8.

Vacuum Metallurgy
8.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF VACUUM
METALLURG
!y"r#ge$
Hydrogen is soluble in liquid steel, but does not combine with the iron and its alloying
elements. During solidification it is released, entrapped, and forms deleterious cracks.
The theoretical solubility of hydrogen in liquid steel follows the square-root equation
of Sievert
[ ]
! H
P k H =
............................................. "#.$%
&ith a partial pressure of hydrogen PH
2
of $''' mbar the solubility of the gas can be
as high as !(ppm. This value is not usual in practice. )wing to the efficiency of
modem metallurgical process techniques with short melting times, high o*ygen
content at tap, and with alloying and deo*idation materials added during tapping
including a desulphuri+ation slag based on a lime-fluorspar mi*ture, $!ppm is a more
normal content.
NITROGEN
This is also soluble in liquid iron. Sievert,s equation applies equality between the
dissolved nitrogen and its gaseous phase
[ ]
! N
P k H =
with k= --' ppm at $.''
'
/.
&hen assessing the effect of the vacuum on the liquid steel it should be remembered
that alloying elements can either increase or reduce the solubility of gases. 0articular
attention must be paid to chromium which is normally present in stainless steel to the
e*tent of $#1. /hromium increases the solubility of hydrogen only slightly, but the
solubility of nitrogen is increased (-. fold.
O%GEN
&ith the e*ception of carbon the other elements combine with o*ygen to form solid or
molten reaction products. /arbon mono*ide is the gaseous product of the reaction
2/3 4 2)3 - /)........................................................."#.!%
The equilibrium relationship shows a strong dependence of pressure
560co72/3 2)3.........................................................."#.8%
$-#
The o*ygen content can be reduced by lowering the total pressure and with it the /)
partial pressure. &ith the lowering of the pressure the /) equilibrium lines shift
towards lower o*ygen contents. &hile with '.$ 1 / and $ bar pressure the /)
equilibrium corresponds to a greater o*ygen content compared with the o*ygen
equilibrium for '.$1 Si. The silicon will deo*idi+e the melt. The situation is reversed
at $''mbar /) partial pressure. 9y the formation of /) the effect of the carbon is to
lower the equilibrium o*ygen content. The gas is easily removed from the reaction
vessel by pumping down. This so-called vacuum deo*idation products.
8.& FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF REACTIONS
UNDER VACUUM
:t is generally assumed that reaction during degassing takes place by diffusion of the
gases through the liquid steel surface.
;or the rate of reaction the following equations are applicable.
Dc7dt 6 k ";7<% "/
!
-/%................................................ "#.-%
:n "/
!-
/ 7 /
!
-/
'
% 6 -k ";7<=t....................................... ."#.(%
:n "0
(
-0 7 0
(
-0o% 6 k ";7<=.........................................."#..%
&here
/ 6 concentration of gases in liquid steel after time t
/
(
6 equilibrium concentration of gases at surface of liquid steel
/
'
6 initial concentration of gases in liquid steel at time t6'
dc7dt6 rate in change of concentration of gases dissolved in liquid steel at time t
;6 effective surface area for degassing
k6 mass transfer coefficient, dependent on type of gas and flowrate in liquid steel.
06 pressure above liquid steel after time t
0
(
6 pressure of gases above liquid steel after equilibrium has been established
0o6 pressure above liquid steel at beginning "t6)% of reaction
<6 volume of liquid steel.
:t can be deduced from the equations that the degassing rate is favoured by the
following
factors
"i% an appreciable difference of concentration i.e. /
(
- /
'
"ii% a reduced pressure above the liquid steel surface
"iii% a high reaction factor. This is achieved by a high flowrate in the liquid steel
"iv% a high ;7< ratio.
:f a cast is placed in a vacuum tank for ladle degassing the effective surface area for
$->
degassing ; is equal to the liquid steel surface. The ratio ;7< is then only small. This
ratio however, can be increased considerably by agitation of the surface by either
purging with an inert gas or by formation of carbon mono*ide in the melt. ?t the same
time this results also in a change of the flow pattern with a corresponding increase in
the mass transfer coefficient k.
?s an alternative to the increase in the effective degassing surface ; by the formation
of carbon mono*ide and7or the purging, the ratio ;7< can be increased by
disintegration into a second ladle or ingot mould located in a tank under vacuum. This
results in an e*plosive e*pansion of the gases in the stream. The droplets which are
formed range in diameter from lm to $' mm. The shape and si+e of the droplets
depend very much on the degree of vacuum.
The above mentioned equations are equally valid here. &ith the assumption that the
whole ladle content is divided during stream degassing into uniformly spherical
droplets "radius r% the ratio
;7<6 87r ..........................................."#.@%
?nd equation "#.(% becomes
:n "/
(
A/7 /
(
A/
'
% 6 B "87r%t
The degassing is the more complete the smaller the radius r. :t can be deduced also
that a small droplet allows faster diffusion to its surface for any dissolved gas.
STREAM DEGASSING
The teeming of forging ingots and ladle-to-ladle degassing take place in a tank which
is closed with a vacuum-tight cover. The cover is skewed hydraulically across the tank
or is suspended from a cover car and driven over the tank and then lowered. Cach
cover is equipped for locating the tapping ladle on to a grooved ring made air-tight by
the insertion of a Deoprene seal. The ingot or ladle si+e dictates the dimensions of the
vacuum tank. The vacuum tightness between tank and cover is achieved with a sealing
ring contained in an open channel. During opening of the cover the seal is protected
from radiation by flooding the channel with water. 9oth tank and cover flange are
water cooled to prevent distortion. The opening for the pouring of the steel is initially
covered with a metal membrane so as to allow the evacuation of the tank before
teeming. ? spray limiter tube is suspended from the cover so as to ensure that the
stream is directed into the evacuated tank as intended after melting of the membrane.
The diameter and length of the spray limiter tube are calculated to allow the steel to
fan out with most of the degassing taking place before the stream e*its from the tube.
Splashing against the ingot wall or ladle lining is thus prevented. The spray limiter
$('
tubes for vacuum-cast forging ingot production consist of special refractory bricks and
can be used several times. &hile those for ladle-to-ladle degassing are made from
ceramic material and have an e*cellent refractory performance with intermediate
patching if necessary.
The vacuum tank is refractory lined with fire brick mainly against radiation and
possible ladle break-through. Dormally, the tank height is such that in case of a ladle
break through the liquid steel content can be contained in the bottom of the tank
without effecting the ladle. This makes it possible to remove the empty ladle without
difficulties. :n the same way the solidified steel can be lifted out by crane. Eenerally,
an ingot mould is used as a ladle stool, which assists in the removal of the cold steel.
The underside of the cover is protected by a refractory layer against radiation and
splash.
)bservation ports in the cover serve to follow the degassing treatment. Focal control
panels are placed on the cover and are fitted with control valves and instrumentation.
Deo*idation and alloying trimming additions can be made during ladle-to-ladle
degassing via a vacuum lock. /hemical consistency throughout the melt is one of the
results of inert gas stirring.
LADLE DEGASSING
The more recent development in ladle steelmaking vacuum are degassing "< ?D%, is
gaining prominence throughout the world and offers many technical advantages in the
melting of high-quality steels. The process is one in which the refining operation,
normally carried out in the second stage of the two-slag basic electric arc process, is
done in the ladle, and more effectively. ;urther more, the steel is degassed in the same
ladle as part of the < ?D process. There are both economic and metallurgical
advantages to be gained from the process.
The maGor economic saving is in the reduction of tap-to-tap times since, while the
refining and degassing is being done in the < ?D vessel, a further charge may be
melted out in the arc furnace in readiness for subsequent transfer to the < ?D unit.
The maGor metallurgical advantages relate to quality and stem from the high degree of
control built into the < ?D system. Specific areas in which improvements arise from
< ?D treatment are
C'em(cal a$aly)()
9ecause the steel is continuously stirred, samples taken from the ladle for analysis.
Thus, accurate corrective additions can be made into the ladle and, for the same
reason, effectively mi*ed in.
$($
N#$*metall(c ($clu)(#$)
The part that casting temperature can play in the ultimate cleanliness standard of an
ingot is well known. The arc heating facility in the < ?D unit enables last minute
temperature adGustments to be made accurately in the ladle and here again the benefit
of stirring is evident. ?dditional features contributing to improved cleanness are the
vacuum treatment in itself, and the cleaning effect of gas purging, which is now well
established.
I$g#t )ur+ace
? high proportion of ingot surface imperfections are traceable to subsurface not-
metallic inclusions and adverse teeming conditions both of which are referred to
above.
Ga) c#$te$t
The degassing treatment in combination with stirring, provides for gas removal,
notably in relation to hydrogen content, which contributes to the avoidance of hairline
cracks and7or economics in diffusion heat treatment.
The industrial application of ladle degassing is based on the introduction of sliding
gate no++les and reliable inert gas purging plugs. This process can be carried out in the
same tank as ladle-to-ladle or ladle-to-ingot mould degassing. The significant feature,
however, is the saving of one ladle. There are two types of < ?D units- the ;inkl-
Hohr and the ?SC?-S5;.
The essential practical difference between these two are
i% The ?SC?-S5; has two operating stations, i.e. the ladle is moved under one roof
for degassing and transferred beneath a second roof for heating ";ig. #.!a%
The ;inkl-Hohr requires only one ladle movement since the vessel roof provides both
vacuum seal and the arc heating, the electrodes being introduced through-vacuum-tight
mountings ";ig. #.!b%
ii% The ;inkl-Hohr ladle is stirred by bubbling argon through a porous plug in the base
of the ladleI
the ?SC?-S5; is induction stirred by means of coils located on the carriage
supporting the ladleI for this method to be effective, the ladle wall has to be made from
a non-magnetic material and a low frequency used so that the magnetic flu* can
$(!
penetrate through the ladle wall and cause effective stirring within the ladle without
heating the ladle wall itselfI the provision of non-magnetic ladles is e*pensive. Some
?SC?-S5; plants have additional gas bubbling facility.
T'e la"le
The most important attachment to the ladle is the induction stirrer with the help of
which homogeneity etc. can be achieved. The ladle operates on a slide gate system for
teeming and can also be fitted with a porous plug for argon stirring.
I$"uct(#$ St(rrer
;loatation of slag inclusions can most effectively be achieved with the use of an
induction stirrer. ?nother function of induction stirrer is very quick melting and
homogenisation of alloying elements. The liquid metal flow pattern in the ladle with a
cylindrical induction stirrer is shown in ;ig. #.8
La"le Car
This is an equipment used for placing the ladle with liquid steel. This has a tilting
mechanism and can be used for deslagging.
!eat($g E,u(-me$t
This unit is slightly similar to an arc furnace with a transformer etc. &hen the ladle is
kept in position for arc heating alloy additions can be done through a hopper. The
important details of heating equipment are shown in ;ig.#.8.
Vacuum Dega))($g Stat(#$
This is a unit basically meant for removing hydrogen from steel. The vacuum is
created by steam eGector sets of ( pressure stages with intermediate condensers. The
dry steam will be used at $' bars pressure. The water is cooled and reused in a closed
circuit without any environmental air or water pollution. Jnder vacuum, continuous
argon purging will be done to achieve quicker dehydrogenation.
Table- Specifications of ?SC? S5; Fadle ;urnace of !(- T /apacity
$(8
Fadle 88!'7")D% K 88@' mm lg.
Fadle /ar Clectro-Hechanically operated )n Lails.
Section System 9y Steam operated <acuum 0umps
Ha* <acuum Degree '.( Torr.
Transformer /apacity (7. H<?
0rimary <oltage 885<
Clectrode System $!M
Clectrode Fifting Stroke (-'' mm.
Late of Leheating 8-(' /:mino
Temp. Heasuring Sampling Hanual
?lloying ;eeding 0rovision
Clectro Hagnetic Stirring /ylindrical Type
0rocess capabilities of Fadle ;urnace
9ecause of the heating facility of liquid steel in the ladle, any of the following
metallurgical operations can be transferred from the arc furnace to the ladle furnace.
All#y($g.
Jnlimited quantities of ;erro-alloys can be added at a suitable time during the
treatment. &ith the aid of arc heating in combination with induction stirring quick
melting and chemical homogeneity can be achieved.
De#/("at(#$.
This can easily be carried out either in vacuum or with solid additions like Si, ?l, etc.
induction stirring and an unbroken layer of slag, lower the o*ygen content and remove
the deo*idation products rapidly without contact with atmospheric o*ygen.
$(-
De'y"r#ge$at(#$.
<ery rapid removal of hydrogen from the liquid steel can be made possible during
vacuum treatment combined with continuous argon purging.
De)ul-'ur()at(#$.
? suitable slag can be formed in the ladle for more effective desulphurisation.
A"0a$tage) #+ La"le Fur$ace.
&ith the facility of a ladle furnace, the liquid steel from electric arc furnace can be
trapped at a low temperature irrespective of the steel grade to be produced. ?ll the
metallurgical operations are then transferred to the ladle furnace. Due to this sequence
of operations, a number of benefits in productivity hence cost saving and most
important, e*cellent quality can be reali+ed.
1ual(ty Im-r#0eme$t.
Since most of the metallurgical operations are performed in closed chamber under
vacuum with better controls, production of high quality steels which adhere to e*act
specifications if possible.
8.2 VACUUM O%GEN DECAR3URI4ATION
VOD Treatme$t ($ t'e La"le
;or the production of low-carbon high-chromium steels, the vacuum ladle degassing
station is an ideal facility. ?n o*idi+ing variant of this process has been developed,
known as the vacuum o*ygen decarburi+ing 2<)D3 process.
:n this treatment, not only is the o*ygen already dissolved in the melt continual$y
supplemented through the addition of solid o*ygen carriers, but gaseous, pure o*ygen
is also blown onto the melt from above through a lance in order to achieve higher
decarburi+ation rates. The <)D process offers the advantages that the decarburi+ation
reaction is considerably stronger under low pressure conditions than other o*idi+ing
reactions. This thermodynamic law is of particular interest in the production of very
low carbon high-chromium steels.
? modem <)D facility for melt weights of $( to >' t comprises the following
$((
equipment. 2;ig. #.-c3
N 9asic lined with a freeboard of $.' to $.( m porous plug at the bottom for the
stirring inert gas supply, slide gate, and refractory lined ladle lid sealed tightly around
the ladle rim.
N <acuum vessel with ladle support, intemal$y lined, spillage through as a
precaution against melt breakouts, vacuum connection, vessel lid fitted with the
necessary accessories, and water-cooled splash guard.
N Top-blowing o*ygen lance
N 0robe system for temperature measurement and sampling during the process
N <acuum lock for the supply of additions
N <acuum pump set "steam Get eGectors, water ring pumps, or Loots pumps% with
a suction capacity adequate to maintain pressures substantially below l'' mbar during
o*ygen blowing to allow for both o*idi+ing and reducing vacuum treatments to be
carried out at pressure below $ mbar.
Ga) React(#$)
The gases nitrogen and hydrogen can be removed via the gas phase as their solubility
is pressure-dependent in accordance with the following equations
! !
1 1
H H
P K N P K H = =
where 56 equilibrium constant,
0
H!
6 hydrogen partial pressure, and
0
D!
6 nitrogen partial pressure.
T'e rem#0al #+ $(tr#ge$
Jnder vacuum has been the subGect of numerous investigations. :f there are no strong
nitride formers in the melt, the nitrogen content can be reduced to !' ppm without
difficulty. :n cases where nitride-forming elements are present in the melt, such as /r,
<a, ?$, and Ti, the activity of the nitrogen is appreciably lowered, with the result that
nitrogen removal under high vacuum is more difficult. :n order to be able to still obtain
alloys with low nitrogen contents, low-nitrogen raw materials must be used. Too high
a nitrogen content in the Di-based alloys can lead to microporosity resulting during
precision Oinvestment= casting. 0roduction results obtained during melting under
vacuum indicates that the nitrogen content is reduced to (' ppm from an average of
-''ppm at the beginning of the treatment. Helting takes place in the open induction
$(.
furnace which, in contrast to the electric is furnace produces substantially higher
nitrogen contents. There is still no clear proof that additional argon bubbling has a
reducing effect on the nitrogen contents of steel on the other hand, in the cast of Di-;e
alloys, the influence of argon bubbling as compared with conventional proactive is
clearly identifiable with nitrogen contents of up to ('1 lower being achieved.
!y"r#ge$ rem#0al
The theoretical equilibria and metallurgical results in this connection have been
thoroughly investigated. Hydrogen removal during the degassing treatment here
amounts to appro*imately #(1. ?rgon bubbling appears to have had no identifiable
effect. The inductive bath swirl is fully adequate in the case of this furnace operated at
mains frequency.
8.5 VACUUM REMELTING
The process itself is shown diagrammatically in ;ig. ( :n essence, it consists of the
remelting of an electrode, roughly cylindrical in form, which can be a forged and
machined bar, a cast and short blasted block, or a welded assembly "usually welded in
the vacuum arc furnace to avoid contamination and to give correct alignment% of the
composition required in the final ingot "with minor adGustments as will be discussed
latter%. This is remelted into a water-cooled copper crucible, again usually of
cylindrical form, but special shapes such as squares with rounded comers can be
accommodated. The operation is carried out in a vacuum environment, continuously
pumped, and pressures of the order of $'
-8
mm Hg can be e*pected during the melt.
The bum off rate from the electrode is relatively low, using a D/ arc around !. <
potential and a varying current of from -''' to !'''' ? . The current has to be
regulated according to ingot diameter, and the rate of production is, therefore, largely a
function of ingot si+e.
Table effect of ingot si+e on melting time
/rucible diameter, in ;ull ingot length, in ;ull ingot weight,
lb.
Typical values
Helting time, h
.
#
$!
$.
!'
!-
!.
('
-(
.(
#(
$$-
$$-
$$-
8#'
.!(
$>''
-.''
>-''
$8(''
$(.''
!
!P$7!
-
(P$7!
#P$7!
>P$7!
$'P$7!
Table /hemical composition of a $. diameter -''' lb ingot in carbon-chromium steel
$(@
0osition /omposition
/ Si Hn S 0 /r Di Ho /u D
!
)
!
Top /entre
Cdge
Hiddle /entre
Cdge
9ottom /entre
Cdge
'.#'
'.#!
'.#8
'.#8
'.#8
'.#8
'.8-
'.8-
'.8-
'.8-
'.8(
'.8-
'.8-
'.8$
'.!(
'.8'
'.8'
'.!.
'.''#
'.''#
'.''>
'.''>
'.''>
'.''>
'.'$@
'.'$.
'.'$-
'.'$-
'.'$-
'.'$8
$--8
$--@
$--.
$--#
$---
$.-#
'-$'
'-$$
'.$'
'.$'
'.$'
'.$$
'-'8
'.'8
'.'8
'.'8
'.'8
'.'8
'-'@
'.'@
'.'@
'.'@
'.'@
'.'@
'.''#
'.''@
'.''@
'.''#
'.''@
'.''@
'.''!
'.''!
'.''$(

/orrectly operated, the vacuum remelting process produces an ingot which is free
from any a*ial unsoundness, with no evidence of any of the normal <-or ?-segregates,
in which continual free+ing out of material from a small molten pool occurs over a
long period of time. This feature is common both to vacuum remelting and to
electroslag remelting and accounts in some part for the superior transverse properties
of materials. The uniformity of analysis throughout a vacuum remelted ingot is also
remarkable.
<acuum remelting also removes a significant proportion of the o*ygen present in the
electrode, largely by reaction of the o*idic constituents with the carbon in the steel
while passing through the arc plasma, the carbon mono*ide so produced being
removed by the vacuum pumps. :t is of interest to note that a certain amount is lost
also by agglometation and flotationI such inclusion matter is almost entirely devoid of
o*ides of the easily reducible elements. The main constituent appears to be calcium
aluminate "8/a), (?l
!
)
8
%, which has a high fusion point. The removal of inclusion
mater has to be considered in relation to the distribution of the remaining inclusions
rather than to their actual contribution to the o*ygen content of the steel. )*ygen
removal of from 8' to .(Q1 can occur on remeltingI the significant feature, however,
is the virtual removal of all large inclusions, so that normal assessment procedures are
no longer viable.
Hydrogen is virtually entirely removed is vacuum remelting. Jsually, figures of '.$-
'.8 cm
8
7$''g are to be e*pected. ?t these levels, hydrogen removal treatments
in the products are completely unnecessary the e*ceptional improvement in properties
in high-tensile vacuum-remelted steel is probably due to the e*tremely low inherent
hydrogen content.
Ditrogen is somewhat less completely removed this is dependent on the alloying
elements present, but suffice it to say that this removal can be a draw-back where the
element is normally used as an alloying element as for R-ferrite suppression in the
martensitic $$1 /r steels. Here a rehalance of composition is necessary for the
vacuum remelted product.
$(#
The only other steelmaking element which is removed in quantity is manganese such
losses are normally corrected by increasing the manganese content of the electrode.
<olati+ation losses of other elements are generally beneficial it is known that lead is
readily removed in vacuumI other elements, such as tin, arsenic, antimony and bismuth
are found in the condensate in the dust e*traction chamber in the vacuum systems and
it is considered that the characteristics of certain vacuum-remelted materials with
regard to improved creep ductility, absence of ductility troughs and improved
transition temperatures may be related to this.
Do alteration in sulphur and phosphourus contents is brought about by vacuum arc
remelting the necessary low content of these elements must be produced in the parent
electrode material.
The following claims can be substantiated for vacuum-remelted material as compared
with conventional air-melted steel
"i%. improved ductility at a given tensile level, or, alternatively, equivalent ductility
at a higher tensile level.
"ii%. less directionality of properties, implying much improved transverse properties.
"iii%. :mproved fatigue properties, particularly in the transverse direction.
"iv%. :mproved polishing characteristics.
"v%. :mproved machining characteristics "particularly in view of their normally
e*tremely low sulphur contents%.
"vi%. :mprovement in notch tensile properties.
"vii%. Ereater reproducibility of properties from on batch to another.
"viii%. /omplete freedom from hairline cracking tendencies.
"i*%. :mproved forgeability, permitting production of forging not practicable
otherwise.
$(>
C(rculat(#$ Dega))($g
:n the DH and LH processes ;ig. #.. "aSb% the steel is made to flow from the ladle
into a separate degassing chamber to be returned after e*posure to vacuum. The reduce
pressure in side the evacuated vessel is sufficient to raise the liquid steel into the vessel
by the equivalent ferrostatic head of about $.8( m " - * $7! ft. %.
:n the DH process metal circulation is achieved by moving the vessel of ladle through
a stroke of about '..m "! ft.%. this result in about $'-$(1 of the steel in the ladle
flowing into the degassing vessel to a depth of about '.8m "$!in% and then returning to
the ladle. Dormally 8'-(' cycles are necessary, the full treatment of the heat taking $'-
!' min, during which time 8-( times the ladle weight of the steel will have been
treated in the degassing vessel. The bottom part of the vessel is designed so as to give
a shallow bath of metal with a large surface area to aid the degassing reaction and also
to ensure that drainage of metal is effective at the end of treatment. Sufficient space is
provided in the top part to allow for the effervescence of liquid steel droplets which
can fill the vessel. The diameter of the vessel is reduced at the top to keep the length of
the resistance heating element as short as possible. ? number of large capacity hoppers
and trimming bins are fitted to the vessel so that different weights of a number of
alloys can be added, giving close control of final chemistry.
The turbulence resulting from the pumping action is apparent even after the degassing
action is complete, and alloys can therefore be added at a later stage with through
mi*ing. :t has been shown that 8 cycles are sufficient to mi* completely - a typical
alloy addition, but --. cycles are normally used.
The velocity of the liquid steel through the vessel is quoted at around ! m7s ". ft7s%,
and it might be thought that this would produce refractory wear problems, greater than
those in the LH process where the velocity of the circulating steel is only about $ m7s.
However, it has been shown that the main mechanism of wear is slag attack, which has
now been largely overcome by the following
"i% The use of suitable basic refractories
"ii%. Hinimi+ing the entry of the slag from the ladle into the degassing unit by means
of a slag breaker over the end of the no++le.
"iii%. ?dGusting the slag composition in the ladle and some times even in the vessel
itself by the addition of synthetic slags.
$.'
$.$
<acuum Tank
/asting Fadle
#.$ Fadle degassing
"a%. Fadle to Fadle Stream degassing
Tapping ladle
<acuum tank
:ngot mould
"b%. Stream degassing Fadle to mould
;ig.#.!"a%. ?SC? A S5; process with arc heating and induction
The normal <?D ladle construction as practiced by ;inkl was as follows
9acking .8 mm firebrick reinforced with !( mm for two !8' mm courses at the
bottom
&alls seven !8' mm courses ($1 ?l
!
)
8
Slag line two !8' mm courses #'1 ?l
!
)
8
?bove slag line two or three !8' mm courses ($1 ?l
!
)
8
9ottom $'! mm fire brick
$.!
;ig.#.! "b%. ;inkl <?D unit
- kg LC; mat7T
(' Heats7Fadle
'.( kg electrodes7T
$8' F7min H
!
)7H
Fife of Clectrode roof 6
!(' heats
(' 5&H7T
(-' H
8
7H H
!
) for cooling of vacuum pumps
> Tones7H steam for vacuum pumps
;ig.#.8 Typical consumption figures of ?SC?-S5; ladle furnace
$.8
;ig. #.-a Lelation among chrominum, carbon, and temperature in o*ygen-saturated bath.
$.-
;ig.#.-b Cffect of pressure on the relation between temperature and chromium retention at '.'(1 / in
an o*ygen-saturated bath.
Heat shield
<acuum chamber
Leaction vessel
:nert gas supply
0orous plug
;ig#..-c <acuum decarburi+ing vessel
!(

$.(
?rgon-o*ygen decarburi+ing vessel
;ig.#.( Typical vacuum arc remelting furnace
$..
?lloy feeding
hoppers
<acuum pipe

Heating element

<acuum chamber
Fadle
;ig. #..a DH degassing
Fifting gas
?lloys
<acuum pipe
Heating element
<acuum chamber
;ig. #..b LH degassing
$.@