l (SII OInIon) OCTOII! TI!

M, 20l3
SyIInbus
OTI: Whoro If Is fonsIbIo, n syIInbus (hondnofo) wIII bo roIonsod, ns Is
boIng dono In connocfIon wIfh fhIs cnso, nf fho fImo fho oInIon Is Issuod.
Tho syIInbus consfIfufos no nrf of fho oInIon of fho Courf buf hns boon
ronrod by fho !oorfor of ocIsIons for fho convonIonco of fho rondor.
Soo Ini/eJ S/o/ee v. De/roi/ TinIer & LunIer Co., 200 !. S. 32l, 33?.
SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
SyIInbus
AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS., IC., IT A!. t.
AI!IO, IC., IKA IAMIOOM !AIS, IC.
CI!TIO!A!I TO THI !ITI STATIS CO!!T OI AIIIA!S IO!
THI SICO CI!C!IT
o. l346l. Arguod ArII 22, 20l4ocIdod Juno 25, 20l4
Tho CoyrIghf Acf of l9?6 gIvos n coyrIghf ownor fho oxcIusIvo
rIgh|f] fo orform fho coyrIghfod work ubIIcIy. l? !. S. C.
l06(4). Tho Acf`s TrnnsmIf CInuso dofInos fhnf oxcIusIvo rIghf fo In-
cIudo fho rIghf fo frnnsmIf or ofhorwIso communIcnfo n orformnnco
. . . of fho |coyrIghfod] work . . . fo fho ubIIc, by monns of nny dovIco
or rocoss, whofhor fho mombors of fho ubIIc cnnbIo of rocoIvIng
fho orformnnco . . . rocoIvo If In fho snmo Inco or In sonrnfo Incos
nnd nf fho snmo fImo or nf dIfforonf fImos. l0l.
!osondonf Aoroo, Inc., soIIs n sorvIco fhnf nIIows Ifs subscrIbors fo
wnfch foIovIsIon rogrnms ovor fho Infornof nf nbouf fho snmo fImo
ns fho rogrnms nro brondcnsf ovor fho nIr. Whon n subscrIbor wnnfs
fo wnfch n show fhnf Is curronfIy nIrIng, ho soIocfs fho show from n
monu on Aoroo`s wobsIfo. Aoroo`s sysfom, whIch consIsfs of fhou-
snnds of smnII nnfonnns nnd ofhor oquImonf housod In n confrnIIzod
wnrohouso, rosonds roughIy ns foIIows: A sorvor funos nn nnfonnn,
whIch Is dodIcnfod fo fho uso of ono subscrIbor nIono, fo fho brondcnsf
cnrryIng fho soIocfod show. A frnnscodor frnnsInfos fho sIgnnIs ro-
coIvod by fho nnfonnn Info dnfn fhnf cnn bo frnnsmIffod ovor fho In-
fornof. A sorvor snvos fho dnfn In n subscrIbor-socIfIc foIdor on
Aoroo`s hnrd drIvo nnd bogIns sfronmIng fho show fo fho subscrIbor`s
scroon onco sovornI soconds of rogrnmmIng hnvo boon snvod. Tho
sfronmIng confInuos, n fow soconds bohInd fho ovor-fho-nIr brondcnsf,
unfII fho subscrIbor hns rocoIvod fho onfIro show.
IofIfIonors, who nro foIovIsIon roducors, mnrkofors, dIsfrIbufors,
nnd brondcnsfors fhnf own fho coyrIghfs In mnny of fho rogrnms
fhnf Aoroo sfronms, suod Aoroo for coyrIghf InfrIngomonf. Thoy
soughf n roIImInnry InjuncfIon, nrguIng fhnf Aoroo wns InfrIngIng





























2 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
SyIInbus
fhoIr rIghf fo orform fhoIr coyrIghfod works ubIIcIy. Tho Is-
frIcf Courf donIod fho roIImInnry InjuncfIon, nnd fho Socond CIrcuIf
nffIrmod.
HelJ: Aoroo orforms ofIfIonors` works ubIIcIy wIfhIn fho monnIng of
fho TrnnsmIf CInuso. I. 4l8.
(n) Aoroo orform|s]. If doos nof moroIy suIy oquImonf fhnf
nIIows ofhors fo do so. I. 4l0.
(l) Ono of Congross` rImnry urosos In nmondIng fho Coy-
rIghf Acf In l9?6 wns fo ovorfurn fhIs Courf`s hoIdIngs fhnf fho ncfIv-
IfIos of communIfy nnfonnn foIovIsIon (CATV) rovIdors foII oufsIdo
fho Acf`s scoo. In Ior/nigl/l, Corp. v. Ini/eJ Ar/ie/e Teletieion,
1nc., 392 !. S. 390, fho Courf doformInod fhnf n CATV rovIdor wns
moro IIko n vIowor fhnn n brondcnsfor, bocnuso Ifs sysfom no moro
fhnn onhnncos fho vIowor`s cnncIfy fo rocoIvo fho brondcnsfor`s sIg-
nnIs |by] rovId|Ing] n woII-Iocnfod nnfonnn wIfh nn offIcIonf connoc-
fIon fo fho vIowor`s foIovIsIon sof. 1J., nf 399. Thoroforo, fho Courf
concIudod, n CATV rovIdor dId nof orform ubIIcIy. Tho Courf
ronchod fho snmo doformInnfIon In rosocf fo n CATV rovIdor fhnf
rofrnnsmIffod sIgnnIs from hundrods of mIIos nwny In Telepronp/er
Corp. v. ColunIio BrooJcoe/ing S,e/en, 1nc., 4l5 !. S. 394. Tho ro-
cofIon nnd rochnnnoIIng of |brondcnsf foIovIsIon sIgnnIs] for sImuI-
fnnoous vIowIng Is ossonfInIIy n vIowor funcfIon, IrrosocfIvo of fho
dIsfnnco bofwoon fho brondcnsfIng sfnfIon nnd fho uIfImnfo vIowor,
fho Courf snId. 1J., nf 408. I. 4?.
(2) In l9?6, Congross nmondod fho CoyrIghf Acf In Inrgo nrf fo
rojocf fho Ior/nigl/l, nnd Telepronp/er hoIdIngs. Tho Acf now cInrI-
fIos fhnf fo orform nn nudIovIsunI work monns fo show Ifs Imngos
In nny soquonco or fo mnko fho sounds nccomnnyIng If nudIbIo.
l0l. Thus, Io/l fho brondcnsfor onJ fho vIowor orform, bocnuso
fhoy bofh show n foIovIsIon rogrnm`s Imngos nnd mnko nudIbIo fho
rogrnm`s sounds. Congross nIso onncfod fho TrnnsmIf CInuso,
whIch socIfIos fhnf nn onfIfy orforms whon If frnnsmIf|s] . . . n
orformnnco . . . fo fho ubIIc. 1IiJ. Tho CInuso mnkos cIonr fhnf nn
onfIfy fhnf ncfs IIko n CATV sysfom IfsoIf orforms, ovon whon If
sImIy onhnncos vIowors` nbIIIfy fo rocoIvo brondcnsf foIovIsIon sIg-
nnIs. Congross furfhor cronfod n comIox IIconsIng schomo fhnf sofs
ouf fho condIfIons, IncIudIng fho nymonf of comuIsory foos, undor
whIch cnbIo sysfoms mny rofrnnsmIf brondcnsfs fo fho ubIIc. lll.
Congross mndo nII fhroo of fhoso chnngos fo brIng cnbIo sysfom ncfIv-
IfIos wIfhIn fho CoyrIghf Acf`s scoo. I. ?8.
(3) Iocnuso Aoroo`s ncfIvIfIos nro subsfnnfInIIy sImIInr fo fhoso of
fho CATV comnnIos fhnf Congross nmondod fho Acf fo ronch, Aoroo
Is nof sImIy nn oquImonf rovIdor. Aoroo soIIs n sorvIco fhnf nI-
Iows subscrIbors fo wnfch foIovIsIon rogrnms, mnny of whIch nro




























3 CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
SyIInbus
coyrIghfod, vIrfunIIy ns fhoy nro boIng brondcnsf. Aoroo usos Ifs
own oquImonf, housod In n confrnIIzod wnrohouso, oufsIdo of Ifs us-
ors` homos. Iy monns of Ifs fochnoIogy, Aoroo`s sysfom rocoIvo|s]
rogrnms fhnf hnvo boon roIonsod fo fho ubIIc nnd cnrr|Ios] fhom by
rIvnfo chnnnoIs fo nddIfIonnI vIowors. Ior/nigl/l,, eupro, nf 400.
ThIs Courf rocognIzos ono nrfIcuInr dIfforonco bofwoon Aoroo`s
sysfom nnd fho cnbIo sysfoms nf Issuo In Ior/nigl/l, nnd Telepronp/-
er: Tho sysfoms In fhoso cnsos frnnsmIffod consfnnfIy, whorons
Aoroo`s sysfom romnIns Inorf unfII n subscrIbor IndIcnfos fhnf sho
wnnfs fo wnfch n rogrnm. In ofhor cnsos InvoIvIng dIfforonf kInds of
sorvIco or fochnoIogy rovIdors, n usor`s InvoIvomonf In fho oornfIon
of fho rovIdor`s oquImonf nnd soIocfIon of fho confonf frnnsmIffod
mny woII bonr on whofhor fho rovIdor orforms wIfhIn fho monnIng
of fho Acf. Iuf gIvon Aoroo`s ovorwhoImIng IIkonoss fo fho cnbIo
comnnIos fnrgofod by fho l9?6 nmondmonfs, fhIs soIo fochnoIogIcnI
dIfforonco bofwoon Aoroo nnd frndIfIonnI cnbIo comnnIos doos nof
mnko n crIfIcnI dIfforonco horo. I. 8l0.
(b) Aoroo nIso orforms ofIfIonors` works ubIIcIy. !ndor fho
CInuso, nn onfIfy orforms n work ubIIcIy whon If frnnsmIf|s] . . . n
orformnnco . . . of fho work . . . fo fho ubIIc. l0l. Whnf orfor-
mnnco, If nny, doos Aoroo frnnsmIf IofIfIonors sny Aoroo frnnsmIfs
n prior orformnnco of fhoIr works, whorons Aoroo snys fho orfor-
mnnco If frnnsmIfs Is fho neu orformnnco cronfod by Ifs ncf of
frnnsmIffIng. ThIs Courf nssumos orguenJo fhnf Aoroo Is corrocf nnd
fhus nssumos, for rosonf urosos, fhnf fo frnnsmIf n orformnnco
of nn nudIovIsunI work monns fo communIcnfo confomornnoousIy
vIsIbIo Imngos nnd confomornnoousIy nudIbIo sounds of fho work.
!ndor fho Courf`s nssumod dofInIfIon, Aoroo frnnsmIfs n orfor-
mnnco whonovor Ifs subscrIbors wnfch n rogrnm.
Whnf nbouf fho CInuso`s furfhor roquIromonf fhnf Aoroo frnnsmIf
n orformnnco fo fho ubIIc Aoroo cInIms fhnf bocnuso If frnns-
mIfs from usor-socIfIc coIos, usIng IndIvIdunIIy-nssIgnod nnfonnns,
nnd bocnuso onch frnnsmIssIon Is nvnIInbIo fo onIy ono subscrIbor, If
doos nof frnnsmIf n orformnnco fo fho ubIIc. VIowod In forms of
Congross` roguInfory objocfIvos, fhoso bohInd-fho-sconos fochnoIogIcnI
dIfforoncos do nof dIsfInguIsh Aoroo`s sysfom from cnbIo sysfoms,
whIch do orform ubIIcIy. Congross wouId ns much hnvo Infondod fo
rofocf n coyrIghf hoIdor from fho unIIconsod ncfIvIfIos of Aoroo ns
from fhoso of cnbIo comnnIos.
Tho foxf of fho CInuso offocfunfos Congross` Infonf. !ndor fho
CInuso, nn onfIfy mny frnnsmIf n orformnnco fhrough muIfIIo
frnnsmIssIons, whoro fho orformnnco Is of fho snmo work. Thus
whon nn onfIfy communIcnfos fho snmo confomornnoousIy orcofI-
bIo Imngos nnd sounds fo muIfIIo ooIo, If frnnsmIf|s] . . . n or-



















4 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
SyIInbus
formnnco fo fhom, IrrosocfIvo of fho numbor of dIscrofo communIcn-
fIons If mnkos nnd IrrosocfIvo of whofhor If frnnsmIfs usIng n sIngIo
coy of fho work or, ns Aoroo doos, usIng nn IndIvIdunI orsonnI coy
for onch vIowor.
Moroovor, fho subscrIbors fo whom Aoroo frnnsmIfs consfIfufo fho
ubIIc undor fho Acf. ThIs Is bocnuso Aoroo communIcnfos fho snmo
confomornnoousIy orcofIbIo Imngos nnd sounds fo n Inrgo numbor
of ooIo who nro unroInfod nnd unknown fo onch ofhor. In nddIfIon,
noIfhor fho rocord nor Aoroo suggosfs fhnf Aoroo`s subscrIbors rocoIvo
orformnncos In fhoIr cnncIfIos ns ownors or ossossors of fho undor-
IyIng works. ThIs Is roIovnnf bocnuso whon nn onfIfy orforms fo n
sof of ooIo, whofhor fhoy consfIfufo fho ubIIc offon doonds uon
fhoIr roInfIonshI fo fho undorIyIng work. IInnIIy, fho sfnfufo mnkos
cIonr fhnf fho fncf fhnf Aoroo`s subscrIbors mny rocoIvo fho snmo ro-
grnms nf dIfforonf fImos nnd IocnfIons Is of no consoquonco. Aoroo
frnnsmIfs n orformnnco of ofIfIonors` works fo fho ubIIc. I. ll
l5.
(c) CIvon fho IImIfod nnfuro of fhIs hoIdIng, fho Courf doos nof bo-
IIovo Ifs docIsIon wIII dIscourngo fho omorgonco or uso of dIfforonf
kInds of fochnoIogIos. I. l5l?.
?l2 I. 3d 6?6, rovorsod nnd romnndod.
I!IYI!, J., doIIvorod fho oInIon of fho Courf, In whIch !OII!TS,
C. J., nnd KIIY, CISI!!C, SOTOMAYO!, nnd KACA, JJ., joInod.
SCA!IA, J., fIIod n dIssonfIng oInIon, In whIch THOMAS nnd A!ITO, JJ.,
joInod.







_________________

_________________










l CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
OInIon of fho Courf
OTICI: ThIs oInIon Is subjocf fo formnI rovIsIon boforo ubIIcnfIon In fho
roIImInnry rInf of fho !nIfod Sfnfos !oorfs. !ondors nro roquosfod fo
nofIfy fho !oorfor of ocIsIons, Suromo Courf of fho !nIfod Sfnfos, Wnsh-
Ingfon, . C. 20543, of nny fyogrnhIcnI or ofhor formnI orrors, In ordor
fhnf corrocfIons mny bo mndo boforo fho roIImInnry rInf goos fo ross.
SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
o. l346l
AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COMIAIIS, IC.,
IT A!., IITITIOI!S t. AI!IO, IC., IKA
IAMIOOM !AIS, IC.
O W!IT OI CI!TIO!A!I TO THI !ITI STATIS CO!!T OI
AIIIA!S IO! THI SICO CI!C!IT
|Juno 25, 20l4]
J!STICI I!IYI! doIIvorod fho oInIon of fho Courf.
Tho CoyrIghf Acf of l9?6 gIvos n coyrIghf ownor fho
oxcIusIvo rIgh|f] fo orform fho coyrIghfod work ub-
IIcIy. l? !. S. C. l06(4). Tho Acf`s TrnnsmIf CInuso
dofInos fhnf oxcIusIvo rIghf ns IncIudIng fho rIghf fo
frnnsmIf or ofhorwIso communIcnfo n orformnnco
. . . of fho |coyrIghfod] work . . . fo fho ubIIc, by
monns of nny dovIco or rocoss, whofhor fho mombors
of fho ubIIc cnnbIo of rocoIvIng fho orformnnco . . .
rocoIvo If In fho snmo Inco or In sonrnfo Incos nnd
nf fho snmo fImo or nf dIfforonf fImos. l0l.
Wo musf docIdo whofhor rosondonf Aoroo, Inc., InfrIngos
fhIs oxcIusIvo rIghf by soIIIng Ifs subscrIbors n fochnoIogI-
cnIIy comIox sorvIco fhnf nIIows fhom fo wnfch foIovIsIon
rogrnms ovor fho Infornof nf nbouf fho snmo fImo ns fho
rogrnms nro brondcnsf ovor fho nIr. Wo concIudo fhnf If
doos.















2 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
OInIon of fho Courf
I
A
Ior n monfhIy foo, Aoroo offors subscrIbors brondcnsf
foIovIsIon rogrnmmIng ovor fho Infornof, vIrfunIIy ns fho
rogrnmmIng Is boIng brondcnsf. Much of fhIs rogrnm-
mIng Is mndo u of coyrIghfod works. Aoroo noIfhor
owns fho coyrIghf In fhoso works nor hoIds n IIconso from
fho coyrIghf ownors fo orform fhoso works ubIIcIy.
Aoroo`s sysfom Is mndo u of sorvors, frnnscodors, nnd
fhousnnds of dImo-sIzod nnfonnns housod In n confrnI
wnrohouso. If works roughIy ns foIIows: IIrsf, whon n
subscrIbor wnnfs fo wnfch n show fhnf Is curronfIy boIng
brondcnsf, ho vIsIfs Aoroo`s wobsIfo nnd soIocfs, from n IIsf
of fho IocnI rogrnmmIng, fho show ho wIshos fo soo.
Socond, ono of Aoroo`s sorvors soIocfs nn nnfonnn, whIch
If dodIcnfos fo fho uso of fhnf subscrIbor (nnd fhnf sub-
scrIbor nIono) for fho durnfIon of fho soIocfod show. A
sorvor fhon funos fho nnfonnn fo fho ovor-fho-nIr brond-
cnsf cnrryIng fho show. Tho nnfonnn bogIns fo rocoIvo fho
brondcnsf, nnd nn Aoroo frnnscodor frnnsInfos fho sIg-
nnIs rocoIvod Info dnfn fhnf cnn bo frnnsmIffod ovor fho
Infornof.
ThIrd, rnfhor fhnn dIrocfIy sond fho dnfn fo fho sub-
scrIbor, n sorvor snvos fho dnfn In n subscrIbor-socIfIc
foIdor on Aoroo`s hnrd drIvo. In ofhor words, Aoroo`s
sysfom cronfos n subscrIbor-socIfIc coyfhnf Is, n or-
sonnI coyof fho subscrIbor`s rogrnm of choIco.
Iourfh, onco sovornI soconds of rogrnmmIng hnvo boon
snvod, Aoroo`s sorvor bogIns fo sfronm fho snvod coy of
fho show fo fho subscrIbor ovor fho Infornof. (Tho sub-
scrIbor mny Insfond dIrocf Aoroo fo sfronm fho rogrnm nf
n Infor fImo, buf fhnf nsocf of Aoroo`s sorvIco Is nof boforo
us.) Tho subscrIbor cnn wnfch fho sfronmod rogrnm on
fho scroon of hIs orsonnI comufor, fnbIof, smnrf hono,
Infornof-connocfod foIovIsIon, or ofhor Infornof-connocfod
dovIco. Tho sfronmIng confInuos, n moro fow soconds




















3 CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
OInIon of fho Courf
bohInd fho ovor-fho-nIr brondcnsf, unfII fho subscrIbor hns
rocoIvod fho onfIro show. Soo A IcfIonnry of ComufIng
494 (6fh od. 2008) (dofInIng sfronmIng ns |f]ho rocoss
of rovIdIng n sfondy fIow of nudIo or vIdoo dnfn so fhnf nn
Infornof usor Is nbIo fo nccoss If ns If Is frnnsmIffod).
Aoroo omhnsIzos fhnf fho dnfn fhnf Ifs sysfom sfronms
fo onch subscrIbor nro fho dnfn from hIs own orsonnI
coy, mndo from fho brondcnsf sIgnnIs rocoIvod by fho
nrfIcuInr nnfonnn nIIoffod fo hIm. Ifs sysfom doos nof
frnnsmIf dnfn snvod In ono subscrIbor`s foIdor fo nny ofhor
subscrIbor. Whon fwo subscrIbors wIsh fo wnfch fho snmo
rogrnm, Aoroo`s sysfom ncfIvnfos fwo sonrnfo nnfonnns
nnd snvos fwo sonrnfo coIos of fho rogrnm In fwo son-
rnfo foIdors. If fhon sfronms fho show fo fho subscrIbors
fhrough fwo sonrnfo frnnsmIssIonsonch from fho sub-
scrIbor`s orsonnI coy.
I
IofIfIonors nro foIovIsIon roducors, mnrkofors, dIsfrIb-
ufors, nnd brondcnsfors who own fho coyrIghfs In mnny
of fho rogrnms fhnf Aoroo`s sysfom sfronms fo Ifs sub-
scrIbors. Thoy broughf suIf ngnInsf Aoroo for coyrIghf
InfrIngomonf In IodornI IsfrIcf Courf. Thoy soughf n
roIImInnry InjuncfIon, nrguIng fhnf Aoroo wns InfrIngIng
fhoIr rIghf fo orform fhoIr works ubIIcIy, ns fho
TrnnsmIf CInuso dofInos fhoso forms.
Tho IsfrIcf Courf donIod fho roIImInnry InjuncfIon.
8?4 I. Su. 2d 3?3 (SY 20l2). !oIyIng on rIor CIr-
cuIf rocodonf, n dIvIdod nnoI of fho Socond CIrcuIf nf-
fIrmod. WA1T, Tlir/een v. Aereo, 1nc., ?l2 I. 3d 6?6
(20l3) (cIfIng Cor/oon Ae/uor/ LP, LLLP v. CSC HolJ-
inge, 1nc., 536 I. 3d l2l (2008)). In fho Socond CIrcuIf`s
vIow, Aoroo doos nof orform ubIIcIy wIfhIn fho monnIng
of fho TrnnsmIf CInuso bocnuso If doos nof frnnsmIf fo
fho ubIIc. !nfhor, onch fImo Aoroo sfronms n rogrnm fo
n subscrIbor, If sonds n prito/e frnnsmIssIon fhnf Is nvnII-

















4 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
OInIon of fho Courf
nbIo onIy fo fhnf subscrIbor. Tho Socond CIrcuIf donIod
rohonrIng on bnnc, ovor fho dIssonf of fwo judgos. WA1T,
Tlir/een v. Aereo, 1nc., ?22 I. 3d 500 (20l3). Wo grnnfod
corfIornrI.
II
ThIs cnso roquIros us fo nnswor fwo quosfIons: IIrsf, In
oornfIng In fho mnnnor doscrIbod nbovo, doos Aoroo
orform nf nII And socond, If so, doos Aoroo do so ub-
IIcIy Wo nddross fhoso dIsfIncf quosfIons In furn.
oos Aoroo orform Soo l06(4) (|T]ho ownor of |n]
coyrIghf . . . hns fho oxcIusIvo rIgh|f] . . . fo perforn fho
coyrIghfod work ubIIcIy (omhnsIs nddod)); l0l (To
perforn . . . n work 'ubIIcIy` monns |nmong ofhor fhIngs]
fo frnnsmIf . . . n orformnnco . . . of fho work . . . fo fho
ubIIc . . . (omhnsIs nddod)). Ihrnsod nnofhor wny, doos
Aoroo frnnsmIf . . . n orformnnco whon n subscrIbor
wnfchos n show usIng Aoroo`s sysfom, or Is If onIy fho
subscrIbor who frnnsmIfs In Aoroo`s vIow, If doos nof
orform. If doos no moro fhnn suIy oquImonf fhnf
omuInfo|s] fho oornfIon of n homo nnfonnn nnd |dIgIfnI
vIdoo rocordor (V!)]. IrIof for !osondonf 4l. !Iko n
homo nnfonnn nnd V!, Aoroo`s oquImonf sImIy ro-
sonds fo Ifs subscrIbors` dIrocfIvos. So If Is onIy fho
subscrIbors who orform whon fhoy uso Aoroo`s oquI-
monf fo sfronm foIovIsIon rogrnms fo fhomsoIvos.
ConsIdorod nIono, fho Inngungo of fho Acf doos nof
cIonrIy IndIcnfo whon nn onfIfy orform|s] (or frnns-
mIf|s]) nnd whon If moroIy suIIos oquImonf fhnf
nIIows ofhors fo do so. Iuf whon rond In IIghf of Ifs ur-
oso, fho Acf Is unmIsfnknbIo: An onfIfy fhnf ongngos In
ncfIvIfIos IIko Aoroo`s orforms.
A
HIsfory mnkos InIn fhnf ono of Congross` rImnry
urosos In nmondIng fho CoyrIghf Acf In l9?6 wns fo















5 CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
OInIon of fho Courf
ovorfurn fhIs Courf`s doformInnfIon fhnf communIfy
nnfonnn foIovIsIon (CATV) sysfoms (fho rocursors of
modorn cnbIo sysfoms) foII oufsIdo fho Acf`s scoo. In
Ior/nigl/l, Corp. v. Ini/eJ Ar/ie/e Teletieion, 1nc., 392
!. S. 390 (l968), fho Courf consIdorod n CATV sysfom
fhnf cnrrIod IocnI foIovIsIon brondcnsfIng, much of whIch
wns coyrIghfod, fo Ifs subscrIbors In fwo cIfIos. Tho
CATV rovIdor Incod nnfonnns on hIIIs nbovo fho cIfIos
nnd usod conxInI cnbIos fo cnrry fho sIgnnIs rocoIvod by fho
nnfonnns fo fho homo foIovIsIon sofs of Ifs subscrIbors.
Tho sysfom nmIIfIod nnd moduInfod fho sIgnnIs In ordor
fo Imrovo fhoIr sfrongfh nnd offIcIonfIy frnnsmIf fhom fo
subscrIbors. A subscrIbor couId chooso nny of fho . . .
rogrnms ho wIshod fo vIow by sImIy furnIng fho knob on
hIs own foIovIsIon sof. 1J., nf 392. Tho CATV rovIdor
noIfhor odIfod fho rogrnms rocoIvod nor orIgInnfod nny
rogrnms of Ifs own. 1IiJ.
Askod fo docIdo whofhor fho CATV rovIdor InfrIngod
coyrIghf hoIdors` oxcIusIvo rIghf fo orform fhoIr works
ubIIcIy, fho Courf hoId fhnf fho rovIdor dId nof or-
form nf nII. Soo l? !. S. C. l(c) (l964 od.) (grnnfIng
coyrIghf hoIdor fho oxcIusIvo rIghf fo orform . . . In
ubIIc for rofIf n nondrnmnfIc IIfornry work), l(d)
(grnnfIng coyrIghf hoIdor fho oxcIusIvo rIghf fo orform
. . . ubIIcIy n drnmnfIc work). Tho Courf drow n IIno:
Irondcnsfors orform. VIowors do nof orform. 392
!. S., nf 398 (foofnofo omIffod). And n CATV rovIdor
fnIIs on fho vIowor`s sIdo of fho IIno. 1J., nf 399.
Tho Courf ronsonod fhnf CATV rovIdors woro unIIko
brondcnsfors:
Irondcnsfors soIocf fho rogrnms fo bo vIowod; CATV
sysfoms sImIy cnrry, wIfhouf odIfIng, whnfovor ro-
grnms fhoy rocoIvo. Irondcnsfors rocuro rogrnms
nnd rongnfo fhom fo fho ubIIc; CATV sysfoms ro-
coIvo rogrnms fhnf hnvo boon roIonsod fo fho ubIIc










6 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
OInIon of fho Courf
nnd cnrry fhom by rIvnfo chnnnoIs fo nddIfIonnI
vIowors. 1J., nf 400.
Insfond, CATV rovIdors woro moro IIko vIowors, for fho
bnsIc funcfIon |fhoIr] oquImonf sorvos Is IIffIo dIfforonf
from fhnf sorvod by fho oquImonf gonornIIy furnIshod by
vIowors. 1J., nf 399. IssonfInIIy, fho Courf snId, n
CATV sysfom no moro fhnn onhnncos fho vIowor`s cnnc-
Ify fo rocoIvo fho brondcnsfor`s sIgnnIs |by] rovId|Ing] n
woII-Iocnfod nnfonnn wIfh nn offIcIonf connocfIon fo fho
vIowor`s foIovIsIon sof. 1IiJ. VIowors do nof bocomo
orformors by usIng nmIIfyIng oquImonf, nnd n CATV
rovIdor shouId nof bo fronfod dIfforonfIy for rovIdIng
vIowors fho snmo oquImonf. 1J., nf 398400.
In Telepronp/er Corp. v. ColunIio BrooJcoe/ing S,e-
/en, 1nc., 4l5 !. S. 394 (l9?4), fho Courf consIdorod fho
coyrIghf IInbIIIfy of n CATV rovIdor fhnf cnrrIod brond-
cnsf foIovIsIon rogrnmmIng Info subscrIbors` homos from
hundrods of mIIos nwny. AIfhough fho Courf rocognIzod
fhnf n vIowor mIghf nof bo nbIo fo nfford nmIIfyIng
oquImonf fhnf wouId rovIdo nccoss fo fhoso dIsfnnf
sIgnnIs, If nonofhoIoss found fhnf fho CATV rovIdor wns
moro IIko n vIowor fhnn n brondcnsfor. 1J., nf 408409. If
oxInInod: Tho rocofIon nnd rochnnnoIIng of |brondcnsf
foIovIsIon sIgnnIs] for sImuIfnnoous vIowIng Is ossonfInIIy
n vIowor funcfIon, IrrosocfIvo of fho dIsfnnco bofwoon fho
brondcnsfIng sfnfIon nnd fho uIfImnfo vIowor. 1J., nf 408.
Tho Courf nIso rocognIzod fhnf fho CATV sysfom oxor-
cIsod somo monsuro of choIco ovor whnf fo frnnsmIf. Iuf
fhnf fncf dId nof frnnsform fho CATV sysfom Info n brond-
cnsfor. A brondcnsfor oxorcIsos sIgnIfIcnnf cronfIvIfy In
choosIng whnf fo nIr, fho Courf ronsonod. 1J., nf 4l0. In
confrnsf, fho CATV rovIdor mnkos nn InIfInI choIco nbouf
whIch brondcnsf sfnfIons fo rofrnnsmIf, buf fhon 'sImIy
cnrr|Ios], wIfhouf odIfIng, whnfovor rogrnms |If] ro-
coIvo|s].` 1IiJ. (quofIng Ior/nigl/l,, eupro, nf 400 (nIforn-

















? CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
OInIon of fho Courf
fIons In orIgInnI)).
I
In l9?6 Congross nmondod fho CoyrIghf Acf In Inrgo
nrf fo rojocf fho Courf`s hoIdIngs In Ior/nigl/l, nnd
Telepronp/er. Soo H. !. !o. o. 94l4?6, . 868?
(l9?6) (horoInnffor H. !. !o.) (Tho l9?6 nmondmonfs
comIofoIy ovorfurnod fhIs Courf`s nnrrow consfrucfIon
of fho Acf In Ior/nigl/l, nnd Telepronp/er). Congross
onncfod now Inngungo fhnf ornsod fho Courf`s IIno bo-
fwoon brondcnsfor nnd vIowor, In rosocf fo orform|Ing]
n work. Tho nmondod sfnfufo cInrIfIos fhnf fo orform
nn nudIovIsunI work monns fo show Ifs Imngos In nny
soquonco or fo mnko fho sounds nccomnnyIng If nudIbIo.
l0l; soo iIiJ. (dofInIng |n]udIovIsunI works ns works
fhnf consIsf of n sorIos of roInfod Imngos whIch nro InfrIn-
sIcnIIy Infondod fo bo shown by fho uso of mnchInos . . . ,
fogofhor wIfh nccomnnyIng sounds). !ndor fhIs now
Inngungo, Io/l fho brondcnsfor onJ fho vIowor of n foIovI-
sIon rogrnm orform, bocnuso fhoy bofh show fho ro-
grnm`s Imngos nnd mnko nudIbIo fho rogrnm`s sounds.
Soo H. !. !o., nf 63 (|A] brondcnsfIng nofwork Is or-
formIng whon If frnnsmIfs |n sIngor`s orformnnco of n
song] . . . nnd nny IndIvIdunI Is orformIng whonovor ho or
sho . . . communIcnfos fho orformnnco by furnIng on n
rocoIvIng sof).
Congross nIso onncfod fho TrnnsmIf CInuso, whIch
socIfIos fhnf nn onfIfy orforms ubIIcIy whon If frnns-
mIf|s] . . . n orformnnco . . . fo fho ubIIc. l0l; soo iIiJ.
(dofInIng |f]o 'frnnsmIf` n orformnnco ns fo communI-
cnfo If by nny dovIco or rocoss whoroby Imngos or sounds
nro rocoIvod boyond fho Inco from whIch fhoy nro sonf).
CnbIo sysfom ncfIvIfIos, IIko fhoso of fho CATV sysfoms In
Ior/nigl/l, nnd Telepronp/er, IIo nf fho honrf of fho ncfIv-
IfIos fhnf Congross Infondod fhIs Inngungo fo covor. Soo
H. !. !o., nf 63 (|A] cnbIo foIovIsIon sysfom Is orform-















8 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
OInIon of fho Courf
Ing whon If rofrnnsmIfs |n nofwork] brondcnsf fo Ifs sub-
scrIbors); soo nIso iIiJ. (|T]ho conco|f] of ubIIc orfor-
mnnco . . . covor|s] nof onIy fho InIfInI rondIfIon or show-
Ing, buf nIso nny furfhor ncf by whIch fhnf rondIfIon or
showIng Is frnnsmIffod or communIcnfod fo fho ubIIc).
Tho CInuso fhus mnkos cIonr fhnf nn onfIfy fhnf ncfs IIko
n CATV sysfom IfsoIf orforms, ovon If whon doIng so, If
sImIy onhnncos vIowors` nbIIIfy fo rocoIvo brondcnsf
foIovIsIon sIgnnIs.
Congross furfhor cronfod n now socfIon of fho Acf fo
roguInfo cnbIo comnnIos` ubIIc orformnncos of coy-
rIghfod works. Soo lll. SocfIon lll cronfos n comIox,
hIghIy dofnIIod comuIsory IIconsIng schomo fhnf sofs ouf
fho condIfIons, IncIudIng fho nymonf of comuIsory foos,
undor whIch cnbIo sysfoms mny rofrnnsmIf brondcnsfs.
H. !. !o., nf 88 (SocfIon lll Is rImnrIIy dIrocfod nf fho
oornfIon of cnbIo foIovIsIon sysfoms nnd fho forms nnd
condIfIons of fhoIr IInbIIIfy for fho rofrnnsmIssIon of coy-
rIghfod works).
Congross mndo fhoso fhroo chnngos fo nchIovo n sImIInr
ond: fo brIng fho ncfIvIfIos of cnbIo sysfoms wIfhIn fho
scoo of fho CoyrIghf Acf.
C
ThIs hIsfory mnkos cIonr fhnf Aoroo Is nof sImIy nn
oquImonf rovIdor. !nfhor, Aoroo, nnd nof jusf Ifs sub-
scrIbors, orform|s] (or frnnsmIf|s]). Aoroo`s ncfIvIfIos
nro subsfnnfInIIy sImIInr fo fhoso of fho CATV comnnIos
fhnf Congross nmondod fho Acf fo ronch. Soo iJ., nf 89
(|C]nbIo sysfoms nro commorcInI onforrIsos whoso bnsIc
rofrnnsmIssIon oornfIons nro bnsod on fho cnrrIngo of
coyrIghfod rogrnm mnforInI). Aoroo soIIs n sorvIco fhnf
nIIows subscrIbors fo wnfch foIovIsIon rogrnms, mnny of
whIch nro coyrIghfod, nImosf ns fhoy nro boIng brondcnsf.
In rovIdIng fhIs sorvIco, Aoroo usos Ifs own oquImonf,
housod In n confrnIIzod wnrohouso, oufsIdo of Ifs usors`


















9 CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
OInIon of fho Courf
homos. Iy monns of Ifs fochnoIogy (nnfonnns, frnns-
codors, nnd sorvors), Aoroo`s sysfom rocoIvo|s] rogrnms
fhnf hnvo boon roIonsod fo fho ubIIc nnd cnrr|Ios] fhom by
rIvnfo chnnnoIs fo nddIfIonnI vIowors. Ior/nigl/l,, 392
!. S., nf 400. If cnrr|Ios] . . . whnfovor rogrnms |If]
rocoIvo|s], nnd If offors nII fho rogrnmmIng of onch
ovor-fho-nIr sfnfIon If cnrrIos. 1J., nf 392, 400.
Aoroo`s oquImonf mny sorvo n vIowor funcfIon; If mny
onhnnco fho vIowor`s nbIIIfy fo rocoIvo n brondcnsfor`s
rogrnms. If mny ovon omuInfo oquImonf n vIowor couId
uso nf homo. Iuf fho snmo wns fruo of fho oquImonf fhnf
wns boforo fho Courf, nnd uIfImnfoIy boforo Congross, In
Ior/nigl/l, nnd Telepronp/er.
Wo rocognIzo, nnd Aoroo nnd fho dIssonf omhnsIzo,
ono nrfIcuInr dIfforonco bofwoon Aoroo`s sysfom nnd fho
cnbIo sysfoms nf Issuo In Ior/nigl/l, nnd Telepronp/er.
Tho sysfoms In fhoso cnsos frnnsmIffod consfnnfIy; fhoy
sonf confInuous rogrnmmIng fo onch subscrIbor`s foIovI-
sIon sof. In confrnsf, Aoroo`s sysfom romnIns Inorf unfII n
subscrIbor IndIcnfos fhnf sho wnnfs fo wnfch n rogrnm.
OnIy nf fhnf momonf, In nufomnfIc rosonso fo fho sub-
scrIbor`s roquosf, doos Aoroo`s sysfom ncfIvnfo nn nnfonnn
nnd bogIn fo frnnsmIf fho roquosfod rogrnm.
ThIs Is n crIfIcnI dIfforonco, snys fho dIssonf. If monns
fhnf Aoroo`s subscrIbors, nof Aoroo, soIoc|f] fho coy-
rIghfod confonf fhnf Is orform|od], poe/, nf 4 (oInIon of
SCA!IA, J.), nnd for fhnf ronson fhoy, nof Aoroo, frnnsmIf
fho orformnnco. Aoroo Is fhus IIko n coy sho fhnf
rovIdos Ifs nfrons wIfh n IIbrnry cnrd. Poe/, nf 5. A
coy sho Is nof dIrocfIy IInbIo whonovor n nfron usos fho
sho`s mnchInos fo roroduco coyrIghfod mnforInIs
found In fhnf IIbrnry. Soo l06(l) (oxcIusIvo rIgh|f] . . . fo
roroduco fho coyrIghfod work). And by fho snmo fokon,
Aoroo shouId nof bo dIrocfIy IInbIo whonovor Ifs nfrons
uso Ifs oquImonf fo frnnsmIf coyrIghfod foIovIsIon
rogrnms fo fhoIr scroons.



















l0 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
OInIon of fho Courf
In our vIow, howovor, fho dIssonf`s coy sho nrgumonf,
In whnfovor form, mnkos foo much ouf of foo IIffIo. CIvon
Aoroo`s ovorwhoImIng IIkonoss fo fho cnbIo comnnIos
fnrgofod by fho l9?6 nmondmonfs, fhIs soIo fochnoIogIcnI
dIfforonco bofwoon Aoroo nnd frndIfIonnI cnbIo comnnIos
doos nof mnko n crIfIcnI dIfforonco horo. Tho subscrIbors
of fho Ior/nigl/l, nnd Telepronp/er cnbIo sysfoms nIso
soIocfod whnf rogrnms fo dIsIny on fhoIr rocoIvIng sofs.
Indood, ns wo oxInInod In Ior/nigl/l,, such n subscrIbor
couId chooso nny of fho . . . rogrnms ho wIshod fo vIow by
sImIy furnIng fho knob on hIs own foIovIsIon sof. 392
!. S., nf 392. Tho snmo Is fruo of nn Aoroo subscrIbor. Of
courso, In Ior/nigl/l, fho foIovIsIon sIgnnIs, In n sonso,
Iurkod bohInd fho scroon, rondy fo omorgo whon fho sub-
scrIbor furnod fho knob. Horo fho sIgnnIs ursuo fhoIr
ordInnry courso of frnvoI fhrough fho unIvorso unfII fo-
dny`s furn of fho knobn cIIck on n wobsIfoncfIvnfos
mnchInory fhnf Inforcofs nnd roroufos fhom fo Aoroo`s
subscrIbors ovor fho Infornof. Iuf fhIs dIfforonco monns
nofhIng fo fho subscrIbor. If monns nofhIng fo fho brond-
cnsfor. Wo do nof soo how fhIs sIngIo dIfforonco, InvIsIbIo
fo subscrIbor nnd brondcnsfor nIIko, couId frnnsform n
sysfom fhnf Is for nII rncfIcnI urosos n frndIfIonnI cnbIo
sysfom Info n coy sho fhnf rovIdos Ifs nfrons wIfh n
IIbrnry cnrd.
In ofhor cnsos InvoIvIng dIfforonf kInds of sorvIco or
fochnoIogy rovIdors, n usor`s InvoIvomonf In fho oorn-
fIon of fho rovIdor`s oquImonf nnd soIocfIon of fho con-
fonf frnnsmIffod mny woII bonr on whofhor fho rovIdor
orforms wIfhIn fho monnIng of fho Acf. Iuf fho mnny
sImIInrIfIos bofwoon Aoroo nnd cnbIo comnnIos, consId-
orod In IIghf of Congross` bnsIc urosos In nmondIng fho
CoyrIghf Acf, convInco us fhnf fhIs dIfforonco Is nof
crIfIcnI horo. Wo concIudo fhnf Aoroo Is nof jusf nn
oquImonf suIIor nnd fhnf Aoroo orform|s].




















ll CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
OInIon of fho Courf
III
oxf, wo musf consIdor whofhor Aoroo orforms ofI-
fIonors` works ubIIcIy, wIfhIn fho monnIng of fho
TrnnsmIf CInuso. !ndor fho CInuso, nn onfIfy orforms n
work ubIIcIy whon If frnnsmIf|s] . . . n orformnnco . . . of
fho work . . . fo fho ubIIc. l0l. Aoroo donIos fhnf If
snfIsfIos fhIs dofInIfIon. If ronsons ns foIIows: IIrsf, fho
orformnnco If frnnsmIf|s] Is fho orformnnco cronfod
by Ifs ncf of frnnsmIffIng. And socond, bocnuso onch of
fhoso orformnncos Is cnnbIo of boIng rocoIvod by ono nnd
onIy ono subscrIbor, Aoroo frnnsmIfs rIvnfoIy, nof ub-
IIcIy. Ivon nssumIng Aoroo`s fIrsf nrgumonf Is corrocf, Ifs
socond doos nof foIIow.
Wo bogIn wIfh Aoroo`s fIrsf nrgumonf. Whnf orfor-
mnnco doos Aoroo frnnsmIf !ndor fho Acf, |f]o 'frnns-
mIf` n orformnnco . . . Is fo communIcnfo If by nny dovIco
or rocoss whoroby Imngos or sounds nro rocoIvod boyond
fho Inco from whIch fhoy nro sonf. 1IiJ. And |f]o 'or-
form` nn nudIovIsunI work monns fo show Ifs Imngos In
nny soquonco or fo mnko fho sounds nccomnnyIng If
nudIbIo. 1IiJ.
IofIfIonors sny Aoroo frnnsmIfs n prior orformnnco of
fhoIr works. Thus whon Aoroo rofrnnsmIfs n nofwork`s
rIor brondcnsf, fho undorIyIng brondcnsf (IfsoIf n orfor-
mnnco) Is fho orformnnco fhnf Aoroo frnnsmIfs. Aoroo,
ns dIscussod nbovo, snys fho orformnnco If frnnsmIfs Is
fho neu orformnnco cronfod by Ifs ncf of frnnsmIffIng.
Thnf orformnnco comos Info oxIsfonco whon Aoroo
sfronms fho sounds nnd Imngos of n brondcnsf rogrnm fo
n subscrIbor`s scroon.
Wo nssumo orguenJo fhnf Aoroo`s fIrsf nrgumonf Is
corrocf. Thus, for rosonf urosos, fo frnnsmIf n orfor-
mnnco of (nf Ionsf) nn nudIovIsunI work monns fo com-
munIcnfo confomornnoousIy vIsIbIo Imngos nnd confom-
ornnoousIy nudIbIo sounds of fho work. Cf. Ini/eJ S/o/ee
v. Anericon Soc. of Conpoeere, Au/lore onJ PuIlielere,
















l2 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
OInIon of fho Courf
62? I. 3d 64, ?3 (CA2 20l0) (hoIdIng fhnf n downIond of n
work Is nof n orformnnco bocnuso fho dnfn frnnsmIffod
nro nof confomornnoousIy orcofIbIo). Whon nn Aoroo
subscrIbor soIocfs n rogrnm fo wnfch, Aoroo sfronms fho
rogrnm ovor fho Infornof fo fhnf subscrIbor. Aoroo
fhoroby communIcnfo|s] fo fho subscrIbor, by monns of n
dovIco or rocoss, fho work`s Imngos nnd sounds. l0l.
And fhoso Imngos nnd sounds nro confomornnoousIy
vIsIbIo nnd nudIbIo on fho subscrIbor`s comufor (or ofhor
Infornof-connocfod dovIco). So undor our nssumod dofInI-
fIon, Aoroo frnnsmIfs n orformnnco whonovor Ifs sub-
scrIbors wnfch n rogrnm.
Iuf whnf nbouf fho CInuso`s furfhor roquIromonf fhnf
Aoroo frnnsmIf n orformnnco fo fho ubIIc As wo hnvo
snId, nn Aoroo subscrIbor rocoIvos brondcnsf foIovIsIon
sIgnnIs wIfh nn nnfonnn dodIcnfod fo hIm nIono. Aoroo`s
sysfom mnkos from fhoso sIgnnIs n orsonnI coy of fho
soIocfod rogrnm. If sfronms fho confonf of fho coy fo fho
snmo subscrIbor nnd fo no ono oIso. Ono nnd onIy ono
subscrIbor hns fho nbIIIfy fo soo nnd honr onch Aoroo
frnnsmIssIon. Tho fncf fhnf onch frnnsmIssIon Is fo onIy
ono subscrIbor, In Aoroo`s vIow, monns fhnf If doos nof
frnnsmIf n orformnnco fo fho ubIIc.
In forms of fho Acf`s urosos, fhoso dIfforoncos do nof
dIsfInguIsh Aoroo`s sysfom from cnbIo sysfoms, whIch do
orform ubIIcIy. VIowod In forms of Congross` roguIn-
fory objocfIvos, why shouId nny of fhoso fochnoIogIcnI dIffor-
oncos mnffor Thoy concorn fho bohInd-fho-sconos wny In
whIch Aoroo doIIvors foIovIsIon rogrnmmIng fo Ifs vIow-
ors` scroons. Thoy do nof rondor Aoroo`s commorcInI objoc-
fIvo nny dIfforonf from fhnf of cnbIo comnnIos. or do
fhoy sIgnIfIcnnfIy nIfor fho vIowIng oxorIonco of Aoroo`s
subscrIbors. Why wouId n subscrIbor who wIshos fo wnfch
n foIovIsIon show cnro much whofhor Imngos nnd sounds
nro doIIvorod fo hIs scroon vIn n Inrgo muIfIsubscrIbor
nnfonnn or ono smnII dodIcnfod nnfonnn, whofhor fhoy


















l3 CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
OInIon of fho Courf
nrrIvo InsfnnfnnoousIy or nffor n fow soconds` doIny, or
whofhor fhoy nro frnnsmIffod dIrocfIy or nffor n orsonnI
coy Is mndo And why, If Aoroo Is rIghf, couId nof mod-
orn CATV sysfoms sImIy confInuo fho snmo commorcInI
nnd consumor-orIonfod ncfIvIfIos, froo of coyrIghf ro-
sfrIcfIons, rovIdod fhoy subsfIfufo such now fochnoIogIos
for oId Congross wouId ns much hnvo Infondod fo rofocf
n coyrIghf hoIdor from fho unIIconsod ncfIvIfIos of Aoroo
ns from fhoso of cnbIo comnnIos.
Tho foxf of fho CInuso offocfunfos Congross` Infonf.
Aoroo`s nrgumonf fo fho confrnry roIIos on fho romIso
fhnf fo frnnsmIf . . . n orformnnco monns fo mnko n
sIngIo frnnsmIssIon. Iuf fho CInuso suggosfs fhnf nn
onfIfy mny frnnsmIf n orformnnco fhrough muIfIIo,
dIscrofo frnnsmIssIons. Thnf Is bocnuso ono cnn frnns-
mIf or communIcnfo somofhIng fhrough n ee/ of ncfIons.
Thus ono cnn frnnsmIf n mossngo fo ono`s frIonds, Irro-
socfIvo of whofhor ono sonds sonrnfo IdonfIcnI o-mnIIs fo
onch frIond or n sIngIo o-mnII fo nII nf onco. So cnn nn
oIocfod offIcInI communIcnfo nn Idon, sIognn, or sooch fo
hor consfIfuonfs, rognrdIoss of whofhor sho communIcnfos
fhnf Idon, sIognn, or sooch durIng IndIvIdunI hono cnIIs
fo onch consfIfuonf or In n ubIIc squnro.
Tho fncf fhnf n sInguInr noun (n orformnnco) foIIows
fho words fo frnnsmIf doos nof suggosf fho confrnry.
Ono cnn sIng n song fo hIs fnmIIy, whofhor ho sIngs fho
snmo song ono-on-ono or In fronf of nII fogofhor. SImIInrIy,
ono`s coIIonguos mny wnfch n orformnnco of n nrfIcuInr
Inysny, fhIs sonson`s modorn-dross vorsIon of Monsuro
for Monsurowhofhor fhoy do so nf sonrnfo or nf fho
snmo showIngs. Iy fho snmo rIncIIo, nn onfIfy mny
frnnsmIf n orformnnco fhrough ono or sovornI frnnsmIs-
sIons, whoro fho orformnnco Is of fho snmo work.
Tho TrnnsmIf CInuso musf ormIf fhIs InforrofnfIon,
for If rovIdos fhnf ono mny frnnsmIf n orformnnco fo fho
ubIIc whofhor fho mombors of fho ubIIc cnnbIo of
l4 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. !" AI!IO, IC.

OInIon of fho Courf
rocoIvIng fho orformnnco . . . rocoIvo If . . . nf fho snmo
fImo or nf dIfforonf fImos. l0l. Woro fho words fo
frnnsmIf . . . n orformnnco IImIfod fo n sIngIo ncf of
communIcnfIon, mombors of fho ubIIc couId nof rocoIvo
fho orformnnco communIcnfod nf dIfforonf fImos.
Thoroforo, In IIghf of fho uroso nnd foxf of fho CInuso,
wo concIudo fhnf whon nn onfIfy communIcnfos fho snmo
confomornnoousIy orcofIbIo Imngos nnd sounds fo
muIfIIo ooIo, If frnnsmIfs n orformnnco fo fhom ro-
gnrdIoss of fho numbor of dIscrofo communIcnfIons If
mnkos.
Wo do nof soo how fho fncf fhnf Aoroo frnnsmIfs vIn
orsonnI coIos of rogrnms couId mnko n dIfforonco. Tho
Acf nIIos fo frnnsmIssIons by monns of nny dovIco or
rocoss. #$%&" And rofrnnsmIffIng n foIovIsIon rogrnm
usIng usor-socIfIc coIos Is n rocoss of frnnsmIffIng n
orformnnco. A co|y] of n work Is sImIy n mnforInI
objoc|f] . . . In whIch n work Is fIxod . . . nnd from whIch fho
work cnn bo orcoIvod, roroducod, or ofhorwIso communI-
cnfod. #$%&" So whofhor Aoroo frnnsmIfs from fho snmo
or sonrnfo coIos, If orforms fho snmo work; If shows fho
snmo Imngos nnd mnkos nudIbIo fho snmo sounds. Thoro-
foro, whon Aoroo sfronms fho snmo foIovIsIon rogrnm fo
muIfIIo subscrIbors, If frnnsmIf|s] . . . n orformnnco fo
nII of fhom.
Moroovor, fho subscrIbors fo whom Aoroo frnnsmIfs
foIovIsIon rogrnms consfIfufo fho ubIIc. Aoroo com-
munIcnfos fho snmo confomornnoousIy orcofIbIo Imngos
nnd sounds fo n Inrgo numbor of ooIo who nro unro-
Infod nnd unknown fo onch ofhor. ThIs mnffors bocnuso,
nIfhough fho Acf doos nof dofIno fho ubIIc, If socIfIos
fhnf nn onfIfy orforms ubIIcIy whon If orforms nf nny
Inco whoro n subsfnnfInI numbor of orsons oufsIdo of n
normnI cIrcIo of n fnmIIy nnd Ifs socInI ncqunInfnncos Is
gnfhorod. #$%&" Tho Acf fhoroby suggosfs fhnf fho ub-
IIc consIsfs of n Inrgo grou of ooIo oufsIdo of n fnmIIy














l5 CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
OInIon of fho Courf
nnd frIonds.
oIfhor fho rocord nor Aoroo suggosfs fhnf Aoroo`s
subscrIbors rocoIvo orformnncos In fhoIr cnncIfIos ns
ownors or ossossors of fho undorIyIng works. ThIs Is
roIovnnf bocnuso whon nn onfIfy orforms fo n sof of oo-
Io, whofhor fhoy consfIfufo fho ubIIc offon doonds
uon fhoIr roInfIonshI fo fho undorIyIng work. Whon, for
oxnmIo, n vnIof nrkIng nffondnnf rofurns cnrs fo fhoIr
drIvors, wo wouId nof sny fhnf fho nrkIng sorvIco ro-
vIdos cnrs fo fho ubIIc. Wo wouId sny fhnf If rovIdos
fho cnrs fo fhoIr ownors. Wo wouId sny fhnf n cnr donIor-
shI, on fho ofhor hnnd, doos rovIdo cnrs fo fho ubIIc, for
If soIIs cnrs fo IndIvIdunIs who Inck n ro-oxIsfIng roInfIon-
shI fo fho cnrs. SImIInrIy, nn onfIfy fhnf frnnsmIfs n
orformnnco fo IndIvIdunIs In fhoIr cnncIfIos ns ownors or
ossossors doos nof orform fo fho ubIIc, whorons nn
onfIfy IIko Aoroo fhnf frnnsmIfs fo Inrgo numbors of ny-
Ing subscrIbors who Inck nny rIor roInfIonshI fo fho
works doos so orform.
IInnIIy, wo nofo fhnf Aoroo`s subscrIbors mny rocoIvo
fho snmo rogrnms nf dIfforonf fImos nnd IocnfIons. ThIs
fncf doos nof hoI Aoroo, howovor, for fho TrnnsmIf CInuso
oxrossIy rovIdos fhnf nn onfIfy mny orform ubIIcIy
whofhor fho mombors of fho ubIIc cnnbIo of rocoIvIng
fho orformnnco . . . rocoIvo If In fho snmo Inco or In
sonrnfo Incos nnd nf fho snmo fImo or nf dIfforonf
fImos. 1IiJ. In ofhor words, fho ubIIc nood nof bo
sIfunfod fogofhor, snfInIIy or fomornIIy. Ior fhoso
ronsons, wo concIudo fhnf Aoroo frnnsmIfs n orformnnco
of ofIfIonors` coyrIghfod works fo fho ubIIc, wIfhIn fho
monnIng of fho TrnnsmIf CInuso.
IV
Aoroo nnd mnny of Ifs suorfIng onici nrguo fhnf fo
nIy fho TrnnsmIf CInuso fo Aoroo`s conducf wIII Imoso
coyrIghf IInbIIIfy on ofhor fochnoIogIos, IncIudIng now
















l6 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
OInIon of fho Courf
fochnoIogIos, fhnf Congross couId nof ossIbIy hnvo wnnfod
fo ronch. Wo ngroo fhnf Congross, whIIo InfondIng fho
TrnnsmIf CInuso fo nIy brondIy fo cnbIo comnnIos nnd
fhoIr oquIvnIonfs, dId nof Infond fo dIscourngo or fo confroI
fho omorgonco or uso of dIfforonf kInds of fochnoIogIos.
Iuf wo do nof boIIovo fhnf our IImIfod hoIdIng fodny wIII
hnvo fhnf offocf.
Ior ono fhIng, fho hIsfory of cnbIo brondcnsf frnnsmIs-
sIons fhnf Iod fo fho onncfmonf of fho TrnnsmIf CInuso
Informs our concIusIon fhnf Aoroo orform|s], buf If doos
nof doformIno whofhor dIfforonf kInds of rovIdors In
dIfforonf confoxfs nIso orform. Ior nnofhor, nn onfIfy
onIy frnnsmIfs n orformnnco whon If communIcnfos
confomornnoousIy orcofIbIo Imngos nnd sounds of n
work. Soo IrIof for !osondonf 3l (|I]f n dIsfrIbufor . . .
soIIs |muIfIIo coIos of n dIgIfnI vIdoo dIsc] by mnII fo
consumors, . . . |Ifs] dIsfrIbufIon of fho Vs moroIy
mnkos If ossIbIo for fho rocIIonfs fo orform fho work
fhomsoIvosIf Is nof n 'dovIco or rocoss` by whIch fho
Jie/riIu/or ubIIcIy orforms fho work (omhnsIs In
orIgInnI)).
Iurfhor, wo hnvo Inforrofod fho form fho ubIIc fo
nIy fo n grou of IndIvIdunIs ncfIng ns ordInnry mom-
bors of fho ubIIc who ny rImnrIIy fo wnfch brondcnsf
foIovIsIon rogrnms, mnny of whIch nro coyrIghfod. Wo
hnvo snId fhnf If doos nof oxfond fo fhoso who ncf ns own-
ors or ossossors of fho roIovnnf roducf. And wo hnvo nof
consIdorod whofhor fho ubIIc orformnnco rIghf Is In-
frIngod whon fho usor of n sorvIco nys rImnrIIy for
somofhIng ofhor fhnn fho frnnsmIssIon of coyrIghfod
works, such ns fho romofo sforngo of confonf. Soo IrIof for
!nIfod Sfnfos ns Anicue Curioe 3l (dIsfInguIshIng cIoud-
bnsod sforngo sorvIcos bocnuso fhoy offor consumors moro
numorous nnd convonIonf monns of InyIng bnck coIos
fhnf fho consumors hnvo olreoJ, InwfuIIy ncquIrod (om-
hnsIs In orIgInnI)). In nddIfIon, nn onfIfy doos nof frnns-




















l? CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
OInIon of fho Courf
mIf fo fho ubIIc If If doos nof frnnsmIf fo n subsfnnfInI
numbor of ooIo oufsIdo of n fnmIIy nnd Ifs socInI cIrcIo.
Wo nIso nofo fhnf courfs offon nIy n sfnfufo`s hIghIy
gonornI Inngungo In IIghf of fho sfnfufo`s bnsIc urosos.
IInnIIy, fho docfrIno of fnIr uso cnn hoI fo rovonf
InnrorInfo or InoquIfnbIo nIIcnfIons of fho CInuso.
Soo Son, Corp. of Anerico v. Initereol Ci/, S/uJioe, 1nc.,
464 !. S. 4l? (l984).
Wo cnnnof now nnswor moro rocIsoIy how fho TrnnsmIf
CInuso or ofhor rovIsIons of fho CoyrIghf Acf wIII nIy
fo fochnoIogIos nof boforo us. Wo ngroo wIfh fho SoIIcIfor
ConornI fhnf |q]uosfIons InvoIvIng cIoud comufIng,
|romofo sforngo] V!s, nnd ofhor novoI Issuos nof boforo
fho Courf, ns fo whIch 'Congross hns nof InInIy mnrkod
|fho] courso,` shouId nwnIf n cnso In whIch fhoy nro
squnroIy rosonfod. IrIof for !nIfod Sfnfos ns Anicue
Curioe 34 (quofIng Son,, eupro, nf 43l (nIfornfIon In
orIgInnI)). And wo nofo fhnf, fo fho oxfonf commorcInI
ncfors or ofhor Inforosfod onfIfIos mny bo concornod wIfh
fho roInfIonshI bofwoon fho dovoIomonf nnd uso of such
fochnoIogIos nnd fho CoyrIghf Acf, fhoy nro of courso froo
fo sook ncfIon from Congross. Cf. IgIfnI MIIIonnIum
CoyrIghf Acf, l? !. S. C. 5l2.
* * *
In sum, hnvIng consIdorod fho dofnIIs of Aoroo`s rncfIcos,
wo fInd fhom hIghIy sImIInr fo fhoso of fho CATV sysfoms
In Ior/nigl/l, nnd Telepronp/er. And fhoso nro ncfIvIfIos
fhnf fho l9?6 nmondmonfs soughf fo brIng wIfhIn fho
scoo of fho CoyrIghf Acf. Insofnr ns fhoro nro dIffor-
oncos, fhoso dIfforoncos concorn nof fho nnfuro of fho
sorvIco fhnf Aoroo rovIdos so much ns fho fochnoIogIcnI
mnnnor In whIch If rovIdos fho sorvIco. Wo concIudo fhnf
fhoso dIfforoncos nro nof ndoqunfo fo Inco Aoroo`s ncfIvI-
fIos oufsIdo fho scoo of fho Acf.
Ior fhoso ronsons, wo concIudo fhnf Aoroo orform|s]






l8 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
OInIon of fho Courf
ofIfIonors` coyrIghfod works ubIIcIy, ns fhoso forms
nro dofInod by fho TrnnsmIf CInuso. Wo fhoroforo rovorso
fho confrnry judgmonf of fho Courf of AonIs, nnd wo
romnnd fho cnso for furfhor rocoodIngs consIsfonf wIfh
fhIs oInIon.
1/ ie eo orJereJ.



_________________

_________________
















l CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng
SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
o. l346l
AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COMIAIIS, IC.,
IT A!., IITITIOI!S t. AI!IO, IC., IKA
IAMIOOM !AIS, IC.
O W!IT OI CI!TIO!A!I TO THI !ITI STATIS CO!!T OI
AIIIA!S IO! THI SICO CI!C!IT
|Juno 25, 20l4]
J!STICI SCA!IA, wIfh whom J!STICI THOMAS nnd
J!STICI A!ITO joIn, dIssonfIng.
ThIs cnso Is fho Infosf skIrmIsh In fho Iong-runnIng
coyrIghf bnffIo ovor fho doIIvory of foIovIsIon rogrnm-
mIng. IofIfIonors, n coIIocfIon of foIovIsIon nofworks nnd
nffIIInfos (ofworks), brondcnsf coyrIghfod rogrnms on
fho ubIIc nIrwnvos for nII fo soo. Aoroo, rosondonf,
oornfos nn nufomnfod sysfom fhnf nIIows subscrIbors fo
rocoIvo, on Infornof-connocfod dovIcos, rogrnms fhnf fhoy
soIocf, IncIudIng fho ofworks` coyrIghfod rogrnms.
Tho ofworks suod Aoroo for sovornI forms of coyrIghf
InfrIngomonf, buf wo nro horo concornod wIfh n sIngIo
cInIm: fhnf Aoroo vIoInfos fho ofworks` oxcIusIvo rIgh|f]
fo orform fhoIr rogrnms ubIIcIy. l? !. S. C.
l06(4). Thnf cInIm fnIIs nf fho vory oufsof bocnuso Aoroo
doos nof orform nf nII. Tho Courf mnnngos fo ronch fho
oosIfo concIusIon onIy by dIsrognrdIng wIdoIy nccofod
ruIos for sorvIco-rovIdor IInbIIIfy nnd ndofIng In fhoIr
Inco nn ImrovIsod sfnndnrd (Iooks-IIko-cnbIo-TV) fhnf
wIII sow confusIon for yonrs fo como.
I. !ognI Sfnndnrd
Thoro nro fwo fyos of IInbIIIfy for coyrIghf InfrIngo-
monf: dIrocf nnd socondnry. As Ifs nnmo suggosfs, fho

















2 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng
formor nIIos whon nn ncfor orsonnIIy ongngos In In-
frIngIng conducf. Soo Son, Corp. of Anerico v. Initereol
Ci/, S/uJioe, 1nc., 464 !. S. 4l?, 433 (l984). Socondnry
IInbIIIfy, by confrnsf, Is n monns of hoIdIng dofondnnfs
rosonsIbIo for InfrIngomonf by fhIrd nrfIos, ovon whon
fho dofondnnfs hnvo nof fhomsoIvos ongngod In fho In-
frIngIng ncfIvIfy. 1J., nf 435. If nIIos whon n dofondnnf
InfonfIonnIIy Induc|os] or oncourng|os] InfrIngIng ncfs by
ofhors or rofIfs from such ncfs whIIo docIInIng fo oxor-
cIso n rIghf fo sfo or IImIf |fhom]. Me/ro-GolJu,n-Mo,er
S/uJioe 1nc. v. Gro/e/er, L/J., 545 !. S. 9l3, 930 (2005).
Mosf suIfs ngnInsf oquImonf mnnufncfurors nnd sor-
vIco rovIdors InvoIvo socondnry-IInbIIIfy cInIms. Ior ox-
nmIo, whon movIo sfudIos suod fo bIock fho snIo of
Sony`s Iofnmnx vIdoocnssoffo rocordor (VC!), fhoy nrguod
fhnf Sony wns IInbIo bocnuso i/e cue/onere woro mnkIng
unnufhorIzod coIos. Soo Son,, eupro, nf 434435. !ocord
InboIs nnd movIo sfudIos roIIod on n sImIInr fhoory whon
fhoy suod Croksfor nnd SfronmCnsf, fwo rovIdors of
oor-fo-oor fIIo-shnrIng soffwnro. Soo Gro/e/er, eupro, nf
92092l, 92?.
ThIs suIf, or rnfhor fho orfIon of If boforo us horo, Is
fundnmonfnIIy dIfforonf. Tho ofworks cInIm fhnf Aoroo
Jirec/l, InfrIngos fhoIr ubIIc-orformnnco rIghf. Accord-
IngIy, fho ofworks musf rovo fhnf Aoroo orform|s]
coyrIghfod works, l06(4), whon Ifs subscrIbors Iog In,
soIocf n chnnnoI, nnd ush fho wnfch buffon. Thnf ro-
coss undoubfodIy rosuIfs In n orformnnco; fho quosfIon Is
ulo doos fho orformIng. Soo Cor/oon Ae/uor/ LP, LLLP
v. CSC HolJinge, 1nc., 536 I. 3d l2l, l30 (CA2 2008). If
Aoroo`s subscrIbors orform buf Aoroo doos nof, fho cInIm
nocossnrIIy fnIIs.
Tho ofworks` cInIm Is govornod by n sImIo buf ro-
foundIy Imorfnnf ruIo: A dofondnnf mny bo hoId dIrocfIy
IInbIo onIy If If hns ongngod In voIIfIonnI conducf fhnf
vIoInfos fho Acf. Soo 3 W. Infry, CoyrIghf 9:5.50 (20l3).





















3 CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng
ThIs roquIromonf Is fIrmIy groundod In fho Acf`s foxf,
whIch dofInos orform In ncfIvo, nffIrmnfIvo forms: Ono
orform|s] n coyrIghfod nudIovIsunI work, such ns n
movIo or nows brondcnsf, by show|Ing] Ifs Imngos In nny
soquonco or mnk|Ing] fho sounds nccomnnyIng If nudI-
bIo. l0l. And sInco fho Acf mnkos If unInwfuI fo coy or
orform coyrIghfod works, nof fo coy or orform In
gonornI, soo 50l(n), fho voIIfIonnI-ncf roquIromonf do-
mnnds conducf dIrocfod fo fho InInfIff `s coyrIghfod
mnforInI, soo Son,, eupro, nf 434. Ivory Courf of AonIs
fo hnvo consIdorod nn nufomnfod-sorvIco rovIdor`s dIrocf
IInbIIIfy for coyrIghf InfrIngomonf hns ndofod fhnf ruIo.
Soo Iox BrooJcoe/ing Co. v. Diel Ae/uor/ LLC, ?4? I. 3d
l060, l066l068 (CA9 20l4); Cor/oon Ae/uor/, eupro, nf
l30l3l (CA2 2008); CoS/or Group, 1nc. v. LoopAe/, 1nc.,
3?3 I. 3d 544, 549550 (CA4 2004).
l
AIfhough wo hnvo
nof oInod on fho Issuo, our cnsos nro fuIIy consIsfonf wIfh
n voIIfIonnI-conducf roquIromonf. Ior oxnmIo, wo gnvo
sovornI oxnmIos of dIrocf InfrIngomonf In Son,, onch of
whIch InvoIvod n voIIfIonnI ncf dIrocfod fo fho InInfIff `s
coyrIghfod mnforInI. Soo 464 !. S., nf 43?, n. l8.
Tho voIIfIonnI-conducf roquIromonf Is nof nf Issuo In
mosf dIrocf-InfrIngomonf cnsos; fho usunI oInf of dIsufo
Is whofhor fho dofondnnf`s conducf Is InfrIngIng (e.g., oos
fho dofondnnf`s dosIgn coy fho InInfIff `s), rnfhor fhnn
whofhor fho dofondnnf hns ncfod nf nII (e.g., Id fhIs
dofondnnf cronfo fho InfrIngIng dosIgn). Iuf If comos
rIghf fo fho foro whon n dIrocf-InfrIngomonf cInIm Is

l
An unubIIshod docIsIon of fho ThIrd CIrcuIf Is fo fho snmo offocf.
Por/er v. Google, 1nc., 242 Iod. Ax. 833, 83683? (200?) (per curion).
Tho ofworks musfor onIy ono cnso fhoy sny sfnnds for n dIfforonf
nronch, Aeu Yor/ Tinee Co. v. Toeini, 533 !. S. 483 (200l). !oIy
IrIof l8. Iuf Toeini Is cIonrIy InnosIfo; If donIf wIfh fho quosfIon
whofhor fho dofondnnfs` coyIng wns ormIssIbIo, nof whofhor fho
dofondnnfs woro fho onos who mndo fho coIos. Soo 533 !. S., nf 48?
488, 492, 504506.


















4 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng
Iodgod ngnInsf n dofondnnf who doos nofhIng moro fhnn
oornfo nn nufomnfod, usor-confroIIod sysfom. Soo, e.g.,
Iox BrooJcoe/ing, eupro, nf l06?; Cor/oon Ae/uor/, eupro,
nf l3l. Infornof-sorvIco rovIdors nro n rImo oxnmIo.
Whon ono usor sonds dnfn fo nnofhor, fho rovIdor`s
oquImonf fncIIIfnfos fho frnnsfor nufomnfIcnIIy. oos
fhnf monn fhnf fho rovIdor Is dIrocfIy IInbIo whon fho
frnnsmIssIon hnons fo rosuIf In fho roroduc|fIon],
l06(l), of n coyrIghfod work If doos nof. Tho rovId-
or`s sysfom Is fofnIIy IndIfforonf fo fho mnforInI`s con-
fonf, whorons courfs roquIro somo nsocf of voIIfIon
dIrocfod nf fho coyrIghfod mnforInI boforo dIrocf IInbIIIfy
mny bo Imosod. CoS/or, 3?3 I. 3d, nf 55055l.
2
Tho
dofondnnf mny bo hoId dIrocfIy IInbIo onIy If fho dofondnnf
i/eelf frosnssod on fho oxcIusIvo domnIn of fho coyrIghf
ownor. 1J., nf 550. Mosf of fho fImo fhnf Issuo wIII como
down fo who soIocfs fho coyrIghfod confonf: fho dofond-
nnf or Ifs cusfomors. Soo Cor/oon Ae/uor/, eupro, nf
l3ll32.
A comnrIson bofwoon coy shos nnd vIdoo-on-domnnd
sorvIcos IIIusfrnfos fho oInf. A coy sho ronfs ouf hofo-
coIors on n or-uso bnsIs. Ono cusfomor mIghf coy hIs
l0-yonr-oId`s drnwIngsn orfocfIy InwfuI fhIng fo do
whIIo nnofhor mIghf duIIcnfo n fnmous nrfIsf`s coyrIghfod
hofogrnhsn uso cIonrIy rohIbIfod by l06(l). IIfhor
wny, /le cue/oner choosos fho confonf nnd ncfIvnfos fho
coyIng funcfIon; fho hofocoIor doos nofhIng oxcof In
rosonso fo fho cusfomor`s commnnds. Iocnuso fho sho
Inys no roIo In soIocfIng fho confonf, If cnnnof bo hoId
dIrocfIy IInbIo whon n cusfomor mnkos nn InfrIngIng coy.
Soo CoS/or, eupro, nf 550.

2
Congross hns onncfod sovornI snfo-hnrbor rovIsIons nIIcnbIo fo
nufomnfod nofwork rocossos, soo, e.g., l? !. S. C. 5l2(n)(b), buf
fhoso rovIsIons do nof forocIoso nny ofhor dofonso, 5l2(l), IncIudIng
n voIIfIonnI-conducf dofonso.





















5 CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng
VIdoo-on-domnnd sorvIcos, IIko hofocoIors, rosond
nufomnfIcnIIy fo usor Inuf, buf fhoy dIffor In ono crucInI
rosocf: Tle, clooee /le con/en/. Whon n usor sIgns In fo
offIIx, for oxnmIo, fhousnnds of . . . movIos |nnd] TV
oIsodos cnrofuIIy curnfod by offIIx nro nvnIInbIo fo
wnfch InsfnnfIy. Soo How |]oos offIIx |W]ork, onIIno
nf hff://hoI.noffIIx.com/on/nodo/4l2 (ns vIsIfod Juno 20,
20l4, nnd nvnIInbIo In CIork of Courf`s cnso fIIo). Thnf
soIocfIon nnd nrrnngomonf by fho sorvIco rovIdor consfI-
fufos n voIIfIonnI ncf dIrocfod fo socIfIc coyrIghfod works
nnd fhus sorvos ns n bnsIs for dIrocf IInbIIIfy.
Tho dIsfIncfIon bofwoon dIrocf nnd socondnry IInbIIIfy
wouId coIInso If fhoro woro nof n cIonr ruIo for dofor-
mInIng whofhor /le JefenJon/ commIffod fho InfrIngIng
ncf. Soo Cor/oon Ae/uor/, 536 I. 3d, nf l32l33. Tho
voIIfIonnI-conducf roquIromonf suIIos fhnf ruIo; Ifs
uroso Is nof fo oxcuso dofondnnfs from nccounfnbIIIfy,
buf fo chnnnoI fho cInIms ngnInsf fhom Info fho corrocf
nnnIyfIcnI frnck. Soo IrIof for 36 InfoIIocfunI Iroorfy
nnd CoyrIghf !nw Irofossors ns Anici Curioe ?. Thus, In
fho oxnmIo gIvon nbovo, fho fncf fhnf fho coy sho doos
nof chooso fho confonf sImIy monns fhnf Ifs cuInbIIIfy
wIII bo nssossod usIng socondnry-IInbIIIfy ruIos rnfhor
fhnn dIrocf-IInbIIIfy ruIos. Soo Son,, eupro, nf 434442;
Cor/oon Ae/uor/, eupro, nf l32l33.
II. AIIcnfIon fo Aoroo
So whIch Is Aoroo: fho coy sho or fho vIdoo-on-domnnd
sorvIco In frufh, If Is noIfhor. !nfhor, If Is nkIn fo n coy
sho fhnf rovIdos Ifs nfrons wIfh n IIbrnry cnrd. Aoroo
offors nccoss fo nn nufomnfod sysfom consIsfIng of roufors,
sorvors, frnnscodors, nnd dImo-sIzod nnfonnno. !Iko n
hofocoIor or VC!, fhnf sysfom IIos dormnnf unfII n
subscrIbor ncfIvnfos If. Whon n subscrIbor soIocfs n ro-
grnm, Aoroo`s sysfom Icks u fho roIovnnf brondcnsf
sIgnnI, frnnsInfos Ifs nudIo nnd vIdoo comononfs Info



















6 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng
dIgIfnI dnfn, sforos fho dnfn In n usor-socIfIc fIIo, nnd
frnnsmIfs fhnf fIIo`s confonfs fo fho subscrIbor vIn fho
Infornofnf whIch oInf fho subscrIbor`s Info, fnbIof, or
ofhor dovIco dIsInys fho brondcnsf jusf ns nn ordInnry
foIovIsIon wouId. Tho rosuIf of fhnf rocoss fIfs fho sfnfu-
fory dofInIfIon of n orformnnco fo n foo: Tho subscrIbor`s
dovIco show|s] fho brondcnsf`s Imngos nnd mnko|s] fho
sounds nccomnnyIng fho brondcnsf nudIbIo. l0l. Tho
onIy quosfIon Is whofhor fhoso orformnncos nro fho rod-
ucf of Aoroo`s voIIfIonnI conducf.
Thoy nro nof. !nIIko vIdoo-on-domnnd sorvIcos, Aoroo
doos nof rovIdo n ronrrnngod nssorfmonf of movIos nnd
foIovIsIon shows. !nfhor, If nssIgns onch subscrIbor nn
nnfonnn fhnfIIko n IIbrnry cnrdcnn bo usod fo obfnIn
whnfovor brondcnsfs nro frooIy nvnIInbIo. Somo of fhoso
brondcnsfs nro coyrIghfod; ofhors nro In fho ubIIc do-
mnIn. Tho koy oInf Is fhnf subscrIbors cnII nII fho shofs:
Aoroo`s nufomnfod sysfom doos nof roIny nny rogrnm,
coyrIghfod or nof, unfII n subscrIbor soIocfs fho rogrnm
nnd foIIs Aoroo fo roIny If. Aoroo`s oornfIon of fhnf sys-
fom Is n voIIfIonnI ncf nnd n buf-for cnuso of fho rosuIfIng
orformnncos, buf, ns In fho cnso of fho coy sho, fhnf
dogroo of InvoIvomonf Is nof onough for dIrocf IInbIIIfy.
Soo Gro/e/er, 545 !. S., nf 960 (I!IYI!, J., concurrIng)
(|T]ho roducor of n fochnoIogy whIch perni/e unInwfuI
coyIng doos nof hImsoIf engoge In unInwfuI coyIng).
In sum, Aoroo doos nof orform for fho soIo nnd sImIo
ronson fhnf If doos nof mnko fho choIco of confonf. And
bocnuso Aoroo doos nof orform, If cnnnof bo hoId dIrocfIy
IInbIo for InfrIngIng fho ofworks` ubIIc-orformnnco
rIghf.
3
Thnf concIusIon doos nof nocossnrIIy monn fhnf
Aoroo`s sorvIco comIIos wIfh fho CoyrIghf Acf. QuIfo fho

3
Iocnuso I concIudo fhnf Aoroo doos nof orform nf nII, I do nof ronch
fho quosfIon whofhor fho orformnncos In fhIs cnso nro fo fho ubIIc.
Soo on/e, nf l0l5.


















? CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng
confrnry. Tho ofworks` comInInf nIIogos fhnf Aoroo Is
dIrocfIy onJ socondnrIIy IInbIo for InfrIngIng fhoIr ubIIc-
orformnnco rIghfs (l06(4)) onJ oleo fhoIr roroducfIon
rIghfs (l06(l)). ThoIr roquosf for n roIImInnry Injunc-
fIonfho onIy Issuo boforo fhIs CourfIs bnsod oxcIusIvoIy
on fho dIrocf-IInbIIIfy orfIon of fho ubIIc-orformnnco
cInIm (nnd furfhor IImIfod fo Aoroo`s wnfch funcfIon, ns
oosod fo Ifs rocord funcfIon). Soo A. fo Iof. for Corf.
60n6ln. AffIrmIng fho judgmonf boIow wouId moroIy
rofurn fhIs cnso fo fho Iowor courfs for consIdornfIon of fho
ofworks` romnInIng cInIms.
III. CuIIf Iy !osombInnco
Tho Courf`s concIusIon fhnf Aoroo orforms boIIs down
fo fho foIIowIng syIIogIsm: (l) Congross nmondod fho Acf
fo ovorruIo our docIsIons hoIdIng fhnf cnbIo sysfoms do nof
orform whon fhoy rofrnnsmIf ovor-fho-nIr brondcnsfs;
4
(2)
Aoroo Iooks n Iof IIko n cnbIo sysfom; fhoroforo (3) Aoroo
orforms. An/e, nf 4l0. Thnf ronsonIng suffors from n
frIo of dofocfs.
IIrsf, If Is buIIf on fho shnkIosf of foundnfIons. IorcoIv-
Ing fho foxf fo bo nmbIguous, on/e, nf 4, fho Courf ronchos
ouf fo docIdo fho cnso bnsod on n fow IsoInfod snIofs of
IogIsInfIvo hIsfory, on/e, nf ?8 (cIfIng H. !. !o. o. 94
l4?6 (l9?6)). Tho Courf fronfs fhoso snIofs ns nufhorI-
fnfIvo ovIdonco of congrossIonnI Infonf ovon fhough fhoy
como from n sIngIo roorf Issuod by n commIffoo whoso
mombors mnko u n smnII frncfIon of ono of fho fwo Housos
of Congross. !IffIo oIso nood bo snId horo nbouf fho sovoro
shorfcomIngs of fhnf InforrofnfIvo mofhodoIogy. Soo
Loueon v. IMI LLC, 5?l !. S. ___, ___ (20l4) (SCA!IA, J.,
concurrIng In rIncInI nrf nnd concurrIng In judgmonf)
(sII o., nf l2).

4
Soo Telepronp/er Corp. v. ColunIio BrooJcoe/ing S,e/en, 1nc., 4l5
!. S. 394 (l9?4); Ior/nigl/l, Corp. v. Ini/eJ Ar/ie/e Teletieion, 1nc.,
392 !. S. 390 (l968).






















8 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng
Socond, fho Courf`s ronsonIng fnIIs on Ifs own forms
bocnuso fhoro nro mnforInI dIfforoncos bofwoon fho cnbIo
sysfoms nf Issuo In Telepronp/er Corp. v. ColunIio
BrooJcoe/ing S,e/en, 1nc., 4l5 !. S. 394 (l9?4), nnd Ior/-
nigl/l, Corp. v. Ini/eJ Ar/ie/e Teletieion, 1nc., 392 !. S.
390 (l968), on fho ono hnnd nnd Aoroo on fho ofhor. Tho
formor (whIch woro fhon known ns communIfy-nnfonnn
foIovIsIon sysfoms) cnfurod fho fuII rnngo of brondcnsf
sIgnnIs nnd forwnrdod fhom fo nII subscrIbors nf nII fImos,
whorons Aoroo frnnsmIfs onIy socIfIc rogrnms soIocfod
by fho usor, nf socIfIc fImos soIocfod by fho usor. Tho
Courf ncknowIodgos fhIs dIsfIncfIon buf bIIfhoIy concIudos
fhnf If doos nof mnko n crIfIcnI dIfforonco. An/e, nf l0.
Ivon If fhnf woro fruo, fho Courf fnIIs fo nccounf for ofhor
snIIonf dIfforoncos bofwoon fho fwo fochnoIogIos.
5
Though
cnbIo sysfoms sfnrfod ouf ossonfInIIy ns dumb Ios fhnf
roufod sIgnnIs from oInf A fo oInf I, soo on/e, nf 5, by
fho l9?0`s, fhnf kInd of sorvIco 'no Iongor oxIsf|od],`
IrIof for IofIfIonors In ColunIio BrooJcoe/ing S,e/en,
1nc. v. Telepronp/er Corp., O. T. l9?3, o. ?2l633, . 22.
Af fho fImo of our Telepronp/er docIsIon, cnbIo comnnIos
orform|od] fho snmo funcfIons ns 'brondcnsfors` by doIIb-
ornfoIy soIocfIng nnd ImorfIng dIsfnnf sIgnnIs, orIgInnf-
Ing rogrnms, |nnd] soIIIng commorcInIs, iJ., nf 20, fhus
mnkIng fhom curnfors of confonfmoro nkIn fo vIdoo-on-
domnnd sorvIcos fhnn coy shos. So fnr ns fho rocord
rovonIs, Aoroo doos nono of fhoso fhIngs.

5
Tho Courf obsorvos fhnf |f]ho subscrIbors of fho Ior/nigl/l, nnd
Telepronp/er cnbIo sysfoms . . . soIocfod whnf rogrnms fo dIsIny on
fhoIr rocoIvIng sofs, buf ncknowIodgos fhnf fhoso choIcos woro ossIbIo
onIy bocnuso fho foIovIsIon sIgnnIs, In n sonso, Iurkod bohInd fho
scroon, rondy fo omorgo whon fho subscrIbor furnod fho knob. An/e, nf
l0. Tho Inffor oInf Is dIsosIfIvo: Tho sIgnnIs woro rondy fo omorgo
bocnuso fho cnbIo sysfommuch IIko n vIdoo-on-domnnd rovIdor
fook nffIrmnfIvo, voIIfIonnI sfos fo pu/ fhom fhoro. As dIscussod
nbovo, fho snmo cnnnof bo snId of fho rogrnms nvnIInbIo fhrough
Aoroo`s nufomnfod sysfom.

















9 CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng
ThIrd, nnd mosf ImorfnnfIy, ovon nccofIng fhnf fho
l9?6 nmondmonfs hnd ns fhoIr uroso fho ovorruIIng of
our cnbIo-TV cnsos, whnf fhoy woro monnf fo do nnd how
fhoy dId If nro fwo dIfforonf quosfIonsnnd If Is fho Inffor
fhnf govorns fho cnso boforo us horo. Tho Injury cInImod
Is nof vIoInfIon of n Inw fhnf snys oornfIons sImIInr fo
cnbIo TV nro subjocf fo coyrIghf IInbIIIfy, buf vIoInfIon of
l06(4) of fho CoyrIghf Acf. And whnfovor soofhIng
ronsonIng fho Courf usos fo ronch Ifs rosuIf (fhIs Iooks
IIko cnbIo TV), fho consoquonco of Ifs hoIdIng Is fhnf
somoono who ImIomonfs fhIs fochnoIogy perforn[e]
unJer /lo/ protieion. Thnf gronfIy dIsrufs soffIod jurIs-
rudonco whIch, boforo fodny, nIIod fho sfrnIghfforwnrd,
brIghf-IIno fosf of voIIfIonnI conducf dIrocfod nf fho coy-
rIghfod work. If fhnf fosf Is nof oufcomo doformInnfIvo In
fhIs cnso, rosumnbIy If Is nof oufcomo doformInnfIvo
oIsowhoro ns woII. And If Is nof cIonr whnf fho Courf
roosos fo roInco If. Iorhns fho Courf monns fo ndof
(Invonf, ronIIy) n fwo-fIor vorsIon of fho CoyrIghf Acf, ono
nrf of whIch nIIos fo cnbIo comnnIos nnd fhoIr oquIv-
nIonfs whIIo fho ofhor govorns ovoryono oIso. An/e, nf 9
l0, l6.
Tho rnfIonnIo for fho Courf`s nd hoc ruIo for cnbIo-
sysfom IooknIIkos Is so brond fhnf If rondors nonrIy n fhIrd
of fho Courf`s oInIon suorfIuous. Inrf II of fho oInIon
concIudos fhnf Aoroo orforms bocnuso If rosombIos n
cnbIo comnny, nnd Congross nmondod fho Acf In l9?6 fo
brIng fho ncfIvIfIos of cnbIo sysfoms wIfhIn |Ifs] scoo.
An/e, nf 8. Inrf III of fho oInIon urorfs fo nddross
sonrnfoIy fho quosfIon whofhor Aoroo orforms ub-
IIcIy. An/e, nf l0l5. TroubIo Is, fhnf quosfIon cnnnof
romnIn oon If Congross`s suosod Infonf fo roguInfo
whnfovor Iooks IIko n cnbIo comnny musf bo gIvon IognI
offocf (ns fho Courf snys In Inrf II). Tho Acf ronchos onIy
ubIIc orformnncos, soo l06(4), so Congross couId nof
hnvo roguInfod fho ncfIvIfIos of cnbIo sysfoms wIfhouf






















l0 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng
doomIng fhoIr rofrnnsmIssIons ubIIc orformnncos. Tho
ushof Is fhIs: If Aoroo`s sImIInrIfy fo n cnbIo comnny
monns fhnf If orforms, fhon by nocossIfy fhnf snmo chnr-
ncforIsfIc monns fhnf If doos so ubIIcIy, nnd Inrf III of
fho Courf`s oInIon dIscussos nn Issuo fhnf Is no Iongor
roIovnnffhough dIscussIng If corfnInIy gIvos fho oInIon
fho fooI of ronI foxfunI nnnIysIs.
MnkIng mnffors worso, fho Courf rovIdos no crIforIn
for doformInIng whon Ifs cnbIo-TV-IooknIIko ruIo nIIos.
Musf n dofondnnf offor nccoss fo IIvo foIovIsIon fo qunIIfy
If sImIInrIfy fo cnbIo-foIovIsIon sorvIco Is fho monsuro,
fhon fho nnswor musf bo yos. Iuf consIdor fho ImIIcn-
fIons of fhnf nnswor: Aoroo wouId bo froo fo do oxncfIy
whnf If Is doIng rIghf now so Iong ns If buIIf mnndnfory
fImo shIffIng Info Ifs wnfch funcfIon.
6
Aoroo wouId nof
bo rovIdIng lite foIovIsIon If If mndo subscrIbors wnIf fo
funo In unfII nffor n show`s IIvo brondcnsf ondod. A sub-
scrIbor couId wnfch fho ? .m. nIrIng of n l-hour rogrnm
nny fImo nffor 8 .m. AssumIng fho Courf doos nof Infond
fo ndof such n do-nofhIng ruIo (fhough If vory woII mny),
fhoro musf bo somo ofhor monns of IdonfIfyIng who Is nnd
Is nof subjocf fo Ifs guIIf-by-rosombInnco rogImo.
Two ofhor crIforIn como fo mInd. Ono wouId covor nny
nufomnfod sorvIco fhnf cnfuros nnd sforos IIvo foIovIsIon
brondcnsfs nf n usor`s dIrocfIon. Thnf cnn`f bo rIghf, sInco
If Is oxncfIy whnf romofo sforngo dIgIfnI vIdoo rocordors
(!SV!s) do, soo Cor/oon Ae/uor/, 536 I. 3d, nf l24
l25, nnd fho Courf InsIsfs fhnf Ifs IImIfod hoIdIng doos
nof docIdo fho fnfo of fhoso dovIcos, on/e, nf l6l?. Tho
ofhor ofonfInI bonchmnrk Is fho ono offorod by fho Cov-
ornmonf: Tho cnbIo-TV-IooknIIko ruIo ombrncos nny onfIfy

6
Irondcnsfs nccossIbIo fhrough fho wnfch funcfIon nro fochnIcnIIy
nof IIvo bocnuso Aoroo`s sorvors fnko nnywhoro from n fow soconds fo n
fow mInufos fo bogIn frnnsmIffIng dnfn fo n subscrIbor`s dovIco. Iuf
fho rosuIfIng doIny Is so brIof fhnf If cnnnof ronsonnbIy bo cInssIfIod ns
fImo shIffIng.

















ll CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng
fhnf oornfos nn Infogrnfod sysfom, subsfnnfInIIy do-
ondonf on hysIcnI oquImonf fhnf Is usod In common by
|Ifs] subscrIbors. IrIof for !nIfod Sfnfos ns Anicue Curioe
20. Tho Courf sonsIbIy nvoIds fhnf nronch bocnuso If
wouId swoo In Infornof sorvIco rovIdors nnd n hosf of
ofhor onfIfIos fhnf quIfo obvIousIy do nof orform.
Thnf Ionvos ns fho crIforIon of cnbIo-TV-rosombInnco
nofhIng buf fh`oI` fofnIIfy-of-fho-cIrcumsfnncos fosf (whIch
Is nof n fosf nf nII buf moroIy nssorfIon of nn Infonf fo
orform fosf-froo, nd hoc, cnso-by-cnso ovnIunfIon). If wIII
fnko yonrs, orhns docndos, fo doformIno whIch nufomnfod
sysfoms now In oxIsfonco nro govornod by fho frndI-
fIonnI voIIfIonnI-conducf fosf nnd whIch gof fho Aoroo
fronfmonf. (And nufomnfod sysfoms now In confomInfIon
wIII hnvo fo fnko fhoIr chnncos.) Tho Courf vows fhnf Ifs
ruIIng wIII nof nffocf cIoud-sforngo rovIdors nnd cnbIo-
foIovIsIon sysfoms, soo on/e, nf l6l?, buf If cnnnof doIIvor
on fhnf romIso gIvon fho ImrocIsIon of Ifs rosuIf-drIvon
ruIo. Indood, fho dIffIcuIfIos Inhoronf In fho Courf`s
mnkoshIff nronch wIII bocomo nnronf In fhIs vory
cnso. Todny`s docIsIon nddrossos fho IognIIfy of Aoroo`s
wnfch funcfIon, whIch rovIdos nonrIy confomornnoous
nccoss fo IIvo brondcnsfs. On romnnd, ono of fho fIrsf
quosfIons fho Iowor courfs wIII fnco Is whofhor Aoroo`s
rocord funcfIon, whIch nIIows subscrIbors fo snvo n ro-
grnm whIIo If Is nIrIng nnd wnfch If Infor, InfrIngos fho
ofworks` ubIIc-orformnnco rIghf. Tho voIIfIonnI-
conducf ruIo rovIdos n cIonr nnswor fo fhnf quosfIon:
Iocnuso Aoroo doos nof soIocf fho rogrnms vIowod by Ifs
usors, If doos nof orform. Iuf If Is ImossIbIo fo sny how
fho Issuo wIII como ouf undor fho Courf`s nnnIysIs, sInco
cnbIo comnnIos dId nof offor romofo rocordIng nnd Iny-
bnck sorvIcos whon Congross nmondod fho CoyrIghf Acf
In l9?6.






















l2 AMI!ICA I!OACASTIC COS. t. AI!IO, IC.
SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng
* * *
I shnro fho Courf`s ovIdonf fooIIng fhnf whnf Aoroo Is
doIng (or onnbIIng fo bo dono) fo fho ofworks` coyrIghfod
rogrnmmIng oughf nof fo bo nIIowod. Iuf orhns wo
nood nof dIsforf fho CoyrIghf Acf fo forbId If. As dIs-
cussod nf fho oufsof, Aoroo`s socondnry IInbIIIfy for or-
formnnco InfrIngomonf Is yof fo bo doformInod, ns Is Ifs
rImnry nnd socondnry IInbIIIfy for roroducfIon InfrIngo-
monf. If fhnf doos nof suffIco, fhon (nssumIng ono shnros
fho mnjorIfy`s osfImnfIon of rIghf nnd wrong) whnf wo
hnvo boforo us musf bo consIdorod n IoohoIo In fho Inw.
If Is nof fho roIo of fhIs Courf fo IdonfIfy nnd Iug Ioo-
hoIos. If Is fho roIo of good Inwyors fo IdonfIfy nnd oxIoIf
fhom, nnd fho roIo of Congross fo oIImInnfo fhom If If
wIshos. Congross cnn do fhnf, I mny ndd, In n much moro
fnrgofod, boffor Informod, nnd Ioss dIsrufIvo fnshIon fhnn
fho crudo Iooks-IIko-cnbIo-TV soIufIon fho Courf Invonfs
fodny.
Wo cnmo wIfhIn ono vofo of docInrIng fho VC! confrn-
bnnd 30 yonrs ngo In Son,. Soo 464 !. S., nf 44l, n. 2l.
Tho dIssonf In fhnf cnso wns drIvon In nrf by fho InIn-
fIffs` rodIcfIon fhnf VC! fochnoIogy wouId wronk nII
mnnnor of hnvoc In fho foIovIsIon nnd movIo IndusfrIos.
Soo iJ., nf 483 (oInIon of IInckmun, J.); soo nIso IrIof for
CIS, Inc., ns Anicue Curioe, O. T. l982, o. 8ll68?, . 2
(nrguIng fhnf VC!s dIrocfIy fhronfonod fho boffom IIno
of |o]vory brondcnsfor).
Tho ofworks mnko sImIInrIy dIro rodIcfIons nbouf
Aoroo. Wo nro foId fhnf nofhIng Ioss fhnn fho vory oxIsf-
onco of brondcnsf foIovIsIon ns wo know If Is nf sfnko.
IrIof for IofIfIonors 39. Aoroo nnd Ifs onici dIsufo fhoso
forocnsfs nnd mnko n fow of fhoIr own, suggosfIng fhnf n
docIsIon In fho ofworks` fnvor wIII sfIfIo fochnoIogIcnI
InnovnfIon nnd ImorII bIIIIons of doIInrs of Invosfmonfs In
cIoud-sforngo sorvIcos. Soo IrIof for !osondonfs 485l;
IrIof for ISA, Tho Soffwnro AIIInnco ns Anicue Curioe 5










l3 CIfo ns: 5?3 !. S. ____ (20l4)
SCA!IA, J., dIssonfIng
l3. Wo nro In no osIfIon fo judgo fho vnIIdIfy of fhoso
soIf-Inforosfod cInIms or fo forosoo fho nfh of fufuro
fochnoIogIcnI dovoIomonf. Soo Son,, eupro, nf 43043l;
soo nIso Gro/e/er, 545 !. S., nf 958 (I!IYI!, J., concur-
rIng). Honco, fho roor courso Is nof fo bond nnd fwIsf
fho Acf`s forms In nn offorf fo roduco n jusf oufcomo, buf
fo nIy fho Inw ns If sfnnds nnd Ionvo fo Congross fho
fnsk of docIdIng whofhor fho CoyrIghf Acf noods nn
ugrndo. I concIudo, ns fho Courf concIudod In Son,: If
mny woII bo fhnf Congross wIII fnko n frosh Iook nf fhIs
now fochnoIogy, jusf ns If so offon hns oxnmInod ofhor
InnovnfIons In fho nsf. Iuf If Is nof our job fo nIy Inws
fhnf hnvo nof yof boon wrIffon. AIyIng fho coyrIghf
sfnfufo, ns If now ronds, fo fho fncfs ns fhoy hnvo boon
dovoIood In fhIs cnso, fho judgmonf of fho Courf of A-
onIs musf bo |nffIrmod]. 464 !. S., nf 456.
I rosocffuIIy dIssonf.