Education is not the filling of a bucket, but the lighting of a fire - Socrates

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LI TERATURE REVI EW
Developing Effective, Holistic Questioning Skills
Michaela Whelan
BETHLEHEM TERTIARY INSTITUTE


Education is not the filling of a bucket, but the lighting of a fire - Socrates
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CONTENTS:


INTRODUCTION...... p2

PURPOSE OF QUESTIONING... p2
Stimulating higher level thinking.... p2
The art of Answering... p3

TYPES OF QUESTIONS.. p3

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE QUESTIONING. p4

PURPOSE OF QUESTIONING.. p3
The importance of Planning p4
Modelling and Scaffolding p5
Teacher vs Student Initiated.. p5
The importance of Wait time. p5

LEARNING THE ART OF EFFECTIVE QUESTIONING p5

CONCLUSION..... p6

REFERENCE p7











Education is not the filling of a bucket, but the lighting of a fire - Socrates
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DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE, HOLISTIC
QUESTIONING SKILLS
The quote dont just teach your children to read, teach them to question what they read teach
them to question everything (Carlin, 2012) comes to mind when thinking about how educators
have the role of not only using effective questioning but modelling and showing children to use
effective questioning.

A range of literature was reviewed spanning from 1991 to 2013, as well as including reference
to Benjamin Blooms Taxonomy (1956). This gave a good insight into not only how questioning
has progressed and is becoming a focus point for educators, but it also gives insight into
different techniques that we can question effectively.
Geographically half of the literature was written in the USA, though other literature was created
in United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia and Canada. The vast majority of research
conducted in the literature was from class room observations, where educators were observed
before being informed in how to improve their questioning and then once again observed to see
if and how they had improved.

This literature review considers the purpose of questioning, Types of questioning,
Characteristics of effective question as well as how to develop the skill that is effective
questioning. The author will do this through examining, analysing, comparing and contrasting a
varied range of literature and research conducted around the world, as well as approaching it
from a Christian holistic perspective in order to understand how the art of effective
questioning is achieved.


PURPOSE OF QUESTIONING:
-Stimulate higher level thinking
What is a question? Is it a simple request for information or can it be a trigger for higher level
inquiry? Chin (2004), Bell (2003), Mauigoa-Tekene (2006) and Mc Tighe & Wiggins (2013)
think that the purpose of questioning is to stimulate higher level thinking, that is essentially an
invitation for students to think in a creative way. Mauigoa-Tekene (2006) believes that well
worded specific questions can direct students towards what needs to be learnt. Lustick (2010)
also agrees that questioning can direct children to the content or skill that needs to be learnt by
allowing students to think on their own, and further being able to communicate their thinking.
Lustick (2010) believes that a question can be the starting catch of a lesson. He believes that
focus questions that are linked into what you want to learn and how you assess your class not
only direct students thinking but having a focus question can arouse interest and curiosity.

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Focus questions can also help keep students on task, as the teacher can redirect students back to
the question.
When children are able to guide their own learning off a well-structured question they can then
individually meet those learning intentions that were set out for them on their own. Bloom
(1956), believes that asking an open question is the invitation for a cognitive process to take
place; this essentially stimulates thought and provokes inquiry. When inquiry takes place
children start to own their learning, making more connections and identifying with their work
on a personal level.
The art of Answering:
Effective clear questioning aids students to process and communicate their thoughts in a way
that others will understand. Bell (2003) and Cakmak (2009) consider that through processing
the question and engaging in their individual thought process, children are then able to answer
the question or contribute to the discussion. Questions that are set out by teachers and students
should be full and well-structured sentences. Through this answers also are developed. Having
wait time means that children are able to process and develop answers, therefore they are able
to communicate their thinking so that others will understand.




TYPES OF QUESTIONING:
Across the literature reviewed there is a wide use of the terminology open and closed
questions. Wilen (1991), Chin (2004), Teodoro (2011), Harrop and Swinson (2003) and Cakmak
(2009) consider that open questions are questions that allow discussion and investigation in to
the answer that may not be definite. Whereas closed questions have a more restricted range of
answers and may just be the recalling of previous knowledge learnt.
Divergent and convergent are quite similar to the open and closed question terminology,
where Divergent is open with more than one answer, this helps promote higher order
thinking whereas convergent is more direct with a definite answer. Wilen (1991) knows
that there is a time and place for both forms of questioning in the class room, but
considers that for maximum inquiry and thinking, teachers need to ask divergent
questions more often. These questions generally have no direct right or wrong answer,
whereas convergent is a lot like a closed question where there is usually only one answer
for the question and normally teachers ask these questions in order to establish what
children remember or know.
Bloom (1956) believes that questioning has three domains. Cognitive where it is thought that
knowledge is the basic level, then learners progress cognitively to the levels of comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis, and to evaluation. The affective domain is focused on the
learners interest, attitudes, and values, and consists of five classes: Receiving, Responding,
Valuing, Organization, and Characterization. The final domain is the Psychomotor, this domain
focuses on motor skills and the action of information gathered. Blooms approach could be
considered to be Hollingers (2005) head, heart, hands approach where all three aspects are
identified as much up an individual and therefore all three needs to be addressed in a learning
environment. Another way to consider this is holistic learning. Mauigoa-Tekene (2006) also

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recognises the importance of these sorts of interaction, and refers to it as satisfying the whole
being.

Though these seem to be basic terminology that is widely referred to and known not only in the
teaching sector, Lustick (2010) along with authors such as Wiggins and McTighe (2013) has a
select theory that includes the lesson plan. He seems to have the idea of teaching or planning
with the end in mind. Through this idea he has thought about standards and assessments that
need to be met, and the individual lessons that need to be undertaken in order to get there. He
suggests that focus questions can be a way of introducing and gaining student interest. He
understands the process of learning and allows thought for prior knowledge as well as where
the learning needs to be directed. Having a question to direct and in some discussions re-direct
students allows for a sense of structured freedom. McTighe and Wiggins (2013) have a similar
understanding of what an effective question is. Instead of focus questions though they are called
essential questions, these questions are considered to hook and guide learning.

Harrop and Swinson (2003) as well as Chin (2004), have more direct types of questioning.
Examples such as problem solving, task orientated and management orientated, these are
directed as a particular part of class room discussion. Management orientated is interesting as it
is directing questions at children or asking them what they think about a particular topic to
regain their attention. Though these questions maybe open or divergent they are formulated to
direct behaviour.



CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE QUESTIONING:
The importance of Planning:
It was widely noted through the literature that effective questioning is planned Wilen (1991),
Bell (2003), Teodoro (2011), Cakmak (2009), Lustick (2010). Not only are effective
questions open and high order, but they are directed with the end in mind. This means that the
questions are planned with the Learning Intentions and outcomes in mind, which
retrospectively meet any assessment requirements. To effectively plan discussion in a class
setting the educator must have a fair idea of what they want to talk about as well as what they
want the students to achieve. It helps if the questions relate to students interests as well as
being exciting and authentic. In doing so, students tend to be more engaged with their own
learning. (Cakmak, 2009). Bell (2003) and McTighe and Wiggins, (2013) agree that effective
questions are stated in full sentences that are well worded and are not just expecting students
to retell, these questions provoke high order thinking and lead children into asking their own
questions effectivly. The expectation on students is to answer in full as the educator previously
modelled.
Modelling and Scaffolding:
Not only is language learnt through everyday activities, but teachers are constantly modelling to
the students, not only in the asking of effective questions but also correctly answering
questions. Both Bell, (2003) and Mauigoa-Tekene, (2006) recognise that modelling goes beyond

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behaviour and flows into the way we talk and communicate with others. Weather it is verbally
or visually modelled it has been proven as beneficial to students in learning how to ask and
answer effective questions. Teodoro (2001), suggests that the use of visual representation of
what effective questioning is compared to an ineffective question can help children who are
visual thinkers. She also suggests that using physical resources such as simple stick it notes
that are colour coded for comments and questions during discussion engages more students
and varies the learning style.
Effective questioning is not simply a means of having a quality once off discussion. Lustick
(2010) and McTighe and Wiggins (2013), both understand that revisiting previous discussions
and content previously learnt, to be constructive to retaining prior knowledge. One well-
structured question can be the focus and aim over a few lessons, lessons therefore become less
one-off, more connected and the time between revisiting gives children time to process and
attain new knowledge around the topic of discussion.

Teacher vs Student Initiated:
Once children have observed teachers effectively asking and answering questions, they are then
more able to initiate questions themselves. Wilen (1991) emphasises the need to allow time for
students to question. Opportunities should be present for them to both ask the teacher and their
classmates questions. Subtly through the literature it has been pointed out that through
allowing children to ask questions, it allows them to form a sense of ownership for their own
learning, which is an essential component of group discussion and all class work.
A very unique idea that was seen in only one of the articles was Wilens idea around student
attitude. He states that the more discussion had in the class setting, and the more opportunities
given affected the childrens attitudes to the topic discussed. In saying this Wilen noticed that
children did not prefer high order or open questions before experiencing intentionally planned
discussions, though after when they had more understanding and confidence on how to
interoperate and answer them that they enjoyed the inquiry process (Wilen, 1991).
The importance of Wait time:
Across the literature wait time has been noted as a key characteristic of effective questioning.
Wilen (1991), Chin (2004), Bell (2003),Harrop and Swinson (2003) and Mauigoa-Tekene
(2006) all recognise the importance of pacing discussion. The average recommended wait time
across the text was three to five seconds. This allows time for students to think and maybe
discuss with peers. Having enough time set aside for full answers and discussion after a
question is asked allows for more than one student to get engaged and for children to process
and contribute to the conversation.

LEARNING THE ART OF EFFECTIVE QUESTIONING
The New Zealand Curriculum document and Te-Whriki both have a strong connection and link
to social development. Part of this suggests that social situations can be used in learning, and
through interaction with others children can develop a higher cognitive processing skill. Many
cultures do not commonly practice or see the importance in questioning. In fact in Pacifica
cultures it is noted that to question a higher ranked person is disrespectful. According to
Mauigoa-Tekene (2006), in Mori or Pacific majority classrooms it was common for teachers to

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ask very closed questions as well as have a low wait time. This leads to children answering in
unison. Therefore there was not much critical thinking or inquiry taking place. To develop these
skills, Mauigoa-Tekene (2006) suggested that teachers should be observed in their teaching
environment, with the main aim being their use of questioning. Once this is done they discussed
findings, were question divergent or convergent, did they allow wait time? For most of the
teachers it was a new way of thinking as they had not been raised that way. For teachers who
were raised as to not question whether at home or school means that effective questioning has
to become more intentional and thought out, whereas educators who were raised in a setting
where questioning and inquiry was second nature effective questioning is more instinctual.
Through planning and being more intentional, effective question does become more second
nature (Mauigoa-Tekene, 2006).
Blooms Taxonomy (1956), looks at questioning and discussion in a way of development. The
teachers challenge is to encourage students to master their current level and to move on to the
next. This suggests that children will not instantly be able to answer questions in full and ask
well-structured divergent questioning without first been well scaffolded and have such
modelled.
There are ways to achieve more effective questioning in your class. Some of these include:
planning focus questions, or discussion points that dont have recall, or a definite answer
provides opportunities for children to think through questions. Having a longer wait time of
three to five seconds allows children to analyse and formulate an answer, as Many teachers
have the tendency to answer their own question, rephrase the question or ask a completely new
question, this essentially just blocks students thinking (Wilen, 1991).

CONCLUSION:
The literature reviewed ultimately reveals that effective questioning is the ability to ask thought
provoking questions that sets the path for inquiry. Not only is questioning modelled by the
teacher, but is explained and built upon. Answers are in full like the questions and students have
time to think and ponder before answering.
Effective questioning is important not only to stimulate higher levels of inquiry, but to scaffold
children into being able to use effective questions themselves. In the 21
st
Century we have too
many people that dont question, dont dare think outside what society tells them to think and
be consumed by. As educators, individuals need to be seen as important, children need to not
only be given the opportunity to think outside the box, but also discuss findings and investigate
deeper. This form of holistic learning not only encompasses their cognitive development (head),
it also goes deeper holistic learning embraces their hearts at a more emotional and personal
level and then further goes forth into action (Blooms, 1956).







Education is not the filling of a bucket, but the lighting of a fire - Socrates
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REFERENCI NG PAGE:
Bell
BLOOMS????????????

Cakmak, M. (2009). Pre-service teachers' thoughts about teachers' questions in effective teaching
process. Elementary Education Online, 8(3), 666-675.

Chin, C. (2004). Questions students in ways that encourage thinking. Teaching Science, 50(4), 16-
21.

Harrop, A., & Swinson, J. (2003). Teachers' questions in the infant, junior and secondary school.
Educational Studies, 29(1), 49-57.

Hollinger, D.P. (2005). Head, Heart, Hands; Bringing together Christian thought, passion and action.
IL, USA: InterVarsity Press.

Lustik, D. (2010). The priority of the question: Focus questions for sustained reasoning in science.
Journal of Science Teacher Education, (21), 495-511. [Interesting for a scan as includes
literature review on questioning within it.

Mauigoa-Tekene, L. (2006). Enhancing Teachers Questioning Skills to Improve Childrens
Learning and Thinking in Pacific Island Early Childhood Centres. New Zealand Journal
of Teachers Work, Volume 3, Issue 1, 12-23.

McTighe, J, & Wiggins, G. (2013). Essential Questions, Chapter 1. Retrieved from:
http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/109004/chapters/What-Makes-a-Question
Essential%C2%A2.aspx

Teodoro, S. D., Donders, S., Kemp-Davidson, J., Robertson, P., & Schuyler, L. (2011). Asking good
questions: Promoting greater understanding of mathematics through purposeful teacher
and student questioning. Canadian Journal of Action Research, 12(2), 18-29.

Wilen, W. (1991), Questioning skills for teachers, what research says to the teacher. Washington,
D.C, EDRS.

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IMPLICATION FOR PRAC 5:

GOALS/POINTS FOR OBSERVATION:
1. Wait time 3-5 seconds
2. Plan different types of questions (appropriate open and closed)
3. Continuum of lesson themes/discussions throughout many lessons- not just once off

BEING OBSERVED BY ANOTHER TEACHER WITH AIMS AND GOALS IN MIND.
1. First and foremost observing my associate teacher, and evaluating how he/she
questions.
2. Discuss what he/she is doing and explain what our understanding the role of open
questions are
3. Ask how they set up their lessons- in terms of planning
4. Plan a lesson and discuss with A.T before teaching
5. Get a.t to observe and give feedback on my questioning skills.
6. Continue to be observed throughout practicum, see if there are any improvements.