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INTRODUCTION
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that for an inviscid
flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously
with a decrease inpressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential
energy. The principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli who
published it in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738.
Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of fluid flow,
resulting in what is loosely denoted as Bernoulli's equation. In
fact, there are different forms of the Bernoulli equation for
different types of flow. The simple form of Bernoulli's principle is
valid for incompressible flows (e.g. most liquid flows) and also
for compressible flows (e.g. gases) moving at low Mach
numbers (usually less than 0.3). More advanced forms may in
some cases be applied to compressible flows at higher Mach
numbers.
Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle
of conservation of energy. This states that, in a steady flow, the
sum of all forms of mechanical energy in a fluid along
a streamline is the same at all points on that streamline. This
requires that the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy
remain constant. Thus an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs
proportionately with an increase in both its dynamic
pressure and kinetic energy, and a decrease in its static
pressure and potential energy. If the fluid is flowing out of a
reservoir, the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all
streamlines because in a reservoir the energy per unit volume
(the sum of pressure and gravitational potential g h) is the
same everywhere.
Bernoulli's principle can also be derived directly from Newton's
2nd law. If a small volume of fluid is flowing horizontally from a
region of high pressure to a region of low pressure, then there is
more pressure behind than in front. This gives a net force on the
volume, accelerating it along the streamline.
Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their own weight.
If a fluid is flowing horizontally and along a section of a
streamline, where the speed increases it can only be because the
fluid on that section has moved from a region of higher pressure
to a region of lower pressure; and if its speed decreases, it can
only be because it has moved from a region of lower pressure to
a region of higher pressure. Consequently, within a fluid flowing
horizontally, the highest speed occurs where the pressure is
lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the pressure is
highest.

BERNOULLIS EQUATION
The Bernoulli Equation can be considered to be a statement of the
conservation of energy principle appropriate for flowing fluids.
The qualitative behavior that is usually labeled with the term
"Bernoulli effect" is the lowering of fluid pressure in regions
where the flow velocity is increased. This lowering of pressure in
a constriction of a flow path may seem counterintuitive, but
seems less so when you consider pressure to be energy density.
In the high velocity flow through the constriction, kinetic energy
must increase at the expense of pressure energy.



BERNOULLIS CALCULATION
The calculation of the "real world" pressure in a constriction of a
tube is difficult to do because of viscous losses, turbulence, and
the assumptions which must be made about the velocity profile
(which affect the calculated kinetic energy). The model
calculation here assumes laminar flow (no turbulence), assumes
that the distance from the larger diameter to the smaller is short
enough that viscous losses can be neglected, and assumes that
the velocity profile follows that of theoretical laminar flow.
Specifically, this involves assuming that the effective flow velocity
is one half of the maximum velocity, and that the average kinetic
energy density is given by one third of the maximum kinetic
energy density.

This is an important principle involving the movement of a fluid
through a pressure difference. Suppose a fluid is moving in a
horizontal direction and encounters a pressure difference. This
pressure difference will result in a net force, which by Newton's
2nd law will cause an acceleration of the fluid. The fundamental
relation,
work done = change in kinetic energy
in this situation can be written as
- (change in pressure) x area x distance = change in kinetic
energy,
which furthermore can be expressed as
change in pressure + change in ( kinetic energy / volume ) = 0.
In other words,
Pressure + ( kinetic energy / volume ) = constant
which is known as Bernoulli's principle. This is very similar to the
statement we encountered before for a freely falling object,
where the gravitational potential energy plus the kinetic energy
was constant (i. e., was conserved).
Bernoulli's principle thus says that a rise (fall) in pressure in a
flowing fluid must always be accompanied by a decrease
(increase) in the speed, and conversely, if an increase (decrease)
in , the speed of the fluid results in a decrease (increase) in the
pressure. This is at the heart of a number of everyday
phenomena. As a very trivial example, Bernouilli's principle is
responsible for the fact that a shower curtain gets ``sucked
inwards'' when the water is first turned on. What happens is that
the increased water/air velocity inside the curtain (relative to the
still air on the other side) causes a pressure drop. The pressure
difference between the outside and inside causes a net force on
the shower curtain which sucks it inward. A more useful example
is provided by the functioning of a perfume bottle: squeezing the
bulb over the fluid creates a low pressure area due to the higher
speed of the air, which subsequently draws the fluid up. This is
illustrated in the following figure.

Bernouilli's principle also tells us why windows tend to explode,
rather than implode in hurricanes: the very high speed of the air
just outside the window causes the pressure just outside to be
much less than the pressure inside, where the air is still. The
difference in force pushes the windows outward, and hence
explode. If you know that a hurricane is coming it is therefore
better to open as many windows as possible, to equalize the
pressure inside and out.
Another example of Bernoulli's principle at work is in the lift of
aircraft wings and the motion of ``curve balls'' in baseball. In
both cases the design is such as to create a speed differential of
the flowing air past the object on the top and the bottom - for
aircraft wings this comes from the movement of the flaps, and for
the baseball it is the presence of ridges. Such a speed differential
leads to a pressure difference between the top and bottom of the
object, resulting in a net force being exerted, either upwards or
downwards. This is illustrated in the following figure.

CURVE OF A BASKETBALL
A non-spinning baseball or a stationary baseball in an airstream
exhibits symmetric flow. A baseball which is thrown with spin will
curve because one side of the ball will experience a reduced
pressure. This is commonly interpreted as an application of the
Bernoulli principle and involves the viscosity of the air and the
boundary layer of air at the surface of the ball.

There are some difficulties with this picture of the curving
baseball. The Bernoulli equation cannot really be used to predict
the amount of curve of the ball; the flow of the air is
compressible, and you can't track the density changes to quantify
the change in effective pressure. The experimental work of Watts
and Ferrer with baseballs in a wind tunnel suggests another
model which gives prominent attention to the spinning boundary
layer of air around the baseball. On the side of the ball where the
boundary layer is moving in the same direction as the free stream
air speed, the boundary layer carries further around the ball
before it separates into turbulent flow. On the side where the
boundary layer is opposed by the free stream flow, it tends to
separate prematurely. This gives a net deflection of the airstream
in one direction behind the ball, and therefore a Newton's 3rd law
reaction force on the ball in the opposite direction. This gives an
effective force in the same direction indicated above.
Similar issues arise in the treatment of a spinning cylinder in an
airstream, which has been shown to experience lift. This is the
subject of the Kutta-Joukowski theorem. It is also invoked in the
discussion of airfoil lift.



AIRFOIL
The air across the top of a conventional airfoil experiences
constricted flow lines and increased air speed relative to the wing.
This causes a decrease in pressure on the top according to the
Bernoulli equation and provides a lift force. Aerodynamicists (see
Eastlake) use the Bernoulli model to correlate with pressure
measurements made in wind tunnels, and assert that when
pressure measurements are made at multiple locations around
the airfoil and summed, they do agree reasonably with the
observed lift.

Others appeal to a model based on Newton's laws and assert that
the main lift comes as a result of the angle of attack. Part of the
Newton's law model of part of the lift force involves attachment of
the boundary layer of air on the top of the wing with a resulting
downwash of air behind the wing. If the wing gives the air a
downward force, then by Newton's third law, the wing
experiences a force in the opposite direction - a lift. While the
"Bernoulli vs Newton" debate continues, Eastlake's position is that
they are really equivalent, just different approaches to the same
physical phenonenon. NASA has a nice aerodynamics site at
which these issues are discussed.
Increasing the angle of attack gives a larger lift from the upward
component of pressure on the bottom of the wing. The lift force
can be considered to be a Newton's 3rd law reaction force to the
force exerted downward on the air by the wing.
At too high an angle of attack, turbulent flow increases the drag
dramatically and will stall the aircraft.