SUMMER TRAINING

1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Electric power transmission was originally developed with direct current. The availability
of transformers and the development and improvement of induction motors at the
beginning of the 20
th
Century, led to greater appeal and use of a.c. transmission. But, later
realized .c. transmission is more practical when long distances were to be covered or where
cables were re!uired.
The purpose of this study is to e"amine the #$C systems % understand the transmission
system for transmitting huge chun& of power to various remote locations where generation is
not feasible. This study also provides various theories regarding #$C systems and it also
covers the pivotal role played by PGCIL in handling #$C systems in 'ndia.
(ther )spects such as Transmission *lanning Criteria is also included which is basic
re!uirement of any #$C *ro+ect carried out by *,C'- in 'ndia. 't covers various factors such
as *ower .e!uirement, Type of Conductor, -ine -imit, Tariff, % etc. which are necessary to
understand beforehand installing any #$C system. #$C system/s protection 0e.g. lightning
stri&e1 % human safety measure are briefly discussed .
3
Table of Contents
ABOUT PGCIL.........................................................................................................5
'ntroduction.................................................................................................................2
(b+ectives....................................................................................................................2
Establishment of Transmission 3ystem.......................................................................4
1 ABOUT HVDC..............................................................................9
'ntroduction: ..9
5.5 )$)6T),E3 ($E. )C ................................................................................50
5.2. -'7'T)T'(63888........................................................................................55
2 A HVDC BIPOLE CONVERTER............................................................................12
2.5. C(7*(6E6T3.........................................................................................................52
9 THE THEORY OF CONVERTERS HVDC............................................... 88..........52
9.5 C(6$E.T(. C(6T.(-..................................................................................................52
9.2 C(77:T)T'(6 *.(CE33.............................................................................................54
9.9 #$C C(6;',:.)T'(63..............................................................................................54
9.< C(6$E.T(.3 )**-'C)T'(63......................................................................................20
! TRANSMISSION PLANNING CRITERIA ..............................................................................25
<.5 *-)66'6, *#'-(3*#=..........................................................................................................25
<.2 -() ,E6E.)T'(6 3CE6).'(3........................................................................................29
<.9 ,E6E.)- '3*)TC#E3..........................................................................................................22
<.< -'6E -'7'T3..............................................................................................................................2>
<.2 3:B?3T)T'(6 *-)66'6, C.'TE.')..................................................................................2@
<.> C(6:CT(.3 % ;'TT'6,.....................................................................................................90
<.4 C(3T E6,'6EE.'6,...............................................................................................................9@
<.@ E6$'.(67E6T)- )3*ECT3................................................................................................<2
<.A T).';;.......................................................................................................................................<<

4
POWER GRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LIMITED "HISTORY#:$
I%&'()*+&,(%:
P(-.' G',) C('/('0&,(% (1 I%),0 L,2,&.) 0POWERGRID3 Founded 23 October 19921 is a
6avratna state?owned electric utility company head!uartered in ,urgaon, 'ndia. *ower,rid was
incorporated on (ctober 29, 5A@A under the companies )ct, 5A2> as the 6ational *ower
Transmission Corporation -imited, with the responsibility of planning, e"ecuting, owning,
operating and maintaining the high voltage transmission systems in the country. The total
revenue of company is 4,209.2@ crore 0200A1 with net income 2,0<0.A< crore.
POWERGRID, the C.%&'04 T'0%52,55,(% U&,4,&6 "CTU# of the country, is one of the largest
and best?managed transmission utilities in the world 09
rd
largest globally1 with its huge
transmission networ& spread over the entire length and breadth of the country. POWERGRID
consistently maintaining the availability of its transmission system above AA.20B level through
deployment of latest (peration and 7aintenance techni!ues at par with global standards.
M,55,(%:$
CEstablishment and operation of .egional and 6ational *ower ,rids to facilitate transfer of
power within and across the .egions with reliability, security and economy, on sound
commercial principles.D
O78.+&,9.:$
The Corporation has set following ob+ectives in line with its 7ission and its status as :C.%&'04
T'0%52,55,(% U&,4,&6::
:nderta&e transmission of energy through 'nter?3tate Transmission 3ystem.
5
ischarge all functions of planning and coordination relating to 'nter?3tate Transmission
3ystem with?
o 3tate Transmission :tilitiesE
o Central ,overnmentE
o 3tate ,overnmentE
o ,enerating CompaniesE
o .egional Electricity BoardsE
o )uthorityE
o -icenseesE
o Transmission -icenseesE
o )ny other person notified by the Central ,overnment on this behalf.
E"ercise supervision and control over the 'nter?3tate Transmission 3ystem.
Efficient (peration and 7aintenance of Transmission 3ystems.
EstablishFaugment and operate all .egional -oad ispatch Centers and Communication
facilities.
To facilitate private sector participation on Transmission system through 'ndependent
*rivate Transmission Company, Goint $entures.
To assist various 3EBs and other utilities in up gradation of s&ills % sharing of e"pertise
by organizing regular conferences, tailor?made training wor&shops directed towards
specific technological and (%7 areas and e"tending laboratory facilities for testing
purposes etc.
6
.estoring power in !uic&est possible time in the event of any natural disasters li&e super?
cyclone, flood etc. through deployment of Emergency .estoration 3ystems.
D.9.4(/2.%&04 S&0;.5:
The phased development of *(HE.,.' at the time of its formation was foreseen as followsI
*hase?'I Transfer of Transmission facilities along with related manpower from Central F
CentreJ3tate Goint $enture (rganizations.
*hase?''I Transfer of e"isting .egional Electricity Boards and .egional -oad ispatch
Centers together with associated communication facilities.
*hase?'''I Establish *ower *ool to facilitate e"change of power between 3tatesF.egions
leading to formation of 6ational *ower ,rid.
E5&074,5<2.%& (1 T'0%52,55,(% S65&.2
*ower ,rid Corporation of 'ndia -td. ac!uired its initial networ& of assets in 5AA2 and
subse!uently through the *ower Transmission 3ystems (rdinance the ,overnment of 'ndia
ac!uired and transferred the power transmission infrastructure of four of 'ndia/s largest power
generating companies to *owergrid. Thereafter, transmission assets from other central
generating companies were also transferred to us and *(HE.,.' has subse!uently e"panded
the transmission infrastructure further all over 'ndia.
Transmission of electricity is defined as bul& transfer of power over a long distance at
a high voltage, generally of 592 &$ and above. 'n 'ndia, transmission lines have grown from
9,40@ &m in 5A20 to more than 2>2,000 &m now.
There are 2 regional gridsI
6orthern .egionI
7
elhi, #aryana, #imachal *radesh, Gammu )nd Kashmir, *un+ab, .a+asthan,
:ttaranchal and :ttar *radesh
Eastern .egionI
Bihar, Ghar&hand, (rissa 3i&&im and Hest Bengal.
Hestern .egionI
adra and 6agar #aveli, aman and iu, Chhattisgarh, ,oa ,u+arat, 7adhya *radesh
and 7aharashtra.
3outhern .egionI
)ndhra *radesh, Karnata&a, Kerala, *ondicherry and Tamil 6adu.
6orth?Eastern .egionI
)runachal *radesh, )ssam, 7anipur, 7eghalaya, 7izoram, 6agaland and Tripura
*(HE.,.'/s networ&, as at 3eptember, 200@, comprises of over >A,000 circuit &m of high
voltage transmission lines and 55> sub?stations spread across the country. The inter?regional
power transfer capacity of 6ational ,rid has been enhanced to about 54,000 7H from 5<,500
7H in ;= 2004?0@. *(HE.,.' has further plans to enhance the capacity to more than
94,000 7H by 2052.
*(HE.,.' has envisaged an investment program of .s.22000 crore towards investment in
transmission pro+ects during the ,overnment of '6')/s eleventh five year plan beginning
)pril 5, 2004 and ending on 7arch 95, 2052.
'n ;= 2004?0@, it commissioned transmission pro+ects worth about .s. >000 crore, thereby
adding transmission networ& of 4,920 circuit &ms, A E#$ )C sub?stations and transformation
capacity of more than 594007$).
POWER GRID: NETWORK CAPABILITIES
8

H,;< V(4&0;. D,'.+& C*''.%& "HVDC#
I%&'()*+&,(%
) <,;<$9(4&0;. ),'.+& +*''.%& 0HVDC1 electric power transmission system uses direct
current for the bul& transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the more
common alternating current systems. ;or long?distance distribution, #$C systems are less
e"pensive and suffer lower electrical losses. ;or shorter distances, the higher cost of C
conversion e!uipment compared to an )C system may be warranted where other benefits of
direct current lin&s are useful.
The modern form of #$C transmission uses technology developed e"tensively in the 5A90s
in 3weden at )3E). Early commercial installations included one in the 3oviet :nion in 5A25
between 7oscow and Kashira, and a 50?20 7H system in ,otland, 3weden in 5A2<.
H,;< V(4&0;. T'0%52,55,(%
#igh voltage is used for transmission to reduce the energy lost in the resistance of the wires. ;or
a given !uantity of power transmitted, higher voltage reduces the transmission power loss.
*ower in a circuit is proportional to the current, but the power lost as heat in the wires is
9
P0'&,+*40'5 2==5 2==> 2==? 2==@
T'0%52,55,(% %.&-('A "+A& A25# 20,4<2 22,520 2A,<>5 >>,@00
S*75&0&,(%5 "%*27.'# @2 A9 50< 552
T'0%51('20&,(% C0/0+,&6 "MVA# <A,<<2 2<,944 2A,<54 49,500
S65&.2 A90,407,4,&6 AA.4< AA.>< AA.20 AA.22
proportional to the s!uare of the current. #owever, power is also proportional to voltage, so for
a given power level, higher voltage can be traded off for lower current. Thus, the higher the
voltage, the lower the power loss. *ower loss can also be reduced by reducing resistance,
commonly achieved by increasing the diameter of the conductorE but larger conductors are
heavier and more e"pensive.
#igh voltages cannot be easily used in lighting and motors, and so transmission?level voltage
must be reduced to values compatible with end?use e!uipment. The transformer, which only
wor&s with alternating current, is an efficient way to change voltages. *ractical manipulation of
C voltages only became possible with the development of high power electronic devices such
as mercury arc valves and later semiconductor devices, such as thyristors, insulated?gate bipolar
transistors 0',BTs1, high power capable 7(3;ETs 0power metalJo"ideJsemiconductor field?
effect transistors1 and gate turn?off thyristors 0,T(s1
A)90%&0;.5 0%) L,2,&0&,(%5 (1 04&.'%0&,%; +*''.%& &'0%52,55,(%
The advantage of #$C is the ability to transmit large amounts of power over long distances
with lower capital costs and with lower losses than )C. epending on voltage level and
construction details, losses are !uoted as about 9B per 5,000 &m. #igh?voltage direct current
transmission allows efficient use of energy sources remote from load centers.
'n a number of applications #$C is more effective than )C transmission. E"amples includeI
:ndersea cables, where high capacitance causes additional )C losses.
Endpoint?to?endpoint long?haul bul& power transmission without intermediate LtapsL, for
e"ample, in remote areas
'ncreasing the capacity of an e"isting power grid in situations where additional wires are
difficult or e"pensive to install
*ower transmission and stabilization between unsynchronised )C distribution systems
Connecting a remote generating plant to the distribution grid
3tabilizing a predominantly )C power?grid, without increasing prospective short circuit
current
10
.educing line cost. #$C needs fewer conductors as there is no need to support multiple
phases. )lso, thinner conductors can be used since #$C does not suffer from the s&in
effect
;acilitate power transmission between different countries that use )C at differing
voltages andFor fre!uencies
3ynchronize )C produced by renewable energy sources
-ong undersea cables have a high capacitance. Hhile this has minimal effect for C
transmission, the current re!uired to charge and discharge the capacitance of the cable causes
additional '
2
. power losses when the cable is carrying )C. 'n addition, )C power is lost
to dielectric losses.
#$C can carry more power per conductor, because for a given power rating the constant
voltage in a C line is lower than the pea& voltage in an )C line. 'n )C power, the root mean
s!uare 0.731 voltage measurement is considered the standard, but .73 is only about 45B of
the pea& voltage. The pea& voltage of )C determines the actual insulation thic&ness and
conductor spacing. Because C operates at a constant ma"imum voltage without .73, this
allows e"isting transmission line corridors with e!ually sized conductors and insulation to carry
2AB more power into an area of high power consumption than )C, which can lower costs.
Because #$C allows power transmission between unsynchronised )C distribution systems, it
can help increase system stability, by preventing cascading failure from propagating from one
part of a wider power transmission grid to another. Changes in load that would cause portions of
an )C networ& to become unsynchronized and separate would not similarly affect a C lin&,
and the power flow through the C lin& would tend to stabilize the )C networ&. The magnitude
and direction of power flow through a C lin& can be directly commanded, and changed as
needed to support the )C networ&s at either end of the C lin&. This has caused many power
system operators to contemplate wider use of #$C technology for its stability benefits alone
D,50)90%&0;.5
The disadvantages of #$C are in conversion, switching and control. ;urther operating an
#$C scheme re!uires &eeping many spare parts, which may be used e"clusively in one
system as #$C systems are less standardized than )C systems and the used technology
changes fast.
The re!uired static inverter are e"pensive and have limited overload capacity. )t smaller
transmission distances the losses in the static inverters may be bigger than in an )C
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transmission line. The cost of the inverters may not be offset by reductions in line construction
cost and lower line loss.
'n contrast to )C systems, realizing multiterminal systems is comple", as is e"panding e"isting
schemes to multiterminal systems. Controlling power flow in a multiterminal C system
re!uires good communication between all the terminalsE power flow must be actively regulated
by the control system instead of by the inherent properties of the transmission line. #igh
voltage C circuit brea&ers are difficult to build because some mechanism must be included in
the circuit brea&er to force current to zero, otherwise arcing and contact wear would be too great
to allow reliable switching. 7ulti?terminal lines are rare
C(5&5 (1 <,;< 9(4&0;. DC &'0%52,55,(%

6ormally manufacturers such as ).E$), 3iemens and )BB do not state specific cost
information of a particular pro+ect since this is a commercial matter between the manufacturer
and the client.
Costs vary widely depending on the specifics of the pro+ect such as power rating, circuit length,
overhead vs. underwater route, land costs, and )C networ& improvements re!uired at either
terminal. ) detailed evaluation of C vs. )C cost may be re!uired where there is no clear
technical advantage to C alone and only economics drives the selection.
A HVDC BIPOLE CONVERTER
C(2/(%.%&5
1. Thyristor: The thyristor valve is the basic component of the modern #$C
converter. 'n real sub station, a real thyristor valve comprises many series?connected
thyristors
12
in order to provide the necessary bloc&ing voltage capability.Thyristors used for #$C valves
are amongst the largest semiconductors of any type produced for
any industry. ;igure shows an @.2 &$ thyristor with an active silicon diameter of 552 mm
0whichstarts life as a silicon ingot of 522 mm diameter, hence such thyristors are often referred
to asC522 mmD thyristors1.
3uch components are e"pensive and there may be many thousand such components in a #$C
station. 7oreover, they are !uite delicate and re!uire a great many additional components to
control .
2. Convertor Transforer: The converter transformer is the interface between
the )C system and the thyristor valves. Typically the #$C converter transformer is
sub+ected to a C voltage insulation stress as well as the )C voltage stress normally
e"periencedby a power transformer. it is important that the converter transformer be
thermally designed to ta&e into consideration both the fundamental fre!uency load and
the )C harmonic currents that will flow from the converter through the converter
transformer to the )C harmonic filters.
!. AC 1,4&.'5: The )C harmonic filters are typically composed of a high voltage
connected capacitor ban& in series with a medium voltage circuit comprizing air?cored
air?insulated reactors, resistors and capacitor ban&s. These filters are used to limit the
impact of )C harmonics and reactive power generated by Convertors .
". S2((&<,%; R.0+&('5: These are use to reduce the C current ripple on the
overhead transmission line or cable and also helps in reducing the ma"imum potential
fault current that could flow from the C transmission circuit into a converter fault. 't
also protect the thyristor valve from fast front transients originating on the C
transmission line
#. DC 5-,&+< ;.0': 3witchgear on the C side of the converter is typically limited to
disconnectors and earth switches for scheme reconfiguration and safe maintenance
operation. 'nterruption of fault events is done by the controlled action of the converter
hence sometimes not needed with current interruption capability.
$. C(%&'(4 P'(&.+&,(%: The basic control parameter of a #$C converter is the C
current which circulates between the rectifier and inverter assuming that the C voltage
is maintained at a constant value 0which is typically true for C power transmission
schemes but not always true for bac&?to?bac& schemes1.
13
a. Po%er Contro&: If the power demand is chaned then the power order wi!! ramp to the new
power transfer !e"e! at a rate of chane #$nown as the %ramp rate&' pre(se!ected b) the operator* +)pica!!)
the ma,imum power !imit is defined b) an o"er!oad contro!!er which is continuous!) ca!cu!atin the
therma! capabi!it) of the con"erter station e-uipment*
b. 're()en*y Contro&: . /012 scheme can contro! the .2 fre-uenc) of an .2 s)stem b)
automatica!!) ad3ustin the power bein de!i"ered into that .2 s)stem in order to ba!ance the !oad with the
supp!)* +he fast power contro! b) the /012 reduces the under(fre-uenc) or o"er(fre-uenc) which can
resu!t from a chanin !oad in a sma!! power s)stem such as an is!and !oad*
c. Prote*tion: a #$C converter station the types of protection utilized fall into
two categories
M Conventional 0)C1 substation protection
M C protection
)C connected e!uipment such as converter transformers and )C harmonic filter
components, along with feeders and busbars, are protected using conventional )C protection
relays. The converter, along with the C circuit, is protected using hardware and software.
14
+. DC fi&ters: Converter operation results in voltage harmonics being generated at the
C
terminals of the converter, that is, there are sinusoidal )C harmonic components superimposed
on the C terminal voltage. This )C harmonic component of voltage will result in )C
harmonic current flow in the C circuit and the field generated by this )C harmonic current
flow can lin& with ad+acent conductors,such as open?wire telecommunication systems, and
induce harmonic current flow in these other circuits. 'n a bac&?to?bac& scheme, these harmonics
are contained within the valve hall with ade!uate shielding and, with a cable scheme,
the cable screen typically provides ade!uate shielding. #owever, with open?wire C
transmission it may be necessary to provide C filters to limit the amount of harmonic current
flowing in the C line. The C filter is physically similar to an )C filter in that it is connected
to the high voltage potential via a capacitor ban&E other capacitors along with reactors and
resistors are then connected to the high voltage capacitor ban& in order to provide the desired
tuning and

T<. T<.('6 (1 &<. HVDC +(%9.'&.'
The considerations are restricted on the line commutated converter which so far has dominantly
been used for #$C systems. )lthough forced commutated converters have occasionally been
proposed for very special applications such as tapping of an #$C line, the thyristor based
converter is still the only economical and well proven solution for bul& power transmission.
15
T<. T<'..$/*45. C(22*&0&,(% ;'(*/
(f the numerous converter configurations which have come into use for a wide variety of
applications, #$C technology uses e"clusively the three phase bridge circuit. 'n many
respects this is optimal converter connection. The three?phase bridge consists of two three?pulse
commutation groups connected in series. The star point loading is of no conse!uence, since it
disappears when the circuit is e"panded into the si" pulse bridge. The starpoint loading has been
ta&en into account by means of delta connection on the primary side. ) symmetrical ac networ&
with no impedance and with no impedance and with sinusoidal voltage :
-
is assumed, as is
generally customary in converter theory. 'n addition, a completely smooth direct current 0'
d
1
effected by a smoothing reactor with infinite inductance 0l
d
1 is also assumed.
B05,+ HVDC +(%9.'&.' +(%&'(4 +(%+./&5
The converter valves, as precise and virtually delay?free control elements, are the most
important actuators of the #$C control system. 7oreover, in most cases the converter groups
have an additional actuator in the form of the transformer tap changer. )lthough it does not
operate on a continuous basis and there are relatively long periods of idle time, it nevertheless is
responsible for important control function.
T<. C(22*&0&,(% /'(+.55
'n actuality, commutation of direct current re!uires a certain amount of time. This is due to
lea&age inductances of the converter transformer, which only permit a current change of limited
steepness. Thus for a short period of time, the releasing and the receiving phases are carrying
current simultaneously. This is referred to as commutation overlap and its duration is defined as
the overlap angle :. The lea&age inductances are considered lumped elements on the valve side
of the transformer.
)ssume that valve 5 carries the direct current and that at an arbitrary point in time 0after the
voltage intersection1 valve 9 receives a control impulse. ) current loop will be created with :
v
16
as the driving voltage. The lea&age inductances of phases 5 and 9 will be the reactances which
determine the current. This is simply a phase to phase short circuit of the transformer. The short
circuit current flows through valve 9 in the forward direction and through valve 5 counter to the
forward direct current. )s soon as the short circuit current has achieved the amplitude of the
direct current 0the composite current is zero1, valve 5 e"tinguishes. )t this point, the
commutation process has ended and valve 9 is carrying the entire direct current. Curve of the
direct voltage during commutation is along the average value of the voltages of valves 5 and 9.

C*''.%& +(%&'(4
Current control mainly determines
3teady state transmission power
Changes in transmission power according to size and rate of change
The dynamic behavior of the system including temporary overload
-imitation of transient overcurrents determined by amplitude and duration
The loading of all essential components of an #$C system, with the e"ception of filter
circuits, is determined by the direct current or an alternating current proportional to the direct
current. Therefore current control is also a very essential protective function.
'n #$C two point systems, the rectifier generally assumes the tas& of the current control. 't
is occasionally advantageous to assign the current control function to the inverter. #owever,
since the current control of the rectifier is needed as a proactive function, it is advantageous
to also use it for this purpose during normal operation. Then it is always active and monitors
itself.

17
HVDC C(%1,;*'0&,(%5
M(%(/(4. 0%) .0'&< '.&*'%
'n a common configuration, called monopole, one of the terminals of the rectifier is connected
to earth ground. The other terminal, at a potential high above, or below, ground, is connected to
a transmission line. The earthed terminal may or may not be connected to the corresponding
connection at the inverting station by means of a second conductor.
'f no metallic conductor is installed, current flows in the earth between the earth electrodes at
the two stations. Therefore it is a type of single wire earth return. The issues surrounding earth?
return current include
Electrochemical corrosion of long buried metal ob+ects such as pipelines
:nderwater earth?return electrodes in seawater may produce chlorine or otherwise affect
water chemistry.
)n unbalanced current path may result in a net magnetic field, which can affect magnetic
navigational compasses for ships passing over an underwater cable.
These effects can be eliminated with installation of a metallic return conductor between the two
ends of the monopolar transmission line. 3ince one terminal of the converters is connected to
earth, the return conductor need not be insulated for the full transmission voltage which ma&es
it less costly than the high?voltage conductor.
BIPOLAR
'n bipolar transmission a pair of conductors is used, each at a high potential with respect to
ground, in opposite polarity. 3ince these conductors must be insulated for the full voltage,
18
transmission line cost is higher than a monopole with a return conductor. #owever, there are a
number of advantages to bipolar transmission which can ma&e it the attractive option.
:nder normal load, negligible earth?current flows, as in the case of monopolar
transmission with a metallic earth?return. This reduces earth return loss and environmental
effects.
Hhen a fault develops in a line, with earth return electrodes installed at each end of the
line, appro"imately half the rated power can continue to flow using the earth as a return path,
operating in monopolar mode.
3ince for a given total power rating each conductor of a bipolar line carries only half the
current of monopolar lines, the cost of the second conductor is reduced compared to a
monopolar line of the same rating.
'n very adverse terrain, the second conductor may be carried on an independent set of
transmission towers, so that some power may continue to be transmitted even if one line is
damaged.
) bipolar system may also be installed with a metallic earth return conductor.
Bipolar systems may carry as much as 9,200 7H at voltages of NF?>00 &$. 3ubmarine cable
installations initially commissioned as a monopole may be upgraded with additional cables and
operated as a Bipole.
C('(%0 D,5+<0';.
Corona discharge is the creation of ions in a fluid 0such as air1 by the presence of a
strong electric field. Electrons are torn from neutral air, and either the positive ions or else the
electrons are attracted to the conductor, while the charged particles drift. This effect can cause
19
considerable power loss, create audible and radio?fre!uency interference, generate to"ic
compounds such as o"ides of nitrogen and ozone, and bring forth arcing.
Both )C and C transmission lines can generate coronas, in the former case in the form of
oscillating particles, in the latter a constant wind. ue to the space charge formed around the
conductors, an #$C system may have about half the loss per unit length of a high voltage )C
system carrying the same amount of power. Hith monopolar transmission the choice of polarity
of the energised conductor leads to a degree of control over the corona discharge. 'n particular,
the polarity of the ions emitted can be controlled, which may have an environmental impact
on particulate condensation. 0*articles of different polarities have a different mean?free
path.1 6egative coronas generate considerably more ozone than positive coronas, and generate it
further downwind of the power line, creating the potential for health effects. The use of
a positive voltage will reduce the ozone impacts of monopole #$C power lines.

A//4,+0&,(%5
O9.'9,.-
The controllability of current?flow through #$C rectifiers and inverters, their application in
connecting unsynchronized networ&s, and their applications in efficient submarine cables mean
that #$C cables are often used at national boundaries for the e"change of power. (ffshore
windfarms also re!uire undersea cables, and their turbines are unsynchronized.
AC %.&-('A ,%&.'+(%%.+&,(%5
)C transmission lines can only interconnect synchronized )C networ&s that oscillate at the
same fre!uency and in phase. 7any areas that wish to share power have unsynchronized
networ&s. #owever, #$C systems ma&e it possible to interconnect unsynchronized )C
networ&s, and also add the possibility of controlling )C voltage and reactive power flow.
) generator connected to a long )C transmission line may become unstable and fall out of
synchronization with a distant )C power system. )n #$C transmission lin& may ma&e it
economically feasible to use remote generation sites. Hind farms located off?shore may use
#$C systems to collect power from multiple unsynchronized generators for transmission to
the shore by an underwater cable.
20
'n general, however, an #$C power line will interconnect two )C regions of the power?
distribution grid. 7achinery to convert between )C and C power adds a considerable cost in
power transmission. The conversion from )C to C is &nown as rectification and from C to
)C as inversion. )bove a certain brea&?even distance 0about 20 &m for submarine cables, and
perhaps >00J@00 &m for overhead cables1, the lower cost of the #$C electrical conductors
outweighs the cost of the electronics.
T'0%52,55,(% P40%%,%; C',&.',0
I%&'()*+&,(%
The ob+ective of system planning is to evolve a power system with a level of performance
characterised by an acceptable degree of ade!uacy and security based on a trade?off between
costs and ris&s involved. 'nsofar as power transmission systems are concerned , there are no
widely adopted uniform guidelines which determine the criteria for transmission planning vis?s?
vis acceptable degree of ade!uacy and security. The criteria generally depends on the factors
such as availability of generation vis?O?vis demand, voltage levels, and configuration of the
system, control and communication facilities and resource constraints. *ractices in this regard
vary from country to country. The common theme in the various approaches is the Cacceptable
system performanceD. Even though the factors affecting system performance are probabilistic in
nature, deterministic approach has been used most commonly, being rather easy to apply. ;or
adopting probabilistic approach, long operating e"perience and availability of reliable statistical
data regarding performance of system components, namely e!uipment failure rate, outage
duration, etc, are essential. 3uch data are presently being compiled by a few utilitiesE but these
are still inade!uate to go in for a totally probabilistic approach. #ence it is considered prudent
to adopt a deterministic approach for the present with a committed thrust towards progressive
adoption of probabilistic approach.
21
P40%%,%; P<,4(5(/<6
The transmission system shall be planned on the basis of regional self?sufficiency with an
ultimate ob+ective of evolving a 6ational *ower ,rid. The regional self?sufficiency
criteria based on load generation balance may still dictate to have inter?regional
e"changes with ade!uate inter?connection capacity at appropriate points ta&ing into
account the topology of the two networ&s, the plant mi" consideration, generation
shortages due to forced outages, diversity in weather pattern and load forecasting errors in
either regions. 3uch inter?regional power e"changes shall also be considered these
studies.
The system shall be evolved based on detailed power system studies which shall includeI?
5. *ower ;low 3tudies
2. 3hort Circuit 3tudies
9. 3tability 3tudies
<. E7T* 3tudies to determine switchingFtemporary overvoltages .
The ade!uacy of the transmission should be rested for different feasible load generation
scenarios.
The following options may be considered for strengthening of the transmission networ&I?
5. )ddition of new Transmission lines to avoid overloading of e"isting system.
0Hhenever three or more circuits of the same voltage class are envisaged between two
sub?stations, the ne"t transmission voltage should also be considered.1
2. )pplication of 3eries Capacitors in e"isting transmission line to increase power
transfer capability.
9. :pgradation of the e"isting )C transmission lines.
<. .econductoring of the e"isting )C transmission line with higher size conductors or
with )))C.
2. )doption of multi?voltage level and multi?circuit transmission lines.
22
The choice shall be based on cost, reliability, right?of?way re!uirements, energy losses,
down time 0in case of upgradation and reconductoring options1
'n case of generating station close to a ma+or load centre, sensitivity of its complete
closure with loads to be met0to the e"tent possible1from other generating stations is also
studied.
'n case of transmission system associated with 6uclear *ower 3tations there shall be two
independent sources of power supply for the purpose of providing start?up power
facilities. ;urther the angle between start?up power source and the 6** switchyard
should be, as far as possible, maintained within 50 degrees.
The evacuation system for sensitive power stations viz., 6uclear power stations shall
generally be planned so as to terminate it at large load centres to facilitate islanding of the
power station in case of contingency.
Contingency is the temporary removal of one or more system elements from service. The
cause or reason for such removal may be a fault , planned maintenanceFrepair etc.
5. 3ingle Contingency J The contingency arising out of removal of one system element
from service.
2. ouble Contingency J The contingency arising out of removal of two system elements
from service. 't includes a FC line, two 3FC lines in same corridor or different corridors,
a 3FC line and a transformer etc.
9. .are Contingency J Temporary removal of complete generating station or complete sub?
station 0including all the incoming % outgoing feeders and transformers 1 from service,
#$C bipole and stuc& brea&er condition.
Hhere only two circuits are planned for evacuation of power from a generating station,
these should be two single lines instead of a double circuit line.
.eactive power flow through 'CTs shall be minimal. 6ormally it shall not e"ceed 50B of
the rating of the 'CTs. Hhenever voltage on #$ side of 'CT is less than 0.A42 pu, no
reactive power shall flow through 'CT.
23
ThermalF6uclear ,enerating units shall normally not run at leading power factor.
#owever, for the purpose of charging, generating unit may be allowed to operate at
leading power factor as per the respective capability curve.
'nter?regional lin&s shall, in the present conte"t, be planned as asynchronous ties unless
otherwise permitted from operational consideration.
L(0) G.%.'0&,(% S+.%0',(5
The load?generation scenarios shall be wor&ed out so as to reflect in a pragmatic manner the
daily and seasonal variations in the load demand and generation availability.
L(0) ).20%)5
The profile of annual and daily demands will be determined from past data. These data will
usually give the demand at grid supply points and for the whole system identifying the
annual and daily pea& demand.
A+&,9. /(-.'
The system pea& demands shall be based on the latest reports of Electric *ower 3urvey
0E*31 Committee. 'n case these pea& load figures are more than the pea&ing availability, the
loads will be suitably ad+usted substation wise to match with the availability.
The load demands at other periods 0seasonal variations and minimum loads1shall be derived
based on the annual pea& demand and past pattern of load variations.
;rom practical considerations the load variations over the year shall be considered as underI?
5. )nnual *ea& -oad J 't is the simultaneous ma"imum demand of the system being
studied. 't is based on latest Electric *ower 3urvey 0E*31 or total pea&ing power
availability, whichever is less.
2. 3easonal variation in *ea& loads0corresponding to high thermal and high hydro
generation1
24
9. 7inimal load J 't is the e"pected minimum system demand and is determined from
average ration of annual pea& load and minimum load observed in the system for the last
2 years.
<. (ff?*ea& -oad relevant where *umped 3torage *lants are involved or inter?regional
e"changes are envisaged.
R.0+&,9. P(-.' "MVAR#
.eactive *ower plays an important role in E#$ transmission system planning and hence
forecast of reactive power demand on an area?wise or substation?wise basis is as important
as active power forecast. This forecast would obviously re!uire ade!uate data on the reactive
power demands at different substations as well as the pro+ected plans for reactive power
compensation.
;or developing an optimal power system, the utilities must clearly spell out the substation?
wise ma"imum and minimum demand in 7Hs and 7$).s on seasonal basis. This will
re!uire compilation of past data in order to arrive at reasonably accurate load forecast.
.ecognising the fact that this data is presently not available, it is suggested that pending
availability of such data, the load power factor at 520F592K$ voltage levels shall be ta&en as
0.@2 lag during pea& load condition and 0.A lag during light load condition e"pecting areas
feeding predominantly agricultural loads where power factor can be ta&en as 0.42 and 0.@2
for pea& load and light load conditions respectively. 'n areas where power factor is less than
the limit specified above, it shall be the responsibility of the respective utility to bring the
load power factor to these limits by providing shunt capacitors at appropriate places in the
system.
G.%.'0&,(% D,5/0&+<.5
,eneration despatch of #ydro and ThermalF6uclear units would be determined +udiciously on
the basis of hydrology as well as scheduled maintenance program of the generating stations.
$arious norms are used for wor&ing out the pea&ing availability of different types of generating
25
units. 'n case of nuclear units the minimum level of output shall be ta&en as not less than 40B
of the rated capacity.
,eneration dispatches corresponding to the following operating conditions shall be considered
depending on the nature and characteristics of the system.
)nnual *ea& -oad
7a"imum Thermal generation J 't is the condition when hydro generation is low0not
necessarily minimum1and thermal generation is &ept ma"imum to meet seasonal pea&
loads0not necessarily annual pea& load1.'n other words it is the condition when the gap
between monthly pea& demand and hydro power availability is ma"imum.
7a"imum #ydro generation J 't is the condition when hydro power availability is
ma"imum during the year. 't is also &nown as #igh #ydro condition.
)nnual 7inimum -oad
3pecial area dispatches J 't is the condition when power output from all the generating
stations located in an area 0in close pro"imity1 is &ept at the ma"imum feasible level.
7a"imum ;easible level of a generating station is the ma"imum power output when all
the units in a power station are in service, assuming no planned or forced outages.
#owever, in case of power stationFcomple" where si" or more units e"ist, for every si"
units one unit Jsecond largest?is assumed to be under annual planned maintenance.
3pecial dispatches corresponding to high agricultural load with low power factor,
wherever applicable.
(ff pea& conditions with ma"imum pumping load where *umped 3torage stations e"ist
and also with the inter?regional e"changes, if envisaged.
Complete closure of a generating station close to a ma+or load centre.
The generation dispatch for purpose of carrying out sensitivity studies corresponding to
complete closure of generating station close to a ma+or load centre shall be wor&ed out by
increasing generation at other stations to the e"tent possible &eeping in view the
ma"imum li&ely availability at these stations, ownership pattern, shares etc.
26
P.'2,55,74. L,%. L(0),%; L,2,&5
*ermissible line loading limit depend on many factors such as voltage regulation, stability
and thermal capacity etc. Thermal capacity of a line refers to the amount of current that
can be carried by a line conductor without e"ceeding its design operating temperature.
3urge 'mpedance -oading 03'-1 means a unit power factor load over a resistance line
such that series reactive loss 0'P2Q.1 along the line is e!ual to shunt capacitive gain
0$P2Q=1. :nder these conditions the sending end and receiving end voltages and current
are e!ual in magnitude but different in phase position. Hhile 3'- gives a general idea of
the loading capability of the line , it is usual to load the short lines above 3'- and long
lines lower than 3'- 0because of the stability limitations1.line loading can also be shown
0in terms of surge impedance loading of uncompensated line1as a function of line length
assuming a voltage regulation of 2B and phase angular difference of 90 degrees between
the two ends of the line. 'n case of shunt compensated lines, the 3'- will get reduced by a
factor &, where
& R s!rt 05?degree of compensation1
;or lines whose permissible line loading as determined from the curve is higher than the
thermal loading limit, permissible loading limit shall be restricted to thermal loading
limit.
Thermal loading limits are generally decided by design practice on the basis of ambient
temperature, ma"imum permissible conductor temperature, wind velocity, etc. 'n 'ndia,
the ambient temperatures obtaining in the various parts of the country are different and
vary considerably during the various seasons of the year. esigns of transmission line
with )3C. conductors in E#$ systems will normally be based on a conductor
temperature limit of 42 deg Celsius. #owever, for some of the e"isting lines which have
been designed for a conductor temperature of >2 deg Celsius the loading shall be
correspondingly reduced. 'n the case of )))C conductors, ma"imum conductor
temperature limit will be ta&en as @2 deg Celsius.
27
T.2/('0'6 O9.'9(4&0;.5
These are power fre!uency overvoltages produced in a power system due to sudden load
re+ection, single?phase?to?ground faults etc.
<20 &$ system 5.2 p.u. pea& phase to neutral 09<9 &$ R 5 p.u.1
@00 &$ system 5.< p.u. pea& phase to neutral 0>29 &$ R 5 p.u.1
S-,&+<,%; O9.'9(4&0;.5
These overvoltages generated during switching of lines, transformers and reactors etc. having
wave fronts 220F2200 micro sec.
<20 &$ system 2.2 p.u. pea& phase to neutral 09<9 &$ R 5 p.u.1
@00 &$ system 5.A p.u. pea& phase to neutral 0>29 &$ R 5 p.u.1
R.0+&,9. P(-.' C(2/.%50&,(%
S<*%& C0/0+,&('5
.eactive Compensation should be provided as far as possible in the low voltage systems
with a view to meeting the reactive power re!uirements of load close to the load points
thereby avoiding the need for $). transfer from the high voltage system to the low
voltage system. 'n the cases where networ& below 592F220 &$ voltage level is not
represented in the system planning studies, the shunt capacitors re!uired for meeting the
reactive power re!uirements of load shall be provided at 592F220 &$ buses.
S<*%& R.0+&('5
3witchable reactors shall be provided at E#$ substations for controlling voltages within
the limits defined without resorting to switching?off of lines. The size of reactors should
28
be such that under steady state condition, switching on and off of the reactors shall not
cause a voltage change e"ceeding 2B. The standard sizes07$).1 of reactors areI?

<00 &$ 09?ph units1 20, >9 % @0 at <20 &$
4>2 &v 05?ph units1 20, >9 % 550 at @00 &$
;i"ed line reactors may be provided to control Temporary *ower ;re!uency overvoltage
Safter all voltage regulation has ta&en placeT within the limits defined, under all probable
operating conditions.
-ine reactors 0switchableFcontrolledFfi"ed1 may be provided if it is not possible to charge
E#$ line without e"ceeding the voltage limits defined. The possibility of reducing pre?
charging voltage of the charging end shall also be considered in the conte"t of
establishing the need for reactors.
S&0&,+ VAR C(2/.%50&,(% "SVC#
3tatic $). compensation shall be provided where found necessary to damp the power
swings and provide the system stability under conditions defined. The dynamic range of
static compensators shall not be utilised under steady state operating conditions as far as
possible.
S*7$S&0&,(% P40%%,%; C',&.',0
The re!uirements in respect of E#$ sub?stations in a system such as the total load to be
catered by the sub?station of a particular voltage level, its 7$) capacity, number of
feeders permissible etc. are important to the planners so as to provide an idea to them
about the time for going in for the adoption of ne"t higher voltage level sub?station and
also the number of substations re!uired for meeting a particular !uantum of load.
29
Keeping these in view the following criteria have been laid down for planning an E#$
substationI
The ma"imum fault level on any new substation bus should not e"ceed @0B of the rated
rupturing capacity of the circuit brea&er. The 20B margin is intended to ta&e care of the
increase in short?circuit levels as the system grows. The rated brea&ing current capability
of switchgear at different voltage levels may be ta&en asI?
592 &$ ?? 22F95 &)
220 &$ ?? 95.2F<0 &)
<00 &$ ?? <0 &)
4>2 &$ ?? <0 &)
#igher brea&ing current capability would re!uire ma+or design change in the terminal
e!uipment and shall be avoided as far as possible.
The capacity of any single sub?station at different voltage levels shall not normally
e"ceed I?

4>2 &$ ?? 2200 7$)
<00 &$ ?? 5000 7$)
220 &$ ?? 920 7$)
592 &$ ?? 520 7$)
3ize and number of interconnecting transformers 0'CTs1 shall be planned in such a
way that the outage of any single unit would not overload the remaining 'CT0s1 or the
underlying system.
30
) stuc& brea&er condition shall not cause disruption of more than four feeders for 220
&$ system and two feeders for <00 &$ systems and one feeder for 4>2 &$ systems.
T'0%52,55,(% E%;,%..',%;
M08(' C(2/(%.%&5 (1 T'0%52,55,(% L,%.5
Conductor
Tower esign and foundation
Earth wire
'nsulators
31
#ardware ;ittings
)ccessories

CONDUCTORS
BUNDLE CONDUCTOR SELECTION AND OPTIMIBATION
3ize, Type and Configuration of conductor influencesI?

Tower and its geometry
;oundations
(ptimum spans
.ating and configuration of 'nsulator string
'nsulator 3wings
,round clearance
-ine interferences li&e electric field at ground, corona, radio % T$ interference, audible
noise etc.
CONDUCTOR SELECTION SCENARIO
32
SCENARIO A
3election of character for a transmission line of identified voltage level and specified
minimum power flow but power flow capacity becomes ruling factor in selection of
conductor size 0low voltage lines1.
SCENARIO B
3election of conductor for a transmission line with identified voltage level and a specified
minimum power flow but voltage level become ruling factor in selection of
conductorFconductor bundle size 0E#$F:#$ lines1.
SCENARIO C
3election of conductor for high power capacity long distances transmission lines where
selection of voltage level and conductorFconductor bundle size are to be done together to
obtain most optimum solution 0#$C Bipole1
CONDUCTOR BUNDLE SELECTION METHODOLOGY
*rimary set of conductor bundleFsizes identified to start optimization
*arameters li&e insulation re!uirement, limits for corona, .'$, )6, thermal ratings, line
losses and statutory clearances identified
33
etailed analysis of various alternatives in respect of following to be carried out to select
the configuration
( Basic insulation design and insulator selection
( Tower configuration analysis
( Tower weight and foundation analysis
( Capital line cost analysis and span optimization
( -ine loss calculation
( Economic evaluations0*H..1 of alternatives
( Comparison of interference performance
( Cost sensitivity analysis
CONDUCTOR OPTMIBATION PROCEDURE
*.'7).= 3E-ECT'(6
Thermal rating of the conductorFconductors
7anufacturing facilities
E"pense of other utilities
3ystem voltage alternatives
Construction convenience
-ine loss considerations
Terrain conditions and ground profile
3pan length re!uirements
34
.ight (f Hay limitations
CONDUCTOR SELECTION C DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
B)3'C C(63'E.)T'(63 06(6 $).')B-E1
51 -oading condition and reliability level for the transmission line.
21 'nsulator co?ordination
91 -imit load condition for structure, conductor, insulator, and hardware as well as limit
conditions for swing of conductor and insulator strings.
<1 )llowable limits forI
Electric and magnetic fields
.adio and T$ interference
3pace charge density
21 7inimum ground clearance
>1 *arameters for economic evaluation
CONDUCTOR SELECTION FOR SPECIAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
35
:*.)T'6, (; -'6E3
( 3ag of the selected conductor at ma"imum operating temperature should not e"ceed
the sag of the original conductor
( 6o e"tra loadings on the structure at various design considerations
:*,.)'6, (; -'6E3
( -ine interference in respect of .'$, T$', )6, E;, 7; etc. 3hould be within
acceptable limits
( Conductor surface gradient within acceptable limits
( )symmetric bundle
C(7*)CT -'6E3
( -owest possible sag and swing for re!uired !uantum of power
( Considerations involved in upgradingFup rating
CONDUCTOR BUNDLE SELECTION: ESTIMATION OF TOWER
WEIGHTS AND FOUNDATION VOLUMES
;or each alternative of conductor and insulator configuration
T(HE. HE',#T E3T'7)T'(6
*reliminary tower design studies conducted
36
Estimation based on regression analysis and empirical formulae

;(:6)T'(6 $(-:7E E3T'7)T'(6
*reliminary foundation design studies conducted
C(6:CT(. B:6-E (T'7'U)T'(6I TEC#6(?EC(6(7'C )6)-=3'3
51 Capital cost of line
Cost of each item, construction cost
21 Cost of line losses
)nnual loss cost R )nnual demand cost N )nnual energy -oss Cost
91 .esults of economic evaluation0*H.. or )nnual Cost basis1
<1 Cost sensitivity
C(%)*+&(' T6/.5:
)C3.
)))C
)C).
6ew Technology Conductors
Trapezoidal
)C33
'6$).
3elf amping
37
)-- )-:7'6':7 )--(= C(6:CT(. )))C
,ood Conductivity
#igh Tensile 3trength
3uperior Corrosion resistance compared to )C3.
'mproved strength to weight ratio resulting in lower sag
-ower electrical losses
)luminium Conductor 3teel 3upported 0)C33 Conductor1
3imilar to )C3. e"cept )luminium
3teel Core 0#igh 3trength1 carries most of the load and hence less sag compared to
conventional )C3. conductor under emergency loadings.
Can be operated at 200 degree C without loss of strength
'mproved Conductivity
Better self damping characteristics
Compact Conductors
)luminium wiresFstrands shaped trapezoidal
'ncreased )luminium area and hence higher current carrying capacity

38
'6$). Conductors
Core made of alloy of 'ron. 6ic&el having low thermal coefficient of e"pansion05F9
rd
that
of steel1
)fter certain transition temperature all load transferred to the core and hence lower sag
compared to )C3. after transition temperature
Can be operated up to 200
0
C
DESIGN OF TOWERS
SALIENT DESIGN CONDITIONS
The reliability of transmission line towers depends on the appropriate selection of design
criteriaFparameters.
Climatic conditions play an important role in determining the reliability of transmission
line tower.
) significant number of transmission line failures can be the result of wind speed
e"ceeding design limits due to deficiencies in selection of design parametersFcriteria.
EARTHWIRE
;unctions of Earth wire
To protect conductor against lighting flashovers
To provide a path for fault current
39
-ighting ;lashovers
irect ;lashover
(ccurs due to shielding failure with lighting on the conductor, flashover ta&ing place
across the insulator string from conductor to ground.
Bac& ;lashover
(ccurs due to high towering resistance with a high voltage at the grounded tower cross
arm compared to conductor, resulting in a flashover across the insulator string from
ground to conductor.
7a"imum allowable fault current 0'1 through earthwire mainly depends upon
)rea of Earth wire0)1
7a"imum permissible temperature
Time of short circuit0t1
' varies proportional to ) and inversely proportional to s!rt 0t1
HARDWARE FITTINGS AND ACCESSORIES FOR CONDUCTOR
EARTHWIRE
#).H).E ;'TT'6,3
;or attachment of insulator string to tower
?shac&les, Ball clevis, =o&e *late, Chain lin&
;or attachment of insulator string to the conductor
40
3uspension % tension assembly
;ittings li&e ?3hac&les, soc&et clevis, chain lin&
;or protection of insulator string from power follow current
)rcing horn
;or ma&ing electric field uniform and to limit the electric field at live end
Corona control ringF,rading ring
;or fine ad+ustment of conductor sag ?3ag )d+ustment plate, Turn Buc&le
#).H).E ;'TT'6,3? esign
)rcing #orn
The air gap is maintained for satisfactory performance under actual field conditions.
;or power follow current
=o&e *late
To withstand mechanical loads?Thic&ness % shear edge maintained
To maintain sub conductor spacing
Corona Control .ingF,rading #orn
To cover at least one live and insulator disc
To cover hardware fittings susceptible for CoronaF.'$
3uspension )ssembly
? 3haped to prevent hammering between clamp % conductor
? To minimize static % dynamic stress in conductor under various
loading conditions
? 7inimum level of coronaF.'$ performance
41
? ;or slipping of conductor under prescribed unbalanced conditions
between ad+acent conductor spans
Tension )ssembly
( To withstand loads of atleast A2B of conductor :T3
( To have conductivity more than that of conductor
3ag )d+ustment *lateFTurn Buc&le
( To ad+ust sag upto 520mm in steps of >mm.
C(5& E%;,%..',%;
W<0& ,5 +(5& .%;,%..',%;D
Cost Engineering is the science of cost finding by analysis of the processes and e"penses of
production, and charging of particularized e"pense factors, through process units rates, in the
e"act ratio of utilization.
O9.'<.0) &'0%52,55,(%
(verhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is nearly always an
aluminum alloy, made into several strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands. Copper
was sometimes used for overhead transmission but aluminum is lower in weight for e!uivalent
performance, and much lower in cost.
U%).';'(*%) &'0%52,55,(%
42
:ndergrounding is more e"pensive, since the cost of burying cables at transmission voltages is
several times greater than overhead power lines, and the life?cycle cost of an underground
power cable is two to four times the cost of an overhead power line.
A75&'0+& +(5& .5&,20&.
51 *reliminary 3urvey % 3oil 'nvestigation
21 -and )c!uisition for 3ubstation and . % . Compensation
91 Cost of compensation for transmission lines
Compensation towards trees, crops % *TCC
Compensation towards forest
<1 Civil Hor&s
'nfrastructure for substation
6on .esidential Buildings
Colony for transmission lines and substation
21 E!uipment 03upply % Erection Cost1
Transmission -ines
3ub 3tations
>1 7isc. Tools % *lants
41 7aintenance during construction
@1 Engineering % administration
A1 -osses on stoc&
501 Contingencies
43
551 Custom uty
521 'nterest uring Construction 0'C1
S*75&0&,(% EE*,/2.%&5
51 ,'3 3ubstation E!uipment.
21 Circuit Brea&ers
91 'solators
<1 Current Transformers
21 Capacitor $oltage Transformers F $oltage Transformers
>1 3urge )rrestersI They should be provided near line entrances, transformers so as to achieve
proper insulation coordination. These shall be fitted with pressure relief devices and
diverting ports suitable for shattering of porcelain housing providing path for the flow of
rated currents in the event of arresters failure.
S*75&0&,(% S*//('& 10+,4,&,.5
51 )C % C *ower supplies
21 ;ire ;ighting 3ystemI ;ire fighting system in general conforms to fire insurance regulations
of 'ndia. The fire fighting system is proposed with both )C motor % diesel engine driven
pumps. )utomatic heat actuated emulsifying system is proposed for transformers and
reactors.
91 (il evacuating, filtering, testing, % filling apparatusI To monitor the !uality of oil for the
satisfactory performance of transformers, shunt reactors and for periodical maintenance
44
necessary oil evacuating, filtering, testing and filling apparatus would be provided at new
substations.
<1 -ighting % CommunicationI )de!uate normal and emergency )C % C lighting shall be
provided in the control room of the substation. ) telephone e"change of 2< lines shall be
provided at new substation as a means of effective communication between various
buildings of the substation.
21 Control .oom
-ine )ccessories
51 7id 3pan compression +oint for conductor F earthwire
21 .epair sleeve for conductor
91 ;le"ible copper bond for earthwireI ;le"ible copper bonds shall be used for good
electrical continuity between the earthwire and the tower. Two bonds per
suspension tower and four bonds per tension tower shall be used.
<1 $ibration ampers for conductor F earthwireI 3toc&bridge vibration dampers
shall be used to reduce the ma"imum dynamic train caused be )eolian vibrations
to a value of 520 micro?strain.
21 3pacer ampers
S(2. C(5& R.)*+&,(% T.+<%,E*.5
By allowing multiple generating plants to be interconnected over a wide area, electricity
production cost was reduced. The most efficient available plants could be used to supply the
varying loads during the day. .eliability was improved and capital investment cost was
reduced, since stand?by generating capacity could be shared over many more customers and a
45
wider geographic area. .emote and low?cost sources of energy, such as hydroelectric power or
mine?mouth coal, could be e"ploited to lower energy production cost.
The capital cost of electric power stations is so high, and electric demand is so variable, that it is
often cheaper to import some portion of the needed power than to generate it locally. Because
nearby loads are often correlated, electricity must often come from distant sources. Because of
the economics of load balancing, wide area transmission grids now span across countries and
even large portions of continents. The web of interconnections between power producers and
consumers ensures that power can flow, even if a few lin&s are inoperative.
The unvarying 0or slowly varying over many hours1 portion of the electric demand is &nown as
the Vbase loadV, and is generally served best by large facilities 0and therefore efficient due to
economies of scale1 with low variable costs for fuel and operations, i.e. nuclear, coal, hydro.
.enewable sources such as solar, wind, oceanFtidal, etc. are not considered Vbase loadV but can
still add power to the grid. 3maller and higher cost sources, such as combined cycle or
combustion turbine plants fueled by natural gas are then added as needed.
-ong distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to be used to displace
fossil fuel consumption. #ydro and wind sources canLt be moved closer to populous cities, and
solar costs are lowest in remote areas where local power needs are minimal. Connection costs
alone can determine whether any particular renewable alternative is economically sensible.
Costs can be prohibitive for transmission lines, but various proposals for massive infrastructure
investment in high capacity, very long distance super grid transmission networ&s could be
recovered with modest usage fees.
#igh voltage direct current 0#$C1 is used to transmit large amounts of power over long
distances or for interconnections between asynchronous grids. Hhen electrical energy is
re!uired to be transmitted over very long distances, it is more economical to transmit using
direct current instead of alternating current. ;or a long transmission line, the lower losses and
reduced construction cost of a C line can offset the additional cost of converter stations at each
end. )lso, at high )C voltages, significant 0although economically acceptable1 amounts of
energy are lost due to corona discharge, the capacitance between phases or, in the case of buried
cables, between phases and the soil or water in which the cable is buried.
46
E%9,'(%2.%&04 0%) S(+,04 A5/.+&5
F('.5& I%9(49.2.%& F C4.0'0%+.
)s per the practice, preliminary route selection is done by *(HE.,.' based on such
documents as ;orest )tlas and the survey of 'ndia maps using CbeeD line method, followed
by field verification through wal& over survey. )ll possible steps are ta&en to avoid the route
alignment through the forests. 'n case where it becomes unavoidable due the geography of
the terrain, the alignment is made in such a way that the route through forests is barest
minimum.
;or the selection of optimum route, following points are to be ta&en into considerationI
The route of the proposed transmission line does not involve any human rehabilitation.
)ny monument of cultural or historical importance is not generally affected.
The route does not create any threat to the survival of the community.
't does not affect any public utility services li&e playground , school, other
establishments, etc
't does not pass through any sanctuaries, national par&, etc.
't does not infringe with the areas of natural resources.
47
S(+,04 I55*.5 F RR 2.05*'.5
)s per the prevailing law, land below transmission line is not re!uired to be ac!uired and
only land for substation is ac!uired. *(HE.,.' is following the practice of land
management to minimize the land re!uirement to the barest minimum. ,enerally 20 to 90
hectares of land is re!uired for constructing a substation depending upon the type of the
voltage level. Even for this 20 to 90 hectare land, *(HE.,.' try to locate the substation
on government land as far as possible and in the absence of govt. land private land is
ac!uired. 'n order to insure the indigenous 0Tribal1 people do not suffer adverse affects,
utmost care is ta&en to avoid ac!uisition of land belonging to tribal community. 'n spite of
that, *(HE.,.' has developed an indigenous people 0Tribal1 evelopment *lan 0'**1
which ensure that they receive culturally compatible social and economic benefits for any
adverse affects.
R,5A A%0465,5
R.9.%*. R,5A
The capital cost of the transmission system comprises of
i1 )n e!uity component
ii1 ) loan component
This is recovered through the annual transmission charges consisting of return re!uired for
the e!uity, an interest for the loan component together with the depreciation charges, the (
% 7 charges and interest on wor&ing capital from the beneficiaries as per 6otification in
proportion to the benefits derived by them. These are recovered in monthly fi"ed charges
from the beneficiaries. 'n addition to annual charges 'ncome Ta", ;E.$ and incentives, etc.
as per notification would also be payable.
The Bul& *ower Transmission )greement 0B*T)1 which cover the payments for
transmission charges for all the e"isting pro+ects as well as those that may be included in
future after approval by CE) already e"ists.
48
R.;*40&('6 R,5A
B*T)s have the provision that the transmission tariff for new F e"isting transmission assets
commissioned as well as the additional tariff payable due to additional capitalization from
year to year, etc. shall be computed by *(HE.,.' based on norms F methodology
followed in the ,(' notification dated 5>.52.A4 in accordance with norms to be specified by
the Central Electricity .egulatory Commission 0CE.C1 as amended from time to time.
T0',115
The cost of electric power is normally given by the e"pression 0 a N bQ&H N cQ&Hh1 per
annum, where a is a fi"ed charge for the utility, independent of the power outputE b depends on
the ma"imum demand of the system and hence on the interest and depreciation on the installed
power stationE and c depends on the units produced and therefore on the fuel charges and the
wages of the station staff.
Tariff structure may be such as to influence the load curve and to improve the load factor.
Tariff should consider the pf 0power factor1 of the load of the consumer. if it is low, it ta&es
more current for the same &Hs and hence T and 0Transmission and istribution1 losses are
correspondingly increased. The power has to install either pf correcting 0improvement1 devices
such as synchronous condensors, 3$C 03tatic $ar Compensator1 or voltage regulating
e!uipment to maintain the voltages within allowed limits and thus the total cost increases. (ne
of the following alternatives may be used to avoid the low pf I
5. To charge the consumer based on K$) rather than KH.
2. ) pf penalty clause may be imposed on the consumer.
9. The consumer may be as&ed to use the shunt capacitors for improving the power factor of his
installations.
49