academic argument and evidence.
The parts of your essay do
not seem to fit together very
logically
You need to have a clear understanding of the
genre's structure in which you are writing. You
need to be clear about the content and the line of
argument you are developing. If you need help in
planning essay structures, you could approach
your tutor. See also Chapter 6, The academic
essay and Chapter 8, Academic argument and
evidence.
Its difficult to understand the
overall structure of your
essay
Your introduction should explain your overall
structure. The body of the essay should be
consistent with your introduction. See Chapter 6,
The academic essay for guidance.
You have made some good
points but you have not
substantiated them
An essay should indicate that you have read to
develop a conceptual understanding of the topic,
and then this evidence is used to support your
particular line of argument or discussion.
Referencing these sources shows the reader that
you have done both things. See Chapter 8,

332
Marker comment Strategy
You have plagiarised parts
of this essay from several
sources! See me!
It is important that you interpret the source
material in your own words as a paraphrase, and
where this is not possible, you use direct
quotations. The lecturer needs to be able to see
that you understand the ideas and concepts in
your sources and that you can use these to
develop your own argument. See Chapter 8,
You need to improve your
English language skills
You may need to seek extra help to improve your
English writing skills. The Student Learning Unit's
Language & Learning Links website to online
resources may be useful for you. Alternatively, the
library has many English language workbooks and
textbooks that you can work through on a needs
basis and at your own pace.
Your essay is untidy and
poorly presented
You may need to allow more time after you have
completed your essay to check for presentation
details. See Chapter 2, Managing your writing.
You may also need to develop your word
processing skills.
Figure 52: Marker comments

333
In conclusion
Students often find their writing more productive when they view it as a process;
editing your writing and receiving feedback are two of the last steps in that process.
Although your most comprehensive editing will most likely occur after you have
finished composing your assignment, you can also weave smaller editing sessions
throughout your writing. This involves generating texts by editing them, and then
revising them to correct and strengthen them or drafting. Drafting can greatly
improve the quality of the work you produce.
You should consider your text on several levels, examining not only sentence
structure and grammar issues, but also the bigger picture aspects of your writing,
such as overall text structure and organisation, and content validity.
The writing process does not end after you submit your assignment for assessment.
You may not make any more physical changes to the text, but you should pay
attention to the feedback you receive from your lecturer. Think about ways you
could apply it to both this assignment and future writing tasks you will encounter.
Many oral presentations grow out of written assignments, and the feedback you
receive will help you to fine-tune your work. In Chapter 12, Tutorials, oral presen-
tations and group work, you will learn about other skills you can use to create oral
presentations, as well as ways to participate in tutorials and group work.

Chapter 12
Tutorials, oral presentations, and group work

Academic Skills Guide: Chapter 12

Introduction
Communication skills are fundamental to all fields taught at university, and the
ability to communicate orally in many different situations is a very important aspect
of this. In many courses, you are encouraged to develop your oral communication
skills in two main ways:
1. By being an active participant in the discussion of:
tutorial topics as they are presented each week
reflections on your tutorial group's, as well as your own, oral
interactions.
2. By making a brief oral presentation to your tutorial group about your
chosen topic, and leading a discussion in this.
This chapter will give you some basic information about what a tutorial is and what
will be expected of you regarding your participation. It will also give you some
strategies for organising, practising, and staging an academic oral presentation.
When you have finished this chapter, you will be able to:
Explain what a tutorial is, how it differs from a lecture, and how your partici-
pation will be assessed
Describe why you may be required to make an oral presentation, and what
you can hope to gain from doing so
Organise and structure your oral presentation
Identify the characteristics of an effective visual aid and describe the
positive and negative aspects of various types of visual aids
Interpret the feedback you will receive after you make your presentation
Employ strategies to make group work more manageable and productive.

Tutorials
Tutorials are small, interactive groups that meet regularly throughout the semester
to complement the lectures. They are designed to give you an opportunity to
express opinions, ask questions, and discuss lecture content with your tutor and
with fellow students.
The size of a tutorial group will depend on the number of students in the course,
but it will usually be between ten and twenty-five students. Your tutor may be your
main contact with the department running the course; he or she will try to get to
know everyone in the group and will probably be responsible for marking your
assignments.
(Adapted from: Hay, I, Bochner, D & Dungey, C 1997, Making the Grade.)
Tutorial participation
To be able to contribute effectively, you will need to prepare for each tutorial with
some reading from the subject's reading list. Based on this reading, you could
think of at least one question that you could ask, or one comment that you could
make as a contribution to your class discussion. Sometimes your lecturer might
invite you to pose your particular question or comment to get the discussion
started, or to encourage your involvement in the discussion.
Here are some other ways you can contribute to a tutorial discussion:
Give an example to illustrate what someone else has said
Agree with something someone else has said, but make suggestions
Compare what has been said to something you know about (perhaps
something you have read)
Disagree and give your reasons
Introduce a new (but relevant) topic.
(Source: University of Canberra, Academic Skills Online, at:
http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/tutorials.html)
During the tutorial sessions, there will also be opportunities to think about how
oral interactions in the class are going. You may be asked, for example, to give
feedback to a fellow classmate who has made an oral presentation. Your lecturer
may get your tutorial group to discuss generally how well the group is interacting,
and whether any ground rules need to be established or clarified.

Assessment of tutorial participation
In many units, tutorial participation is part of your assessment. The assessment is
not based on how often you contribute (quantity), but how well you contribute
(quality). This means that you should aim to be an active participant in discussions,
even though you might not say something every time.
When you do make a spoken contribution, you need to put your view reasonably,
justify your claims, and so on. You also need to be tolerant of alternative points of
view, and respect the rights of others to their views.
Oral presentations
Oral presentations create the opportunity to develop your thinking on a chosen
topic through explaining your understanding of the topic to others, and through
exploring your analysis and interpretation of ideas further in discussion. You have
three roles to play in making a presentation:
Expert on
the topic
Where you will have read much more broadly and deeply than
your fellow classmates who have chosen alternative topics.
Teacher Where you will explain the topic to your fellow classmates,
and then invite their questions and comments about your
presentation.
Learner Where you will develop your own understanding of the topic
through explaining it; explore the topic further through
discussing different interpretations and points of view with
others; and receive feedback on your point of view from both
your lecturer and your classmates.


Preparing your presentation
Preparing an oral presentation is a process, just like preparing a written assignment.
Following are six steps to help guide you through the process.
1. Brainstorm your topic and write a rough outline.
2. Research your topic. Keep your research focused there will be a time
limit for your presentation.
3. Organise your material and write a draft keep the time limit in mind.
4. Summarise your draft into points to write on overheads or cards.
5. Plan and prepare your visuals.
6. Rehearse your presentation and get the length right.
(Source: University of Canberra, Academic Skills Online http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/oralpres.html)
As you rehearse your talk, here are some pointers to keep in mind:
Time your presentation to make sure it is neither too short nor too long
Have an audience to speak it out aloud to; e.g., someone at home or a
fellow classmate
Decide how you will deliver your presentation physically. Think about
whether you will be:
i. sitting down or standing up and where e.g. behind, on, or in front
of the table and facing your audience
ii. writing on the board or using the overhead projector to talk about
your topic. Either way your audience will certainly find it more
interesting if you look at them, rather than away from them for the
majority of the presentation.
Try to talk to your audience in a natural way, rather than reading out
from something you have written. If you feel you have to speak from a
prepared text, then try to write it in more 'spoken' language, otherwise
your text could end up sounding 'dense' and hard for the listener to
follow. By talking in a natural way, you will probably end up using more
words to say the same thing, but your message will get through to your
audience more clearly. Also, explaining things in your own words,
rather than just using the words of the original academic source, is a
good way to help you to clarify your understanding of the topic.

Differences between written and spoken language
The following two texts illustrate the differences between written and spoken
language. The written text presents a lot of information that has been condensed
into a single sentence using 'written' language forms (e.g. long noun phrases,
formal vocabulary etc.) typically found in academic writing. This text would be
harder for the listener to follow because it is so 'dense'. Whereas, the spoken text
presents the same amount of information as the written one, but spread over a
number of shorter, simpler sentences. These sentences exemplify and elaborate
on the facts using 'spoken' language forms typically found in an academic talk
(e.g. phrasal verbs, informal vocabulary etc.).
Written text Spoken text
In general, the Green and White
Papers successfully highlight the
government's well-placed concern for
equity towards the unemployed, and
propose practical recommendations
which are likely to lessen the problem
of mass unemployment such as the
training wage.
So, generally speaking, the Green and
White Papers are successful because
they show that the government cares
about equity towards the unemployed.
Also, they've come up with recommen-
dations that are practical what I
mean by this is that their recommenda-
tions are likely to help without the problem
of mass unemployment. For example,
they recommended the training wage,
which is a good way of trying to deal
with the problem of unemployment.
Figure 1: Example written and spoken text comparison

Organising your presentation
An oral presentation has a structure similar to an academic essay; it has:
an introduction
a body
a conclusion.
Introduction
In your introduction, outline clearly what you are going to talk about, how your talk
is going to be structured, and perhaps what you are intending to achieve with the
talk. If you don't do this at the start, you may very easily loose your audience's
attention because they are confused.
Example introduction
My talk today is about the governments policies on mass unemployment
in particular about the Green and White Papers on unemployment
and how effective these policies are. I'm going to begin by giving a brief
summary of their main policy recommendations, and then I'm going to
focus on just three of their recommendations and talk about each one in
terms of how practical it is, and how effective it is likely to be in dealing
with the problems of mass unemployment. At the end I'll make a few
suggestions for other alternatives that the government did not think of.
Body
In the body of your talk, present your main points logically. Use verbal headlining
and rhetorical question form to guide and include your audience through the talk
(e.g. so, where do we go from here? that brings me to my next point ..., so far,
we've looked at ...). Remember to give time between each point for your listeners
to take notes or to think about what youre saying.
Use your visual aids to support the main points in the body of your talk.
Conclusion
In your conclusion, be sure to recap the main points and restate your position on
the issues clearly (as in an essay). Go for a 'big finish' by inviting questions from
the audience try to predict these questions in preparation for their responses.
Alternatively, you can present some questions or issues to your audience to
create further discussion - a useful strategy to have up your sleeve in case your
audience has no questions to ask you.
topic of talk
outline of talk

Creating your visual aids
Visual aids can enhance an oral presentation by:
increasing interest
holding attention
clarifying an idea
reinforcing a concept.
However, it is important that your visual aids do not do the presentation for you or
that they detract from your talk. Below are several types of visual aids you can use
to enhance your talk; within each type are some positives and negatives.
Overheads
Prepare them to be written, printed or photocopied on easy to use and
make
Use them as a prompt dont read them word for word!
Make sure your audience can see them use a sufficiently large font for
the text and avoid standing in front of the projector.
Give your audience time to absorb each overhead present small chunks
of information at a time by creating effective text charts that:
i. Introduce only one idea per chart
ii. Use emphatic headings to grab attention and summarise the chart
iii. Use short words and sentences
iv. Use no more than 6 8 words per point
v. Use no more than 6 8 lines per chart
vi. Use no more than 50 words per chart.

PowerPoint
Create professional-looking computer presentations with a minimum of
effort PowerPoint processes text, graphics, digital pictures using colour
and special effects like fading.
Make sure your PowerPoint presentation is compatible with the version
installed on the presentation computer make transparencies of your
slides as a backup just in case theres a problem with the computer.
Show only the material you are discussing at the time. Don't leave a visual
on the screen professional graphics wont save a poor presentation.
Whiteboards
Write information on the board before you begin to avoid spending a great
deal of time during your presentation with your back to the audience.
Can be time consuming to write as you present.
Check that the markers are non-permanent. If you use a permanent
marker on a whiteboard, it can be cleaned with solvent, but this is time
consuming and a nuisance.
Write neatly.
Human aids
Use people to add impact to your presentation e.g. have two (or more)
presenters where one presents while the other operates equipment, writes
on the board, looks up statistics etc. Alternatively, invite members of the
audience to contribute.
Handouts
Use them alone or in conjunction with overheads or PowerPoint slide show.
Decide when you want to distribute them before or after the presentation,
never during, as the audience are likely to read them and not pay attention
to you.
Be sure to bring enough for each member of your audience.
(Adapted from: Academic Skills Online, University of Canberra at
http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/oralpres.html)

After youve created your visuals, use this checklist to assess their effectiveness.
Figure 2: Visual aid checklist
Assessing oral presentations
The development of oral communication skills is a key learning outcome at uni-
versity. Oral presentations are designed to simulate workplace interactions and to
give you the opportunity to develop competence in this area.
The feedback you receive may include criteria similar to those used in assessing
essays or other written assignments. It is more likely, however, that the criteria
will be specific to the presentation, the task at hand, its objectives, and its overall
weighting within the unit. It is, therefore, useful to consider the individual weightings
given to each criterion and prepare accordingly. Use the criteria as a checklist
when you edit your presentation to ensure that you have paid the appropriate
amount of attention to each criterion.
Because oral presentations are also often designed to help you form your ideas for
a written assignment, feedback will indicate whether you are on the right track, or
whether you should consider re-thinking your approach to the topic. You will be
expected to respond to that feedback in preparing your written assignment.
As well as your lecturer's feedback, you should also take account of the feedback
you get from your fellow classmates.

Visual aid checklist
Introduce one key point per visual
Use large font size that's visible from the back of the room
Summarise main points avoid whole sentences or pages of dense text
Use of symbols, pictures, maps, graphs, etc.
Use no more than three curves on a graph
Use no more than three colours per visual

General criteria for assessing an oral presentation
Criterion Example
Evidence that relevant reading has been undertaken Is the presentation well
researched?
Deep and/or broad understanding of issues are exhibited
The main organising units of the presentation are devel-
oped in response to the tutorial topic
The main organising units of the presentation reflect an
analytical and critical interpretation of the topic, rather
than merely describing or summarising
Is the presentation well
structured?
The introduction provides a clear beginning to the
structure and purpose of the presentation
Relationships between ideas are made clear
Significance of statements is made clear
argued and substantiated?
Appropriate evidence is used to support statements
Speech is clear; the pace and volume of delivery are
appropriate.
Degree of technicality and formality in language is
appropriate
Speaker establishes and maintains appropriate eye
contact with the audience and actively engages the
audience during question and answer time
delivered?
Presentation is completed within the designated time
limits
Speaker uses written notes appropriately to support
presentation
Speaker uses visual aids where appropriate
supported visually?
Visual aids are clear, legible, and relevant to presentation
Figure 3: General assessment criteria for an oral presentation

Group work
You may be asked to complete an assignment as part of a group. Lecturers set
group assignments for a variety of reasons:
To prepare you for your professional future. In your professional
career, you will almost certainly be required to work as part of a group
often a group not of your own choosing.
To give you a chance to tackle significant projects. You can achieve
much more if you have a group of people working together, contributing
their different talents and their time. In group assignments, you can tackle
much larger projects that might be professional in nature.
To enable you to demonstrate teamwork skills in your CV. A record of
good performance in a group assignment is an excellent contribution to
your curriculum vitae. Employers are particularly interested in teamwork
skills, and a professional piece of work you have prepared during a group
assignment can be very impressive.
(Source adapted from: Academic Skills Online, University of Canberra,
http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/groups.html)
Working in groups can be an immensely rewarding experience as well as a poten-
tially frustrating one. Understanding the dynamics of groups and gaining appropriate
skills and strategies can enhance both the process and outcomes of group work.
Developing a team
Group work requires people to work together as a team. You have to work at being
a team even when you have a very limited time together. How you behave when
you are first together will have quite an impact on the team then and for the rest
of the time together.
So, get to know each other. Some of the following may be helpful in establishing
a bond with your other team members:
Have some fun together
Disclose some personal information to the group
Express feelings about being in this team
Identify your strengths and potential shortcomings as a team
Identify your skills that may benefit the team.

Team roles
Once youve become more comfortable with each other, it is a good idea to agree
on what role or roles each member will play in the group. The following table sum-
marises some of the major roles that will need to be filled in a team:
Role Responsibilities
Chair Sets the agenda
Moves the group through the agenda items
Summarises discussion and decisions
Helps the group to decide how much time needs to be
allocated to each item on the agenda.
Note taker Keeps a record of decisions, assignment workload
allocation, etc.
Produces an outline set of notes after the meeting
Sends a copy of the notes to each team member.
Progress chaser Makes sure everyone in the group stays on target
Identifies potential oversights and makes sure theyre
covered
Reports at the beginning of each meeting where the
team is at.
Time keeper Keeps the group to an agreed-upon schedule
Alerts the group to timeframes, e.g., We allocated 15
minutes to this, so weve got 5 minutes left to finish off
the discussion on this topic.
Figure 4: Key team roles
Activity 12.1: Thinking about team roles
Think about each of the responsibilities outlined for the different roles in a team.
Which role do you think you would be best at? Why?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Team goals
There are ground rules for every social occasion. In a new team, these ground
rules are often very fluid at the start. It may be helpful to set up broad ground
rules to begin with, such as, achieve harmony and efficiency in the group.
To implement this, you might create more specific ground rules about:
Punctuality: That meetings will start no later than xx minutes after
the agreed start time, when everyone should be there.
Minutes: How or what minutes of meetings are going to be kept
and by whom.
Roles: Whether the organisational roles of chair/note taker will
rotate.
Conflict
resolution:
How domination or conflict caused by an individual or
section of the team will be handled.
Language: What level of language is acceptable e.g. swearing
Decision making: How decisions will be made in the absence of a clear
consensus.
Group dynamic: How the team will handle non-contributors.


Destructive team behaviours
Ineffective teams allow destructive behaviours. If problems are recognised and
resolved before they become too entrenched, a team can continue to be productive.
There are a number of reasons why teams experience difficulties:
Not joining in remaining silent
Having aimless chat
Allowing an individual to dominate
Not including certain team members to participate
Not listening to each other
Allowing groups to develop within the team
Not having formal structures and agreements (i.e. minute-keeping, schedule
of responsibilities for individual group members)
Ignoring social aspects to meetings (e.g. an occasional coffee together)
Expressing hostile/negative rather than constructive criticism.
Activity 12.2: Problem solving in a team
Following are five scenarios. Think about how you might resolve them if they occurred
in your group. Write a brief description of your solution in the space provided.
1. A team member is constantly undermining the group with: Youre a
hopeless lot.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

2. There are two groups within the team. Each group has loyalty to its leader.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. One person insists their ideas are the only ideas that will lead to success
of the team. If you want to do well, you had better do it my way because I
have spoken to the lecturer and this is the way to do it.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. The majority of the team do not stay on task but are easily diverted into
social conversation.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. A person is a non-contributor the deadline for the assignment is fast
approaching and despite lots of promises, this member has still failed to
deliver any material she/he is responsible for.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Addressing the task
Just as in any other kind of academic assignment, you must first understand the
task before you can produce a successful response. But its not just you that must
understand each group member must have the same understanding of the task
as you do in order for it to be addressed effectively.
Use the following checklist as a guide to ensure every member of your group has
the same understanding of the assessment task ahead.

Task checklist
What is the purpose of the task project? What skills/learning are you
supposed to develop?
What are you supposed to produce? What should the final product look
like? What are the unique features for this piece of work (if any)?
What are the criteria for assessing this assignment? What will gain good
marks? Are all marks allocated to team involvement, or are they individually
allocated? What will happen if there are disputes about team members who
do not do their fare share?
What are the main components of the task? Are there clear stages to go
through? Will the assignment consist of clearly defined parts?
What are the deadlines? When is the final date for submission? What
happens if the deadline is missed? Do you need to set your own deadlines
or 'milestones' for parts of the task?
Figure 5: Task checklist
Breaking down the task
Completing a task as a group requires you to think about the task differently than
if you were doing it on your own. One of the main advantages of working in
groups is that you have an excellent resource in your fellow group members. So,
to use them effectively, you must first decide which member will take on which
job. This can be worked out systematically by:
1. listing all the jobs that need to be done and estimate how much time each
is likely to take
2. trying to divide big jobs into components
3. deciding who does what.
Use the table on the next page as a guide for who does what, when.


What needs doing? How long will it take? Who will do it?

Figure 6: Task assignment guide
(Source: Gibbs, 1994)

Writing collaboratively
Although writing in a team is hard work, the best writing can be produced by
drawing on the combined skills and knowledge of the group. Remember,
collaborative writing involves a messy, multi-stage process of noting, expanding,
drafting, reviewing and rewriting just as it does when you write on your own!
A group assignment is not usually successful when either of the following occurs:
one person writes the lot
each person writes, and the finished product is cut and pasted together.
To avoid either practice, use the following three strategies as a guide:
1. Develop a team report plan.
Meet to discuss and agree on the overall structure of your assignment
what sections it should have and roughly what should go into each section
and how each section relates to the other sections. Make sure everyone
understands the function of each section before any planning is done.
2. Allocate rolls for each section of the text.
Instead of simply dividing up the work, it can be helpful to allocate roles for
each section of your text. The main ones being writer and reviewer. The
reviewer should discuss outline plans and look at drafts with the writer as
well as review finished sections.
You can do this on a reciprocal basis with pairs reading and reviewing
each others work. Alternatively, you can allocate functions using the role
assignment table below as a guide:
Section Writer Reviewer 1 Reviewer 2

Figure 7: Role assignment table

Other roles that can be useful for writing collaboratively are:
Editor to improve style, impose uniformity and correct
grammatical errors
Proof reader to check with great care for spelling errors, section
numbering, references, etc
Publisher to take responsibility for layout, presentation, etc

3. Conduct a team review.
Once the assignment is completed, then the whole team should make a
time to review the work. The agenda for such a meeting could include
asking yourselves the following questions:
Is the purpose of the assignment clear?
Are the conclusions of the assignment clear?
Do the conclusions follow from the earlier sections?
Does the assignment meet the marking criteria?
In conclusion
You may be asked to participate in your course in other ways than your individual
written work. For instance, many courses include your verbal contributions to the
class in your final assessment as well.
Tutorials are the main avenue for you to speak out about the concepts and activities
that make up your course. Many tutors will organise this conversation by asking
you to make an oral presentation, which demonstrates your knowledge of a topic
and encourages other students to engage in a discussion of the issues you raise.
You may also need to participate in group work activities. Group work can allow
you to pool your talents and resources with those of other students to tackle
larger, more significant projects than you could feasibly handle on your own. All
the skills youve learned to analyse tasks and organise responses individually will
apply in a group work situation, in addition to other skills for working with others.

Activity 12.1: Thinking about team roles
Answers will vary.
Activity 12.2: Problem solving in a team
Answers will vary.

Academic Skills U Ws

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Academic Skills U Ws

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Academic skills guide

Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney

You might also like