Lefevere - Translation, Rewriting and Manipulation

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TRANSLATION, REWRITING AND
THE MANIPULATION OF
LITERARY FAME

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Contents
General editors' preface yji
1 Prewrite 1
2 The system : patronage 1 \
3 The system : poetics 26
4 Translation : the categories 41
Lifelines, noses, Legs, handles: the Lysistrata of
Aristophanes
5 Translation: ideology 59
On the construction of different Anne Franks
6 Translation poetics 73
The case of the missing qasidah
7 Translation : Universe of Discourse 87
"Holy Garbage, tho by Homer cook t"
8 Translation language 99
Catullus' many sparrouus
9 Historiography m
From bestseller to non-person : Willem Godschalk
van Focquenbroch
10 Anthology 124
Anthologizing Africa
11 Criticism 138
Beyond her gender : Madame de Stal
Editing
Salvation through mutilation: Bchner's Danton's
Death
References
Index
General editors' preface
The growth of Translation Studies as a separate discipline is a success
story of the 1980s. The subject has developed in many parts of the world
and is clearly destined to continue developng well into the 21st century.
Translation studies brings together work in a wide variety of fields,
including linguistics, literary study, history, anthropology, psychology
and economics. This series of books will reflect the breadth of work in
Translation Studies and will enable readers to share in the exciting new
developments that are taking place at the present time.
Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings,
whatever their intention
r
reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as
such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way.
Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its
positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society
Rewritings can introduce new concepts, new genres, new devices and the
hiRtnrv nf translation is the history also of literary innovation
t
of the
shaping power of one culture upon another- But rewriting can also repress
innovation, distort and contain, and in an age of ever increasing
manipulation ol all kinds, the study ot the manipulation processes of
literature as exemplified by translation can help us towards a greater
awareness ol the world in which we live.
Since this series of books on Translation Studies is the first of its kind,
it will be concerned with its own genealogy. It will publish texts from the
past that illustrate its concerns in the present, and will publish texts o a
more theoretical nature immediately addressing those concerns, along with
case studies illustrating manipulation through rewriting in varous
literatures. It wili be comparative in nature and will range through many
literary traditions both Western and non-Western- Through the concepts
of rewriting and manipulation, this series aims to tackle the problem of
Vil! General editors, preface
ideology, change and power In literature and society and so assert the
central function of translation as a shaping force.
Susan Bass nett
Andr Lefevere
1990
Chapter 1
Prewrite
It is an amusement for me to take what Liberties I like with these
Persians, who (as I thi nk) are not Poets enough to frighten one
from such excursions, and who really do want a little Art to
shape them.
(Edward Fitzgerald xvi)
This book deals with those in the middle, the men and women
who do not write literature, but rewrite it. It does so because
they are, at present, responsible for the general reception and
survival of works of literature among non-professional readers,
who constitute the great majority of readers in our global culture,
to at least the same, if not a greater extent than the writers them-
selves.
What is usually referred to as "the intrinsic value" of a work of
literature plays much less of a part in this than is usually assumed.
As is well known, the poetry of John Donne remained relatively
unknown and unread from a few decades after his death until his
rediscovery by T. S, Eliot and other modernists. Yet it is safe to
assume that the "intrinsic value" of his poems must have been the
same all along.
Similarly, many "forgotten" feminist classics originally published
in the twenties thirties, and forties of our century have been
republished in the late seventies and eighties. The actual content of
the novels was, presumably, no less feminist then than it is now,
since we are dealing with exactly the same texts. The reason why
the republished feminist classics are not forgotten all over again lies
not in the intrinsic value of the texts themselves, or even the
C possible ) lack thereof, but in the fact that they are now
being published against the background of an impressive array of
2 Translation > Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame
feminist criticism, which advertises, incorporates, and supports
them.
Whoever identifies the goal of literary studies as such with the
interpretation of texts will either have 110 explanation for these
phenomena or else have somewhat embarrassed recourse to
vague notions such as fate. It is my contention that the process
resulting in the acceptance or rejection, canonization or non-
canonisation of literary works is dominated not by vague but by
very concrete factors that are relatively easy to discern as soon as
one decides to look for them, that is as soon as one eschews
interpretation as the core literary studies and begins to address
issues such as power, ideology
t
institution, and manipulation. As
soon as one does this one also realizes that rewriting in all its forms
occupies a dominant position among the concrete factors just
referred to. This book is an attempt to emphasize both the
importance of rewriting as the motor force behind literary
evolution, and the necessity for further in-depth study of the
phenomenon.
Re writ er s have always been with us, from the Greek slave who
put together anthologies of the Greek classics to teach the children
of his Roman masters to the Renaissance scholar who collated
various manuscripts and scraps of manuscripts to publish a more or
less reliable edition of a Greek or Roman classic; from the
seventeenth-century compilers of the first histories of Greek and
Latin literature not to be written in either Greek or Lati n, to the
nineteenth-century critic expounding the sweetness and the light
contained in works of classical or modern literature to an
increasingly uninterested audience; from the twentieth-century
translator trying to bring the original across" cultures, as so many
genterations of translators tried before, to the twentieth-century
compiler of Reader's Guides" that provide quick reference to the
authors and books that should have been read as part of the
education of the non-professional reader, but go increasingly
unread.
Their rale has changed, though, and for two main reasons: the
end of a period in at least Western civilization in which the book
occupied a central position in both the teaching of writing and
the transmission of values, and the split between " hi gh and
"l ow" literature that began to take place toward roughly the
middle of the nineteenth century, and led to a concomitant split
Prewrite 3
between hi gh and l ow writing about literature
t
" hi gh" and
l ow" rewriting-
In his 1986 Presidential Address to the members of the Modern
Language Association of America
t
J. Hi l l i s Milier observed that
"our common culturehowever much we mi ght wish it were not
so
$
is less and less a book culture and more and more a culture of
cinema, television, and popular musi c 285a ) . Professional
readers of literature ( 1 use the term to designate both teachers
and students of literature ) recognize the development that is
taking place, and they may privately react to this state of affairs
wi th indignation, cynicism, or resignation, but the great majority
among them continues to conduct business as usual, not least
because the position they occupy wi thi n the institutions shelter-
ing them leaves them very little choice indeed : degrees must be
awarded, appointments made, tenure given, and promotions
granted.
The fact that hi gh" literature is increasingly read only in an
educational setting (both secondary and higher education), but does
no longer constitute the preferred reading matter of the non-
professional reader, has also increasingly limited the influence of
the professional reader to educational institutions. No present-day
critic can still claim the stature in society at large that was once
enjoyed as a matter of course by, say, Matthew Arnol d. Maybe the
most obvious illustration of the contemporary isolation of both high
literature and the study thereof has been provided by the vastly
different impact of deconstruction on professional and non-
professional readers. Whereas professional readers appear more or
less convinced that deconstruction hasindeed, knocked away the
very foundations of Western metaphysics, noil-professional readers
cannot be Said to hav pid overmuch attention to this momentous
fact, certainly not nearly as much as they can be said to have paid to
such mundane issues as health insurance and the stability of
financial institutions.
If educational institutions increasingly function as a reserva-
ti on" where high literature, its readers, and its practitioners are
allowed to roam in relative, though not necessarily relevant
freedom, they also further contribute to the isolation of the
professional reader. Professional readers need to publish in order
to advance up the professional ladder, and the pressures of
publication relentlessly lead to the progressive trivialization of
topics" that has indeed made the annual meetings of the Modern
Language Association of America a l aughi ng stock in the
national pr ess Wal ter Jackson Bate quoted in Johnson I ).
Needless to say, this progressive trivialization also serves to
undermine further the professional reader's prestige outside the
charmed circle drawn around hi m, or herby educational institu-
tions.
Yet wi thi n those institutions business does go on as usual, and it
woul d appear that the majority of professional readers of literature
has not yet grasped the paradoxical change that has taken place.
Most professional readers of literature woul d not normal l y "stoop"
to produce rewriting of the king whose evolution through the
centuries has been briefly charted above. They would see their
real " work as what noil-professional readers woul d sorely be
tempted to categorize under the heading of progressive
trivialization That work, it is safe to state, hardly ever reaches
the non-professional reader. Paradoxically, the only work produced
wi thi n the charmed circle that still reaches that reader is precisely
the type of rewriting most professional readers would tend to treat
wi th a certain disdain. Yet the translation, editing, and
anthologizatoin of texts, the compilation of literary histories and
reference works, and the production of the kind of criticism that
still reaches out beyond the charmed circle, mostl y in the guise of
biographies and book reviews, no longer function as typically low-
level activities wi thi n the wider framework of the interaction
between professional and non-professional readers between
institutions of education and society at large. These types of
rewriting used to be considered activities of a more anci l l ary
ki nd. Yet by no means did they always play that role witness the
enormous impact of some translations, such as Luther' s Bible
translation, on both the literature and society of their time and
beyond. Today, however, they have become the lifeline that more
and more tenuously links hi gh" literature to the non-professional
reader.
rhe non-professional reader increasingly does not read literature
as written by its writers, but as rewritten by its rewriters. It has
always been that way, but it has never appeared as obvious as it
does today. In the past, too, many more people read the
Authorized Version than read the Bible in its various original
languages. Very few people had access to the actual manuscripts of
the classics, and most readers were content, or had to be content
wi th reading them in an edition. In fact, their trust was so great
Prewrite 5
that they could occasionally be misled by convincing editions of non-
existing manuscripts, as in the case of McPherson' s Ossiam Byron
and his generation did not read Goethe' s Faust in German, but in
the abbreviated French version contained in Madame de Stal,s
best-selling De VAllemagne ( O n Germany ) Pushki n read the
Byron he admired so much in French, not in Engl i sh, and certainly
not in Russi an, a language he woul d speak only to his servants.
Ezra Pound invented Chinese poetry for the West by means
of an anthology of ** translated Tang-dynasty poets, and Samuel
Johnson obviously influenced the subsequent reception of the
poets he included (and failed to include) in his Lives of the English
Poets.
In the past
T
as in the present, rewriters created images of a
writer a work, a period a genre, sometimes even a whole
literature. These images existed side by side wi th the realities they
competed wi t h, but the images always tended to reach more
people than the corresponding realities did and they most
certainly do so now. Yet the creation of these images and the
impact they made have not often been studied in the past, and are
still not the object of detailed study. Thi s is all the more strange
since the power wielded by these i magesand therefore by their
makers is enormous. It becomes much less strange t hough, if we
take a moment to reflect that rewritings are produced in the
service, or under the constraints, of certain ideological and/or
poetological currents, and that such currents do not deem it to their
advantage to draw attention to themselves as merely "one current
among others. Rather it is much more to their advantage to
identify themselves quite simply wi th something less partisan, more
prestigious, and altogether irreversible like "the course of history.
The non-professional reader of German literature, for ins-
tance, would have been extremely hard-pressed to find any
poem by Heinrich Hei ne in anthologies of German poetry
published between 1933 and 1945+ In fact, the only poem by hi m
that was included in those anthologies, the popular ( t oo popul ar,
in fact to suppress ) Loreley, was labeled anonymous.
Obvi ousl y, whatever professional readers of German history put
those anthologies together knew that it woul d not benefit their
professional advancement to ascribe the poem to Heinrich Hei ne.
It woul d benefit their professional advancement even less tf, in an
inexplicable attack of professional honesty, they woul d have stated
in an introduction, or a footnote, why such a course of action
would not have benefited their professional advacement. Histories
of literature published at the same time would have told non-
professional and professional readers alike, as Adol f Bartels did in
his history of German literature, that only Heiners vanity and
arrogance were ever gigantic, and gigantic was the stupidity of the
German people, that has for so long believed those who told it that
he was one of their great writers" ( 335) . As he proudly states in
the preface to the 1943 edition of his history, Bartels was duly
rewarded by the dominant ideological current : not only was he
awarded the highest medal for achievement in the cultural field he
even received a personal congratulatory letter from Adolf Hitler on
his birthday in that year.
Admittedly the example of Germany between 1933 and 1945 is
somewhat extreme, as would be the example of the Eastern part of
Germany between 1945 and 1989. Yet the existence of the image,
and its previous construction, are the important point in all this.
Images constructed by rewriters play just as important a part in
societies more open in nature than those mentioned above; it's just
that there are more images to choose from. If non-professional
readers of literature were to be asked who Chrostopher Marlowe
was, for instance, they are not likely to go and read Marlowe's
collected works* Rather, they are likely to look up the name in a
rewriting like the Ox ford Companion to English Literature. If they
need, or want to know more, they will probably consult some of
the currently available histories of English literature. They might
also call to mind productions of Dr Faustus for the stage or for the
screen.
When non-professional readers of literature (and it should be
clear by now that the term does not imply any value judgment
whatsoever. It merely refers to the majority of readers in
contemporary societies) say they have "read a book, what they
mean is that they have a certain image, a certain construct of that
book in their heads. That construct is often loosely based on some
selected passages of the actual text of the book in question ( the
passages included in anthologies used in secondary or university
education, for instance), supplemented by other texts that rewrite
the actual text in one way or another, such as plot summaries in
literary histories or reference works, reviews in newspapers,
magazines, or journals, some critical articles, performances on
stage or screen, and last but not least, translations.
Prewrite 7
Since non-professional readers of literature are, at present,
exposed to literature more often by means of rewritings than by
means of writings, and since rewritings can be shown to have had
a not negligible impact on the evolution of literatures in the past,
the study of rewritings should no longer be neglected. Those
engaged in that study will have to ask themselves who rewrites,
why, under what circumstances, for which audience. They owe
what is probably one of the first statements of the doctrine of
rewriting in Western literature to St Augustine. When faced with
the fact that a fair number of pages in the Bible could, to put it
mildly, not be said to correspond too closely to the kind of behavior
the then still relatively young Christian Church expected from its
members, he suggested that these passages should, quite simply,
be interpreted,
11
rewritten
f
" until they could be made to
correspond to the teachings of the Church. If a scriptural passage,
Augustine observed, seems to commend either vice or crime
or to condemn either utility or beneficence, that passage should be
taken as figurative and "subjected to diligent scrutiny until an
interpretation contributing to the reign of charity is produced
( 93) .
Augustine' s situation is exemplary for that of all rewriters.
He was obviously influenced by the fact that he occupied a certain
position within a certain institution, as all rewriters are. Toward
the end of his life he occupied a somewhat elevated position in an
organization based on a certain ideology that had therefore a
vested interest in preserving that ideology and in combating and
destroying rival ideologies. Other rewriters would occupy posi-
tions at courts, in educational institutions, and in publishing
ouses.
If some rewritings are inspired by ideological motivations, or
produced under ideological constraints, depending on whether
rewriters find themselves in agreement with the dominant ideol-
ogy of their time or not, other rewritings are inspired by
poetological motivations, or produced under poetological con-
straints. When Rufus Griswold published The Poets and Poetry
of America in 1842 he stated in the preface that American poetry
"is of the purest moral character" ( Golding 289). He obviously
wanted it to remain so and steadfastly refused to include later poets
whose moral character he considered doubtful, such as Wal t
Whi t man. His anthology therefore projected a slanted image, but
one that functioned as reality for generations of professional and
non-professional readers alike. Since it was widely read and since
aspiring poets looked to it for models to emulate it effectively
controlled the moral and intellectual range of subject matter in
canonical poetry" (Gol di ng 289).
When W. B. Yeats wrote a Memoi r " of Wi l l am Blake for the
edition of that poet's works he produced together wi th Edwen
Ellis, and which was published in 1893, he literally invented the
following ancestry for Blake :
11
the grandfather of Wi l l i am Blake
was an Irish aristocrat named Joho O' Nei l who took the name of
his wife, an unknown womanand became
1
Blake
1
to escape
imprisonment for debt" ( Dorf man 205). By giving Blake an Irish
grandfather, and therefore a Celtic lineage, Yeats could link
Blake to the Celtic Twi l i ght " that was so i mportant to him at
that particular stage o his own poetic development. Needless to
say, the Blake constructed by Yeats and Ellis functioned as
the "real" Blake for readers of the 1893 edition, even though Yeats
also unabashedly rewrote lines of Blake's that he considered
inferior.
One of the most striking examples of the combination of
ideological and poetological motivations/constraints is the epigraph
to this chapter, taken from a letter written by Edward Fitzgerald,
the enormously popular Victorian rewriter or the Persian poet Omar
Khayyam. In fact, Fitzgerald's Rubayyai is one of the most
effective rewritings of the last century, and its influence makes
itself felt deep into the present one. Ideologically Fitzgerald
obviously thinks Persians inferior to their Victorian English
counterparts, a frame of mi nd that allows him to rewrite them in a
way in which he would have never dreamed of rewriting Homer, or
Vi rgi l , Poetologically he thi nks they should be made to read more
like the domi nant current in the poetry of his won time.
Whether they produce translations, literary histories or their
more compact spin-offs, reference works, anthologies, criticism, or
editions, rewriters adapt, manipulate the originals they work wi th
to some extent, usually to make them fit in with the domi nant, or
one of dominant ideological and poetological currents of their time.
Agai n this may be most obvious in totalitarian societies, but
different interpretive communities that exist in more open
societies will influence the production of rewritings in similar ways.
Madame de Stal, for instance, can be shown to have been
rewritten in pro- or anti-Napoleon and pro- or anti-German terms
Prewrite 9
during the French Second and Third Republics, which prided
themselves on being among the most open societies of their time.
Rewriting manipulates and it is effective. Al l the more reason,
then to study it. In fact, the study of rewriting might even be of
some relevance beyond the charmed circle of the educational
institution, a way to restore to a certain study of literature some of
the more immediate social relevance the study of literature as a
whole has lost. Students now exist in the most manipulative
culture human beings have ever experienced " ( Scholes 15) .
Studying the processes involved in rewriting literature will not tell
students how to live their lives (they are much more likely to turn
to the screen for that kind of model ), not will it teach them to write
well, the other traditional justification for the study of literature.
But it might serve as some kind of model that enables them, of
some extent, to see through the manipulations of all sorts of texts
in all sorts of media" (Scholes 15), A study of rewriting will not
tell students what to do it might show them ways of not allowing
other people to tell them what to do.
The same basic process of rewriting is at work in translation,
historiography, anthologization, criticism, and editing. It is
obviously also at work in other forms of rewriting, such as
adaptations for film and television, but these are outside of my area
of expertise and will therefore not be dealt with here. / Since
translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting, and
since it is potentially the most influential because it is able to project
the image of an author and/or a (series of ) work ( s) in another
culture, lifting that author and/or those works beyond the
boundaries of their culture of origin, four chapters of this book will
be devoted to the study of translated literature. Four more will be
devoted to each of the other main forms of rewriting. As a heuristic
construct for the study of rewriting I shall make use of the concept
of system, first introduced into the domain of literary studies by
the Russian Formalists, in the conviction that their models may
indeed provide direction for future enquiry" (Morson 2) . I have
opted for this concept because its basic tenets are relatively easy to
explain, which has a distinct pedagogical advantage because it
promises to be "productive" in the sense that it may reveal problems
of importance to the study of rewriting that other heuristic
constructs do not reveal because it is "plausible" in the sense that
it is also used in other disciplines, not just in literary studies, and to
some advantage, which might also work against the growing
isolation of literary studies wi thi n educational institutions; and
because it provides a neutral, non-ethnocentric framework for the
discussion of power and relationships shaped by power, which may
benefit from a more dispassionate approach. I shall further
introduce the concept of systemin Chapter 2.
Wi t h Alastair Fowler I believe that " i n the last resort literary
theory is only as comprehensive and as penetrating as the reading it
is based on" (quoted in Cohen xi i i ). I have therefore tried to build
this book on readings taken from different literatures classical
Greek, Lati n, French, and German. In doing soI hope to have
escaped one irony of current theories of historical difference,
which is that "they largely ignore different histories" ( Morson 2 ).
Finally, in an attempt to overcome provincialism in literary
scholarshipI have extended my readings to cover Afro English and
Dutch literature. A fair number of examples have also been taken
from Chinese, Arabic, and other non-Western literatures in an
attempt to make this book free from the symptoms of literary
provincialism which are a widespread ignorance of non-Western
literatures [and] an almost total ignorance of the smaller Western
literatures" (Warnke 49). As a result, some of the material quoted
is quoted in the guise of the most obvious rewriting of all :
translation. Al l translations are my own.
At a time when career advancement and other institutional
considerations tend to further, or even necessitate the production of
"hi gh rewritings of literature in the very speculative manner
practiced by various guru figures ( many younger people in the
profession are likely to be given tenure or promoted on the basis of
publications written in a manner of discourse they themselves would
be the first to banish from any composition classes they teach), I
have constructed the argument of this book on the basis of evidence
that can be documented, and is. Since some of this material is not
likely to be familiar to the average reader of this type of book, I
have had liberal recourse to quotations from sources generally
regarded as authoritative.
Chapter 2
The system : patronage
Poetrias ineditas
scribam tibi, si me ditas.
(Archipoefa 376)
The concept of system was introduced into modern literary theory
by the Russian Formalists. They viewed a culture as
a complex system of systems composed of various sub-
systems suchas literature, science, and technology. Wi thi n this
general system extraliterary phenomena relate to literature
not in a piecemeal fashion but as an interplay among sub-
systems determined by the logic of the culture to which they
belong.
(Steiner 112)
Some variants of sociological criticism, some criticism based on
communications theory, and various strands of reader-response
criticism have done much to create a climate in which it is once again
possible to think about literature in terms of system. Recent
attempts at elaborating a systems approach within literary studies
have been undertaken by Claudio Guillen, Itamar Even-Zohar, Felix
Vodika, and Siegfried J. Schmidt. Outside of literary studies the
systems approach has mainly been championed in recent years by
Niklas Luhmann, while Lyotard's The Postmodern Condition takes
its bearings from"Parson's conception of society as a self-regulating
syst em" ( l l ) .
Unfortunately, as Dieter Schwanitz points out A great
obstacle to the reception of systems theory by literary scholars,
however, is its forbidding level of abstraction ( 290 ). This is
certainly borne out in the case of both Luhmann and Schmidt.
However, since the present book does not attempt to contribute to
any further elaboration of General Systems Theory, but rather tries
to make use of systems thinking as a heuristic construct, I shall
merely introduce the main concepts of systems thinking and show
how they can be applied to the study of rewritings in a productive
manner.
When I use the word system " in these pages, the term has
nothing to do with "the System" (usually spelled with a capital S)
as it increasingly occurs in colloquial usage to refer to the more
sinister aspects of the powers that be, and against which there is no
recourse. Wi thi n systems thinking the termsystem" has no such
Kafkaesque overtones. It is rather intended to be a neutral,
descriptive term, used to designate a set of interrelated elements
that happen to share certain characteristics that set them apart from
other elements perceived as not belonging to the system,
"Literature, in Schmidt's words
f
can be analyzed as a complex social system of actions because it
has a certain structure, an in-out differentiation
t
is accepted by
society and fulfills functions which no other system in this society
can fulfill. (563)
Literature a literature can be analyzed in systemic terms.
Systems thinking would call it a contrived system because it
consists both of texts (objects) and human agents who read, write,
and rewrite texts. Even though the educational system gives the
impression, especially in the case of the classics, that texts
generated by men and women of genius are suspended in some
timeless vacuum for our further edification, classic texts, while
they may or may not originally have been written by geniuses,
have certainly been written and rewritten by the generations
of professors and critics who make their living by them Tompkins
37 ). The fact that literature is a contrived system should
caution us against any attempt to force it into an analogy with
physical or biological systems, which are amenable to a more rigid
description.
Literature is not a deterministic system, not
a
somethi ng"that will
take over and run t hi ngs, " destroying the freedom of the
individual reader, writer, and rewriter. This type of misconception
can be traced back to the colloquial use of the term and must be
dismissed as irrelevant. Rather, the system acts as a series of
constraints, in the fullest sense of the word, on the reader.
The system : patronage 13
writer-and re writer. It is not my intention to give the impression
that there is a ruthless unprincipled, and excessively cunni ng band
of translators critics, historiographers, editors, and anthologists
"out t here, snickering as they systematically "bet ray" whichever
work( s) of literature they are dealing with*
On the contrary, most re writers of literature are usually
meticulous, hard-working, well-read, and as honest as is humanl y
possible. They just see what they are doing as obvious, the only
way, even if that way has, historically, changed over the centuries.
Translators, to lay the old adage to rest once and for all, have to be
traitorsbut most of the time they don,t know i t, and nearly all of
the time they have no other choice, not as long as they remain
wi thi n the boundaries of the culture that is theirs by birth or
adoption not, therefore, as long as they try to influence the
evolution of that culture whi ch is an extremely logical thi ng for
them to want to do.
What has been said about rewriters obviously also holds for
writers. Both can choose to adapt to the system, to stay wi thi n the
parameters delimited by its constraints and much of what is
perceived as great literature does precisely that or they may
choose to oppose the system, to try to operate outside its
constraints for instance by reading works of literature in other than
the received ways, by writing works of literature in ways that differ
from those prescribed or deemed acceptable at a particular time in a
particular place, or by rewriting works of literature in such a
manner that they do not fit in wi th the domi nant poetics or ideology
of a given time and place.
Here, for instance, are the constraints Shakespeare had to deal
wi t h:
Li ke any other royal subject he had to satisfy or at least not
displease the sovereign and her court the Queen, for good
reason, was sensitive to any challenge to the legitimacy of the
monarchy, and her word could put an end to Shakespeare's
career, if not hh life. He had also to avoid the censure of the
London authorities, whose Puri tani sm militated against any
dramatic production as decadent, superstitious frivolity, and who
sought excuses to close the theatres. As a new kind of ideological
entrepreneur still worki ng wi thi n traditional patronage relations
of literary producti on, Shakespeare had to keep favour wi th his
court patron in this case the powerful Lord Chamberl ai n
who afforded the company political protection, and, literally,
licence to work- at the same time, he had to hold the interest of a
broad public drawn from Londorfs mercantile, artisanal and
working classes.
(Kavanagh 151)
Literature, to go back to the description of the Russian Formalist
theorists, is one of the systems that constitute the complex
4
system of systems*" known as a culture. Alternatively, a culture,
a society is the environment of a literary system. The literary
system and the other systems belonging to the social system as such
are open to each other they influence each other* According to the
Formalists, they interact in an interplay among subsystems
determined by the logic of the culture to which they belong. But
who controls the "logic of the culture"?
There appears to be a double control factor that sees to it that
the literary system does not fall too far out of step with the other
subsystems society consists of. One control factor belongs square-
ly within the literary system; the other is to be found outside of
that system. The first factor tries to control the literary system
from the inside within the parameters set by the second factor. In
concrete terms the first factor is represented by the "professional,
who is
felt to render a service rather than provide an ordinary
commodity, and it is a service that he alone, qua professional,
can supply. The latter aspect of professionalism lends its
practitioners their peculiar authority and status they are
regarded as possessing a monopoly of competence in their
particular "fi el d.
(Weber 25)
Inside the literary system the professionals are the critics
reviewers, teachers, translators. They will occasionally repress
certain works of literature that are all too blatantly opposed
to the dominant concept of what literature shouid (be allowed to)
be its poetics and of what society should (be allowed to) be
ideology. But they will much more frequently rewrite works of
literature until they are deemed acceptable to the poetics and the
ideology of a certain time and place much as Karl Gutzkow, for
instance, rewrote Georg Bchner's Dantons Tod because such
things as Bchner had flung down on paperthe kind of expressions
he allowed himself to use, cannot be printed today ( 84 ).
Furthermore, Gutzkow did so because he did not want to "give the
censor the pleasure of striking passages" ( 84) . Trespassing on the
turf of a fellow professional, he therefore performed the office"
(84) himself. In other words, because he wanted Danions Tod to
be read and because Bchner himself opposed both the dominant
poetics and the dominant ideology, Gutzkow adapted the text to the
point where it became acceptable to that poetics and that ideology.
The writer chose to oppose the constraints the rewriter to adapt
to them.
The second control factor, which operates mostly outside the
literary system as such, will be called "patronage" here, and it will
be understood to mean something like the powers ( persons,
institutions) that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and
rewriting of literature. It is important to understand power" here
in the Foucaultian sense, not j ust, or even primarily, as a
repressive force. Rather:
what makes power hold good, what makes it accepted, is simply
the fact that it doesn't only weigh on us as a force that says no,
but that it traverses and produces things, it induces pleasure,
forms knowledge, produces discourse,
(Foucault 119)
Patronage is usually more interested in the ideology of literature
than in its poetics, and it could be said that the patron delegates
authority" to the professional where poetics is concerned.
Patronage can be exerted by persons, such as the Medici, Maecenas,
or Louis XI V and also by groups of persons, a religious body, a
political party, a social class, a royal court, publishers, and, last but not
least, the media, both newspapers and magazines and larger television
corporations. Patrons try to regulate the relationship between the literary
system and the other systems, whichtogether, make up a society, a
culture. As a rule they operate by means of institutions set up to
regulate, if not the writing of literature, at least its distribution
academies censorship bureaus, critical j ournals, and, by far the
most i mportant, the educational establishment. Professionals who
represent the reigning orthodoxy
at any given time in the

development of a literary system are close to the ideology of patrons
dominating that phase in the history of the social system in which
the literary system is embedded. In fact, the patron(s) count on
these professionals to bring the literary system in line wi th their
own ideology:
In thus smoothing out contradiction, closing the text, criti-
cism becomes the accomplice of ideology. Havi ng created a
canon of acceptable texts, criticism then provides them wi th
acceptable interpretations, thus effectively censoring away
elements in them which come into collision wi th the dominant
ideology.
(Belsey 109)
Patronage basically consists of three elements that can be seen to
interact in various combinations. There is an ideological
component, which acts as a constraint on the choice and
development of both form and subject matter. Needless to say,
"ideology is taken here in a sense not limited to the political
sphere; rather, "Ideology would seem to be that grillwork of form
convention, and belief which orders our actions" (Jameson 107),
There is also an economic component the patron sees to it that
writers and rewriters are able to make a living, by giving them a
pension or appointing them to some office. Chaucer, for instance,
successively acted as "the Ki ng' s envoy, the controller of customs
on wool, hides and sheepskins, [and] the subforester of North
Petherton (Bennett 1: 5) . Chaucer's contemporary, John Go wer,
on the other hand, was his own patron, at least in this respect,
being " an independent country gentleman, whose means allowed
him to write in Lati n, French and Engl i sh (Bennett 1: 6) , Yet he
was not independent on the ideological level : he wrote his Confessio
Amantis at the request of Richard H , and he "wrote a final passage
praising the Ki ng. Some years laterthe poet found it expedient to
omit this passage, and to insert a new preface, praising Henry IV
(Bennett 1: 6) .
Patrons also pay royalties on the sale of books or they employ
professionals as teachers and reviewers. Finally, there is also an
element of status involved. Acceptance of patronage implies
integration into a certain support group and its lifestyle, whether
the recipient is Tasso at the court of Ferrara, the Beat poets
gathering around the City Li ghts bookstore in San Francisco Adol f
Bartels proudly proclaiming that he has been decorated by Adol f
Hi tl er, or the medieval Lati n Archipoeta, who supplied the
epigraph to this chapter, which reads, rewritten in Engl i sh: I shall
write unheard of poems for you, if you give me wealth.
Patronage can be differentiated or undifferentiated, or rather,
terary systems can be controlled by a type of patronage that is
either differentiated or undifferentiated in nature. Patronage is
undifferentiated when its three components, the ideological, the
economic, and the status components, are all dispensed by one and
the same patron, as has been the case in most literary systems in
the past in which an absolute ruler, for instance, would attach a
writer to his or her court and give him or her a pension, and as is
the case in contemporary totalitarian states where, though the court
has gone at least in the sense in which I have used the word here
subventi ons and pensions remain.
Patronage is differentiated, on the other hand, when economic
success is relatively independent of ideological factors, and does not
necessarily bring status with it, at least not in the eyes of the self-
styled literary elite. Most authors of contemporary bestsellers
illustrate this point rather well.
In systems with undifferentiated patronage, the patron's efforts
will primarily be directed at preserving the stability of the social
system as a whole, and the literary production that is accepted
and actively promoted within that social system will have to
further that aim or, at the very least, not actively oppose the
authoritative myths of a given cultural formation ( Whi te x )
which those in power want to control because their power is
based on them. This is not to say that there will be no other
literature produced within that social system, only that it will
be called "dissident, or any name to that effect, and once it has
been written it will experience great difficulty in getting, published
through official channels, or else it will be relegated to the status of
"l ow" or popular" literature.
As a result, a situation of de facto literary diglossia tends to
arise, as has been the case in many literary systems with undiffer-
entiated patronage, in which literature as such is unquestion-
ingly equated with the production of a more or less small, more
or less large coterie operating within the orbit of the patronage
group that is in power. The Ottoman Empire, for instance,
produced a coterie literature centered on the court of Istanbul and
closely modeled on classical Arabic examples, whereas the
literature produced in the country at large, modeled on Turkish
traditions, was never taken seriously by the coterie group and
always rejected as "popular if referred to at all. This same
"popul ar" literature was to become elevated to the position of
national literature after the change of patronage produced by emal
Atatrks revolution.
In certain instances the pressure against being considered
popular was so great that writers themselves preferred to restrict
the circulation of their work to other members of the coterie only*
Tudor English literature is a case in point. Writers dependent on
the patronage of the court ran the risk of forfeiting that patron-
age, at least in part, if their work was seen to enjoy too much
popularity wi th the masses in the streets. Hence the somewhat
pradoxical situation, to our way of thi nki ng at least, in which
writers who had the printing press at their disposal for the
dissemination of their work actually refused to have their books
printed, and certainly not in large editions, preferring to
circulate them in manuscript among other members of the coterie,
known as persons of taste and discernment, rather than to abandon
them to the vulgar crowd. The latter tended to find its reading
matter in the continuations of medieval romances and other
bestsellers, the kind of literature that has hardly survived in the
literary histories of our ti me, which often only take the production
of the coterie into account* The refusal to publish then subsisted
for a considerable period of time after the Tudors : Hence it was
that practically nothi ng of Donne' s verse was printed before 1633,
two years after his death, although twenty-five manuscripts
containing poems by hi mand which circulated during his lifetime,
survive" (Bennett 3: 193) .
Acceptance of patronage implies that writers and rewriters work
wi thi n the parameters set by their patrons and that they would be
willing and able to legitimize both the status and the power of those
patrons as attested most forcibly, for i nstanceby the African
praise song, a collection of honorific epithets commemorating and
celebrating the patron' s great and noble deeds, by the panegyric in
the Islamic system, which served mainly same purpose, or by the
many odes written to Comrade J. Stati n, or maybe, somewhat less
forcibly so, by Pindar' s great odes. An even subtler form of the
same phenomenon can be observed in pre-eighteenth-century Indi a,
where many poets even went so far as to allow their patron to
claim the authorship of their work, or at least to help hi m in his
literary endeavors, which would explain why one encounters a
disproportionate number of royal writers in Indian l i terature
(Glasenapp 192).
Present-day developments in the literary system as it exists in
Europe and the Americas show that undifferentiated patronage
need not be based mainly on ideology as it was in most literary
systems in the past. The economic component, the profit motive,
may well lead to the re-establishment of a system wi th a relatively
undifferentiated patronageas attested by
The growth of large chains of retail bookstores, the strong
rivalry of paperback publishers for rack space in retail outlets,
the computerization of inventory and warehouse systems, the
arrival on the scene of a new breed of literary agent, the influence
of television talk shows that regularly feature authors as guests,
the control by entertainment conglomerates of hard cover and
paperback publishing companies and the like, and the increasingly
active involvement of Hol l ywood in the business of book
publishing.
(Whi tesi de 66)
Institutions enforce or, at least, try to enforce the dominant
poetics of a period by using it as the yardstick against which
current production is measured. Accordi ngl ycertai n works of
literature will be elevated to the level of classics wi thi n a
relatively short time after publication, while others are rejected,
some to reach the exalted position of a classic later, when the
dominant poetics has changed, Significantly, though, works of
literature canonized more than five centuries ago tend to remain
secure in their position, no matter how often the dominant poetics
itself is subject to change. Thi s is a clear indication of the
conservative bias of the system itself and also of the power of
rewriting, since while the work of literature itself remains
canonized, the received interpretation, or even the " r i ght "
interpretation in systems wi th undifferentiated patronage, quite
simply changes. In other words the work is rewritten to bring it in
line with the "new" domi nant poetics.
A large-scale example of this process is provided by the
reconstitution of the canons of various national literatures after the
socialist revolutions in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Uni on. A
comparison of authors who have been canonized in the Federal
Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republ i c since the
end of the Second Worl d War is likely to yield two rather different
lists. Yet the further back one goes in ti me, the more the lists
overlap. The works of literature canonized will be the same, but the
rewritings by means of whi ch they are presented to the audience
differ, sometimes radically. It is quite common for the classics to be
presented as suited to different ideologies and poetics as these
succeed each other, indeed to be pressed i nto the service thereof.
Works of literature wri tten long enough ago can therefore boast a
whole concatenation of contradictory rewritings.
The conservative tendency of the literary system, any literary
system, becomes even more of an issue in the countries mentioned
above when the problem of deciding which new works can safely be
admitted to the canon has to be addressed. Since the domi nant
poetics unabashedly subscribes to realism" and is therefore all but
squarely rooted in the nineteenth century, and since this poetics is
intended to be used as a yardstick for measuring literature produced
in the twentieth century, tension and conflict are all but inevitable.
If a certain type of i nsti tuti on, such as academies or influential
literary j ournal s and recognized publishers of hi ghbrow literature,
whi ch have increasingly taken over the part played by academies in
the pastpl ay an i mportant part in admi tti ng new works to the
canon, other institutions, such as universities and the educational
establishment in general, keep the canon more or less alive, mai nl y
by means of the selection of texts for literature courses. To put it in
a nutshel l the classics taught will be the classics that remain in
pri nt, and therefore the classics that remain in print will be the
classics known to the majority of people exposed to education in
most contemporary societies.
The selection process also operates wi thi n the entire oeuvre of a
certain author commonl y regarded as a classic. Certain books by
certain authors that are the staple of courses in institutions of
(hi gher) education wi l l be widely available, whereas other works
written by the same author will be very hard to find except in
painstakingly collected editions on library shelves. In the English-
speaking worl d, for instance, Thomas Mann' s Doctor F aus tus and
The Magic Mountain are widely available at the time of wri ti ng,
Buddenbrooks somewhat less so, and J ose ph and His Brothers
hardly at all, even though the latter work was translated
rewritten into Engl i sh and published soon after it came out in
German, as were all of Mann' s other books.
It woul d onl y be a small exaggeration to say that in the present
state of the educational system in both the Uni ted Ki ngdom and the
Uni ted States the reading lists designed for examinations for Master
of Arts and Doctor of Phi l osophy reflect rather accurately the canon
of the present historical period. It lists not just the English and
American writers who are considered worthy of study and
emulation, but also those writers from other literatures or, perhaps
more accurately, those books written by writers in other literatures
that are allowed into the British and American systems because they
are acceptable to the various ideologies and poetics currently
dominating those systems. In other words, most of the highbrow
literature in the United Kingdom and certainly in the United States
is kept alive somewhat artificially by means of reading lists
designed for institutions of ( hi gher) education, which, in turn,
guarantee a substantial turnover for the paperback lists of
institutions publishing books.
The conservative influence of educational institutions on the
literary system has perhaps nowhere been more apparent than in the
Islamic system where poets had for a long time "learned their art
exclusively through personal interaction with their predecessors
(Gi bb and Landau 80) . However, when philological schools were
established, first in Basra and then in other cities, poets began to be
taught by philologists, with obvious results
poets approached their art more or less philologically and accepted
philological criteria for poetic value, especially with reference to
the ostensibly unreachable superiority of pre-lslamic poetry This
development is probably much more responsible for the
formalization of Arabic literature in the following centuries than
any other single factor.
(Gi bb and Landau 81)
(Potential) canonization greatly influences the availability of a work
of literature. Candidates for canonization, not to mention canonized
authors themselves, will much more easily be published by
influential publishing houses (or by "licensed" publishing houses in
systems with undifferentiated patronage), while works of literature
which differ relatively sharply from the dominant ideology and/or
poetics of the time will have to make do with samizdat in one form
or other or with publication in another literary system. Many Black
and Colored South African writers, for instance, have had their
work first published in English in East European countries,
particularly the German Democratic Republic.
What goes against the grain may also ostensibly be published
outside the system, though with the more or less openly avowed
intention of operating within that system* In eighteenth-century
France, for instance, many potentially subversive works of
literature ( and philosophy ) were routinely said to have been
published in Amsterdam or Strassburg that is, outside of the
domain of the power of the literary system and the jurisdiction of
the political system they set out to challenge.
Canonization appears at its most obvious and also at its most
powerful with the spread of higher education. It has found its most
impressive and most profitable monument to date in the
publication of that hybrid crystallization of the close and lucrative
cooperation between publishers and institutions of higher education :
the introductory anthology (for use in Poetry, Drama, or Fiction
101) which offers a cross-section of canonized texts prefaced by a
short exposition of the poetics that ensured their canonization.
Works of literature are taken out of their historical context and the
whole genealogy of influences and rewritings of which they are a
part is silently obliterated. As a result, what has survived this
process appears to be timeless, and what is timeless should,
obviously, not be questioned.
The inbuilt conservative weighting of institutions of patronage
can also be observed in the influence they exert on those who
become involved with them, especially those who were previously of
an anti-institutional or avant-garde cast of mi nd. Writers who
achieve a remarkable, or even potentially disturbing impact with
their first (few) works find themselves gradually absorbed into the
mainstream, paradoxically because they have been able to introduce
a new element into the dominant poetics or because they have been
able to propose a novel function for literature, or both, as in the
case of Bertolt Brecht.
Once their innovations begin to be accepted and imitated by other
writers, soon to be labeled epigonesin supplements to literary
histories, bandwagon effect is created that more or less effectively
neutralizes the disturbing aspect in the novelty of their work.
Mother Courage produced in 1989, for instance, looks quite
different from the Mother Courage produced twenty or even forty
years ago, and through no fault of the author. Indeed, the writers
themselves simply live on and work as honored mentors, often
achieving in life the very opposite of what they set out to achieve in
art.
Educational institutions and their programs often leave a rather
conservative imprint on the imagination of individual authors. It is
instructive in this respect to compare the manifestoes authors write
(in which they often argue the case for change ) with the actual
work they produce to illustrate those manifestoes. That work
usually proves to be much closer to the work of the canonized
authors who were part and parcel of the r e b e l education.
Joachim du Bellay, author of the D fen se et illustration de la
langue franaise, is a case in point. Hi s mani festo" is usually
regarded as the harbinger of the new" French Renaissance poetry
as practiced by the poets of the Pliade. To illustrate the poetics he
advocated, du Bellay produced three cycles of lyrical poetry Les
Antiquits de Rome
t
Olive, and Les Regrets, all three based to a
large extent on his own Latin poetry ( Forster 30What was
touted as newwithin the French system did, in fact, turn out to
be a rewriting of works of literature du Bellay had been exposed to
as part of his education.
Change in a literary system is also closely connected with
patronage. Change is a function of the need felt in the environment
of a literary system for that system to be or remain functional. In
other words, the literary system is supposed to have an impact on
the environment by means of the works it produces, or the
rewritings thereof. If these expectations are not met, or even
consistently frustrated, patrons are likely to demand or, at least,
actively encourage the production of works of literature more likely
to meet their expectations : the necessity to increase the arousal
potential of aesthetic products over time inexorably comes down to a
pressure to increase novelty, incongruity and other collative
variables" (Marti ndal e 232).
In systems with differentiated patronage the result is the
increasing fragmentation of the reading public into a relative
profusion of subgroups. In systems wi th undifferentiated
patronage, on the other hand, readers expectations are more
restricted in scope and the right interpretation of various works
tends to be emphasized by means of various types of rewriting. In
the fourth and fifth centuries of the Common Era rewriting was
applied on a large scale to classical Greek and Latin literature
basically to allegorize it to such an extent in the service of the
newly dominant ideology of Christianity that it would become
acceptable to the new patrons and thus escape destruction.
Odysseus on his voyage home, it was shown, "real l y" represented
the soul on its pilgrimage to heaven, and the divine chi l d
evoked by Virgil in his fifth eclogue, merely meant to celebrate an
impending happy event in the family of August us, which
subsequently failed to materialize, was unerringly identified with
Christ himself. The latter rewriting was largely responsible for
Virgil' s enhanced status as a proto-Christian all through the
Mi ddl e Ages, as is evident from his selection as Dante' s guide
in the first two books of the Commedia. A corresponding Marxist
allegorization has been applied to writers of the nineteenth century
by critics like Georg Lukcs, who persisted in claiming that
Balzac, say, was "obj ecti vel y a progressive social analyst and
social commentator even though relatively few readers woul d,
admi ttedly, be able to see this on the mere surface of his
work, which had obviously been waiting for the right
interpretation.
If a literary system resists change altogether, it is likely to
collapse under growi ng pressure from its environment as soon as a
differentiation of patronage sets i n, usually under social conditions
analogous to those prevailing in the West European Enl i ghtenment
state, or when a certain type of patronage is superseded by another
one radically different in nature. Of all literary systems known in
history the classical Chinese system has been able to resist change
the longest, precisely because undifferentiated patronage limited
both the producers and the readers of literature to a relatively small
coterie dominated by the court and the mandarinsand also because
it could impose its ideology and its poetics by maki ng them a
(sizable) part of the requirements to be met by those who wanted to
belong to that coterie.
Even those who never passed the imperial examinations, eking
out a meager living as recluses or vagabonds, continued to write in
terms of the dominant ideology and the dominant poetics because
they had to rely, at least to a certain extent, on the charity of their
former classmates or other mandarins glad to be able to enjoy the
company of cultured gentlemen ( even though their appearance
mi ght ostensibly belie that fact) while sitting out their stints in
remote provinces.
Thi s state of affairs could and did continue only as long as
the environment was itself relatively homogeneous and secure. The
literary system kept producing works of literature in a language no
longer spoken by the majority of the population and wi th little or no
bearing on what was actually happening in the environment. When
that environment came under increasing pressure from outside and
when new groups, capable of offering alternative sources of
patronage, such as the emerging bourgeoisie, began to appear inside
i t, the literary system crumbled very rapidly, being also
undermined from within by a large number of rewritings
f
namely
translations of Western works of literature, in most cases through
the intermediary of Japanese, which supplied the models for a new
poetics.
Chapter 2
The system : poetics
Rien n'appartient rien, tout appartient tous.
H faut tre ignorant comme un maitre d'cole
Pour se flatter de dire une seule parole
Que personne ici-bas n'ait pu dire avant vous.
[Nothing belongs to nothi ng, all things belong to all.
Ignorant as a schoolmaster must you be called
To flatter yourself that you have said one single word
Nobody else did not say before you on this earth. ]
(Alfred de Musset 421)
A poetics can be said to consist of two components : one is an
inventory of literary devices, genres, motifs, prototypical char-
acters and situations, and symbols; the other a concept of what
the role of literature is, or should be in the social system as a
whole. The latter concept is influential in the selection of themes
that must be relevant to the social system if the work of literature
is to be noticed at all. In its formative phase a poetics reflects both
the devices and the functional vi ew" of the literary production
dominant in a literary system when its poetics was first codified.
Once a poetics is codified, it exerts a tremendous system-
conforming influence on the further development of a literary
system. In Earl Miner' s words:
A systematic poetics emerges in a culture after a literary system
proper has been generated and when important critical
conceptions are based on a then flourishing or normatively
considered genre. The coinciding of major critics with the
considered genre generates the critical system. It is because Plato
and Aristotle took drama as the norm that they considered
The system : poetics 27
imitation the essential character of literature. (350)
And since they did sothey proceeded to develop a critical voc-
abulary to describe the drama, many of whose terms are still in
current use in most European languages, even though they came
into being in classical Greek more than two thousand years ago.
The functional component of a poetics is obviously closely tied to
ideological influences from outside the sphere of the poetics as such,
and generated by ideological forces in the environment of the
literary system. In traditional African literature, for instance, with
its emphasis on the community and its values, literature
was not supposed to be conducive to personal fame. In fact,
all traditional African literature is, by Western standards,
anonymous and classified under the name of the tribe ( the
communi ty)
t
not that of the individual, the author, who remains
unknown.
Practice precedes theory when the poetics of a literary system is
codified. Codification occurs at a certain time, and this implies
both the selection of certain types of current practice and the
exclusion of others. The codification of a poetics is the work of
literary professionals though not necessarily of the type we now
more or less automatically associate with that term. Codification
did occur in traditional African literature, that is the literatures
of sub-Saharan Africa as they developed from about the beginning
of the Common Era to the advent of the Whi te man and beyond but
the lack of written records in the African system prevented the rise
of a group of literary professionals in the Western sense. It did not,
however (a sobering thought i ndeed), prevent the production of
literature as such. In literary systems that rely on the spoken, not
the written word, criticism is probably at its most direct and its
most effective; the artist whose performance is not considered
acceptable is simply told to stop then and there, and dismissed
without any form of remuneration.
I mportant critical conceptions do not find explicit expression
in all literary systems. They do not in the African system, even
though they are most certainly at work within it, and probably
to the highest degree. Literary systems that rely on the spoken
word tend to be much more rigid and conservative than literary
systems that rely on the written word, simply because there is no
opportunity to go back and check'
1
at a later ti me: once the word is
spoken, it is gone. The community will therefore see to it that
words are spoken, tales told, and poems composed in the
ri ght" way, the more so since literary works produced within
these systems also tend to incorporate what would lead a separate
existence as historical texts in systems that rely on writing.
In literary systems that rely on the spoken word, works of
literature are intricately bound up with the identity of the
community as such.
Nor are important critical conceptions explicitly formulated
in the Chinese and Japanese literary systems, or at least not in the
way readers of Western literature would expect them to be. In the
formative stages of both the Chinese and the Japanese systems
these critical conceptions were not written out in discursive prose
or verse, but rather implicitly contained in anthologies, such as
the Shih Chin g and the Chu Tzu in the Chinese system or the
Manyoshu and the Kokinshu in its Japanese counterpart. The
process of codification is probably more apparent in those
systems in which teaching relied more on written example than
on precept, than in systems in which codification took the form
of discursive prose or verse, codifying varieties of existing
practice mainly by abstracting their "rul es" and prescribing these
rules for future writers to follow. These rules'" are preserved in
the kind of textbook poetics familiar in the Indian, Islamic, and,
especially, Western literary systems. Yet the codification of a
poetics did take place in both cases, and in both cases it came about
through the intermediary process of rewriting.
Codification of a poetics also entails the canonization of the
output of certain writers whose work is regarded as conforming
most closely to the codified poetics. The work of those writers is
then propagated as an example for future writers to follow, and it
occupies a central position in the teaching of literature. Rewritings
tend to play at least as important a part in the establishment of
the poetics of a literary system as original writings do. The two
professionals" who are responsible for establishing the canon
of classical Greek literature, as it still stands today
t
are two
relatively unknown librarians who lived in Alexandria in the third
century before the Common Era: Aristophanes of Byzantium and
Aristarchus of Samothrace. They both worked in the great library
of Alexandria, and the classifications they drew up in the course of
their cataloguing work proved to be of immeasurable importance,
not just in anointing "classical" writers, but also in delineating
genres.
Similarly, in the Islamic system, the mu allakat, the original
pre-Islamic canon consisting of seven qasidahs, could hardly have
achieved the status they now enjoy through the efforts only of the
poets who composed them. Canonization was at least as much the
result of the efforts of the rawis or apprentice poets who began to
learn their trade as professional reciters and spread the fame of the
masters to whom they were apprenticed,
In systems wi th differentiated patronage, different critical schools
will try to elaborate different canons of their ownand each of these
schools will try to establish its own canon as the only real" one,
meaning the one corresponding to its poetics, its ideology, or both.
One of the most recent and influential examples of the process has
been described as follows :
Wi t h breathtaking boldness Scrutiny redrew the map of
Engl i sh literature in ways from which criticism has never
quite recovered. The main thoroughfares on this map ran
through Chaucer, Shakespeare, Jonson, the Jacobeans and
Metaphysicals, Bunyan, Pope, Samuel Johnson, Blake,
Wordsworth, Keats, Austen, George El i ot, Hopki ns, Henry
James, Joseph Conrad and D H. Lawrence. Thi s was
"Engl i sh l i terature.
(Eagl eton 32)
Not surprisingly Engl i shi ncl uded two and a half women,
counting Emi l y Bront as a marginal case; almost all of its authors
were conservatives" (Eagl eton 33) .
F. R, Lea vis, the rewriter of the canon of English literature,
was able to propagate his canon through teaching at Cambridge T.
S, El i ot, who was elaborating his own canon of Engl i sh and world
literature at about the same ti me, did not have a similar institutional
base. Indeed, he failed to see [T]he importance of the educational
system as an agency of cultural continuity. As a result of this
failure, he proved incapable of carrying through any sustained
cultural project of wider scope than the tiny readership of the
Criterion" (Baldick 131) the journal he himself had started. Far
from failing in his t urnLeavi s went on to become the most
influential British critic of his generation, turni ng generations of
students into devoted Leavisites.
Codification takes place at a certain timeand once it has taken
place the poetics of a literary system tends to take on a life of its
own, increasingly divorced from later developments in the
environment of the literary system. The Islamic qasidah, for
instance, codified at a time when poets, like their fellow tribesmen
traveled frequently through the desert begins according to the
rules that had not yet been collected in a bookwi th the poet riding
through the desert and spotting the remains of an old camp site. He
is deeply moved by this, because the place reminds him of an old
love affair a battle that once took place there, or a hunt he took
part in nearby. Later on, when the actual style of living had
changed completely in the environment of the literary system "this
introduction will remain mandatory, even when the poets are no
longer familiar with deserts or camp sites, battles or the hunt "
( Abd el Jalil 32).
Change in the poetics of a literary system very rarely occurs at
the same pace as change in the environment of that system.
Sonnets were written when the horse was the fastest means of
transportation, and they are still being written, albeit with slight
modificatton, in the age of jet travel. Similarly, European poetics
underwent a fundamental change from Antiquity to the Middle Ages
and back again to the Renaissance. Plato and Aristotle took drama
as the norm and therefore considered imitation the essential
functional feature of their poetics. But the Middle Ages knew very
little drama in that sense. Isidore of Seville, the author of one of
the earliest medieval poetics, imagined that "drama" meant that the
author read his text aloud while mimes acted out what he was
reading an interesting, though somewhat naive attempt at
reconciling the precepts of a poetics with the facts observable in the
environment of the literary system of which he was a part. In other
words, he tried to reconcile what he read in his manuscripts with
what he could see out of his window.
The medieval literature that originated in Provence and owed
nothing to Aristotle was based on lyrical poetry, not drama. It
was to become the basis of the whole medieval system of
European literature, which accounts for the fact that the basic
events of Western medieval poetics are much closer to the
fundamental concepts of non-Western literary systems, in which
the lyric happened to be the dominant genre at the time of
codification and consequently influenced the important critical
conceptions of literary systems in which drama would appear
much later, if at all.
The boundaries of a poetics transcend languages, and ethnic
and political entities. Thi s fact is perhaps most convincingly
demonstrated by the traditional African literary system, in which
a common poetics was shared by more than four thousand
languages south of the Sahara, The communities sharing this
poetics were, moreover, living in a wide variety of forms of social
and political organization, ranging from the San bands of
hunters and food-gatherers of South Africa to independent
villages and ki ngdoms or empires marked by a hi gh degree of
centralization, in some of whi ch the literary artist even bad the
option of becoming a professional. Yet , by and l argeboth the
inventory and the functional components of African poetics are
common to traditional Zul u literature in the south of Afri ca, Yoruba
literature in the north-west, Acoli literature in the northeast,
Bakongo literature in the center, and Meri na literature on the
island of Madagascar. The situation is different in Egypt and
the Maghreb because they belong to the Islamic rather than the
African system.
The Islamic system itself also demonstrates the futility of any
attempt at confining literature to a given language, even though
it may be convenient to refer to particular systems in this way.
Rather, the real boundaries of literary systems tend to be drawn
by their common i deol ogyoften extended through conquest or
imposed by authori ty, or by a succession of ideologies social
systems have evolved or are able to accommodate simultaneously.
As far as its inventory component is concerned ( its functional
component did undergo slight modifications ), the poetics of the
Islamic system is the poetics evolved in Arabi a and based on works
of literature composed in Arabi c.
As Isl am spread outwards from Arabi a, that poetics was
adopted by other languages, and other ethnic and political
entities. A poetics suited to Arabi c, a Semitic language, was
successively taken over by Persian, an Indo-European language,
which contributed a new genre the roba'i (rewri tten in Engl i sh as
" quat rai n" ) , by Turki sh, a Finno-Ugrian language, and by Ur du,
a mi xture of Persian and Hi ndi . In the process the poetics was not
" bent " to "sui t each language precisely the opposite happened, no
matter what the effect on each language was to be. That effect
was especially marked in Turki sh. When that language adapted
itself to the Arabic-Persian metrical forms, it did violence to its own
nature, since it is a language unsuited to quantitative meters
(Bombaci 48) .
This last statement points to a similarity with the Western
system that is not easy to overlook. Indeed, the analogy between
the Islamic and European systems is rather striking, as soon as
one is prepared to see it. In both cases, a poetics is codified in a
certain language ( Greek, Arabic ) and then adapted in other
languages ( Latin, the vernacular languages of Europe, Persian,
Turkish, Urdu ) without there ever existing a political unit
encompassing all those languages, at least not for more than a few
centuries, and, in both cases, the poetics transcends the boundaries
of individual languages. There are local variations in both cases, to
be sure, but the general picture is clear. The European poetics was
later exported across the Atlantic and survived there for a relatively
long time in a different environment without undergoing much
notable change.
The reason why relatively few readers of this book can see"
the similarity between the European and the Is/amic systems is
intricately related to a development in the functional component
of European poetics that occurred about a hundred and fifty years
ago. Romanticism, itself a brilliant example of the way in which
a poetics transcends languages, and ethnic and political entities,
insists that language does indeed represent the dominant feature
of a literary work, or that a literature is circumscribed by the
language in which it is produced. This may, paradoxically, hold
ttue tor literary systems the Romantic critics most definitely did not
have in m nd, suc\v as \e CKinese and ] apaivese systems, but
compared to other literary systems these constitute the exception
rather than the rule.
Romanticism has beert extremely successful in projecting its
own functional component back in time, thus effectively
monolinguaiizing literary histories, producing histories of
German, French, and English literature usually devoted in large
part to historical periods in which literature was produced on
German, French, and English soil in different languages (one of
them usually Lati n) and according to the prescriptions of a shared
poetics-
Romanticism s strategy of projecting its own functional com-
ponent back in time has perhaps been most successful in the
formulationas part of the inventory component of its poetics
of the doctrine of the "three basic genres" : "t he" lyric, "the" epic,
and "the" drama. The strategy itself is a brilliant illustration of the
successful usurpation of traditional authority by a "new" school :
One does not easily refrain from projecting on the founding
text of classical poetics a fundamental articulation of modern"
poetics whi ch, in fact, and this will often be the case turns
out to be romantic and maybe not wi thout detrimental
theoretical consequences, for by usurping this distant filiation,
the relatively recent theory of the three basic genres not
only attributes to itself an age it does not have and, by doing so,
an appearance or presumption af eternity and hence of being
obvious,
(Genette 8)
The following examples offer further evidence of the fact that a
poetics is not circumscribed by a language. The poetics of the
literatures produced in the various Indo-European languages spoken
on the Indian subcontinent remain remarkably similar, even though
the languages themselves have progressively grown further apart.
The same holds true for the literatures produced in the Dravidian
languages of southern India and Sri Lanka. In Hellenistic literature
a number of writers wi th different geographical origins and, to some
extent, different mother tongues all conformed to Greek poetics, a
trend that would continue in the literature of the Roman Empi re, in
which the rules of that poetics were followed in both Greek and
Lati n. Similarly, Provencal literature was composed in a language
which was never actually spoken. Speakers of different variants, or
different languages (Italians and Moors writing in Provencal) would
conform to that language and they would go on conforming to the
poetics of Provencal in the various languages of medieval Europe,
with the exception of Engl i sh. Fi nal l y, in the formative stage of the
Japanese literary system, literature was not produced in Japanese,
but in Chinese. Chinese poetics was to occupy a position in the
further development of the Japanese literary system that appears
highly analogous to the position occupied by Lati n in the European
Middle Ages. It should, thereforebe "clear at once that there is
such thing as the tradition of the composition of texts, and that
that tradition is completely independent of the tradition of speaking
according to a certain matrix that has been handed down
historically, i, e. independent of historically developed individual
languages" (Coseriu 40) .
The inventory component of the poetics of a literary system is
not immediately subject to direct influence from the environment
once the formative stage of the system is past. The functional
component is more likely to undergo direct influence from
outside the system. This influence tends to find its most obvious
expression in the themes written about in various stages of the
system. A theme linked to the rise of the novel in the European
system
t
for instance, is that of the virtuous young heroine
persecuted by the wicked aristocrat, seduced and abandoned.
About a century later, the working-class heroine succeeds her
middle-class sister when the wicked aristocrat is joined in the
ranks of the depraved by the wicked bourgeois employer.
Developments in the environment of the literary system, such as the
relative loosening of strict moral dictates and the increasing
availability of birth-control devices, have since contributed to
robbing the theme of much of its topical interest. In fact, it
tends to surface in contemporary literature mainly in comedy, or as
parody.
Particular themes tend to dominate certain periods in the
evolution of a system : the vanity of all things and the obsession
with death in the European baroque, for instance, or
industrialization in the European nineteenth century, at least in
prose. Poetry, being more conservative, admitted the theme on a
comparable scale only some fifty years later. In non-Western
literary systems
T
the main theme from the sixteenth century
onwards has been the challenge represented by Western ways.
Themes and, to a lesser extent, the functional component of a
poetics exert an innovative influence on the literary system as a
whole, whereas the inventory component of the poetics tends to
exert a more conservative influence, which also affects the way in
which a theme can be treated.
A writer may claim, like Sidney
t
to look in his heart and write
but he will actually, like Sidney, see his heart only through the
formal perspectives open to hi m. In Astrophel and Stella the
Petrarchan sonnet sequence provided Sidney with the occasion to
look into his heart, and lent its coloring to the picture of Stella he
found there. -
(Scholes 130)
The conservative influence exerted by the inventory component
of a poetics is also attested by the fact that genres seem to be able
to lead a shadowy existence as theoretical possibilities" when not
actively practiced and that they can be revived sooner or later.
Genres tend to dominate certain stages in the evolution of a literary
system ( the tanka, for instance, succeeded by the renga and
the haiku in Japanese literature) only to be relegated to a more
secondary role that does not exclude the possibility of rediscovery
and new use.
Romanticism did, broadly speaking, administer the final blow
to the epic, whereas the Renaissance cast out the ballad as
unacceptable and reinstated the epic after a period of almost twelve
hundred years during which no work of literature had been written
that corresponded to the Renaissance concept of what an epic
ought to be. In contemporary literature both the epic and the ballad
continue to be written, even though the epic in its post-Pound
avatar has moved further away from its historical predecessor than
the ballad*
A poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute-
In a literary system the poetics dominant today is quite different
from the poetics dominant at the inception of the system. Its
functional component is likely to have changed, and its inventory
component will have changed as well, in most cases. Yet every
poetics tends to posit itself as absolute, to dismiss its predecessors
(which amounts, in practice, to integrating them into itself) and
to deny its own transience or, rather, to see itself as the necessary
outcome of a process of growth of which it happens to be the
best and therefore also the final stage. Each dominant poetics
freezes or certainly controls the dynamics of the system, It
achieves this goal more easily in systems with undifferentiated
patronage.
To retain its absolute position as long as possible, a poetics
must deny or, at least, rewrite the history of the literature it
dominates at a given time. The most notorious recent examples
of this process can be plucked at random from that period in
German literature in which a poetics closely linked with the Nazi
ideology occupied the dominant position in the literary system.
"Julius Petersen's reclaiming of Goethe for the Hitler Yout h" is one
such example among many, as is the description of Schiller as
"Hi tl er' s comrade in arms" (Ei bl 29) . In another, wider context
this process can be seen at work in the struggle that took place in
nearly all non-Western systems in the nineteenth century: the
struggle between the traditional poetics intent on keeping the
system closed to Western influence nd a new poetics trying to
strike a balance between the traditional and the imported* which
is perceived as either potentially liberating or potentially subversive
depending on the ideological position taken.
Finally, a changeable and changing poetics, established mainly
by means of rewritings, will also dictate which original works of
literature and which rewritings are acceptable in a given system, or,
rather, such a poetics will be the touchstone used by teachers,
critics, and others to decide what is in and what is out. As such that
poetics will exert a tremendous influence on the interpntration of
two literary systems. In most cases the dictates of the poetics are
ahistorical, witness the translation of poetry in the European (and
American) system. The poetics of that system has long dictated
that poetry should be translated into rhyming metrical verse, quite
oblivious of the fact that the poetry of its own formative period
the poetry written in classical Greek and in Latin, did not rhyme at
all and, even though metrical, was written in meters different
from those used in the literature of successor languages. The
rhyme and meter rule, which reigned supreme until about the
outbreak of the Great War, has been responsible for the failure of
many a translation to carry its original across into the Western
system. This situation, in turn, greatly obstructed the process of
assimilation. -
Different poetics dominant at different stages in the evolution
of a literary system will judge both writings and rewritings in
different, irreconcilable ways, all based on good faith and the
conviction that each is the representative of the only truth. Let
us look, for instance, at the reviews of Ezra Pound s Homage to
Sextus Propertius, Pound,s rewriting was damned by Professor
Wilson Hale of Yale University, who quite obviously based
his judgment on the then valid criteria based on the then
dominant poetics for evaluating a translation. It was defended
by those arguing the case for a different poetics. A. R. Orage
wrote :
Wi th some of Professor Hale's literal criticisms it is impossible
not to agree. Speaking in the name of the schools, he is
frequently correct. But in the name of the humanities, of life, of
art, of literature, what does it matter that Mr . Pound has spelled
Punic with a capital when he meant a small letter.
(i n Homberger 158)
Nearly twenty years later James Laughlin argued that Pound' s
rewriting had been judged on the basis of the wrong poetological
criteria: it has occurred to me that Variations on a Theme of
Propertius' would be a more accurate title than Homage to Sextus
Propertius, It is sometimes as hard to locate Propertius' figure in
Pound's recreation of it as it is to detect Haendel's theme in
Brahms' variations on it" (quoted in Homberger 322).
Pound's early shorter poems can also be seen as an illustration
of the way in which different poetics react to the same work of
literature through the pen of different critics. First of all, it is
significant that "none of the established American magazines, such
as Scribners or the Century, would publish the poems he
submitted" (Homberger 2). In 1911 Charles Granville asserted the
then dominant poetics against the newcomer :
We need not attempt the very difficult task of defining poetry
but we can at least enunciate two or three qualities whose
presence is necessary in all poetic compositions :
Poetry is born of the emotions. A true poet is capable of
imposing his own emotion upon hearer and reader.
(2) The expression of the reader's emotion must be in rhythmic
and beautiful language.
(3) The language must be characterized by perspicuity, for the
sole reason that the emotion is not conveyable to reader or
hearer unless it be clearly expressed.
(quoted in Homberger 78)
A review based on a poetics of this nature could hardly be
favorable to Pound' s early work which was, as another reviewer
subscribing to the same poetics, R. M, Al l en, observed "guiltless
of form, as form is known to masters or students of the art of
poetry (quoted in Homberger 100). Rupert Brooke deplored that
Pound had fallen, it appears, under the dangerous influence of
Whi tman, and [he] writes many poems in unmetrical sprawling
lengths that, in his hands, have nothing to commend t hem
(quoted in Homberger 59). Precisely this feature endeared Pound's
early work to F. S. Flint, then also struggling to evolve an
alternative poetics, who wrote "one thing is proved by these two
little books of his, Personae and Exultations, and that is that the
old devices of regular metrical beat and regular rhyming are worn
out" (quoted in Homberger 65).
It would be easy to conclude, somewhat philosophically, that
history proved Pound and Flint right and the others wrong. History
L E E D S U N I V E R S I T Y L I B R A R Y
does not prove anything. History is made by people, according to
certain constraints that are, it is claimed in this book, mainly
systemic in nature.
Once a literary system is established it tends to try to reach arid
maintain a steady state, as all systems do, a state in which all
elements are in equilibrium wi th each other and with, their
environment. Strictly regulated systems even appoint individuals to
institutions expressly created to bring that state of affairs into
being, such as the Acadmie (Franaise) and other academies. Yet
there are two factors
f
in the literary system as in all other systems,
that tend to counteract this development. Systems develop
according to the principle of polarity, which holds that every system
eventually evolves its own countersystem
f
the way Romantic
poetics for* instance, eventually stood neoclassical poetics on its
head, and according to the principle of periodicity, which holds that
all systems are liable to change. The evolution of a literary system
is the complex interplay between the desire to reach a steady
state, the two opposing tendencies just mentioned, and the way in
which the social system s regulatory component (patronage) tries to
handle these opposing tendencies.
Rewritten literature plays a vital part in this evolution. The
struggle between rival poetics is often initiated by writers, but
fought and won or lost by rewriters. Rewritings are also a perfect
gauge to measure the extent to which a poetics has been
interiorized. When Houdard De la Motte for instance, "translates"
the Iliad in such a way that half of it is left out as will be shown
in Chapter 7 he does so in perfect good faith. Like many of his
contemporaries he is absolutely convinced of the superiority of
the poetics of which he is a representative and proceeds to act on
the basis of this conviction
f
ruthlessly excising every aspect of
Homer that could not be rewritten in terms of both got
t
taste, and
a poetics that regarded the tragdie as the pinnacle of literary
achievement.
Rewritings, mainly translations, deeply affect the interpn-
tration of literary systems, not just by projecting the image of one
writer or work in another literature or by failing to do so as will
be shown in Chapter 6 but also by introducing new devices into
the inventory component of a poetics and paving the way to changes
in its functional component. The ode, for instance, became a
fixture o{ the French literary system at the time of the Pliade,
via translations from the Latin. An analogous situation had
occurred in Italy a little earlier where the ode, also inspired by
translations from the Latin, had immediately assumed the place
occupied by the canzone in the late medieval poetics. Moralizing
translations, often influenced by the Jesuits, bent the picaresque
novel into the shape of the Bildungsroman. The characteristic
alternation of masculine and feminine rhymes was introduced into
French poetry by Octavien de St Gelais,s translations of Ovid
and was only later taken up again by Ronsard. The sonnet was
introduced into Chinese in the 1920s, through translations made by
Feng Chi. The hexameter was introduced into German by the
Homer translations of Johann Heinrich Voss, John Hookham
Frerens translations of Pulci introduced ottava rima into English,
where it was soon to be used by Byron in his Doji Jua?i. Yet
Goethe's pious hope that literary history will plainly state who was
the first to take this road in spite of so many obstacles" ( 39)
remains exactly that*
Literary histories, as they have been written until recently,
have had little or no time for translations, since for the literary
historian translation has had to do with language only, not with
literature another outgrowth of the monoUngualization of
literary history by Romantic historiographers intent on creating
"national
1
' literatures preferably as uncontaminated as possible by
foreign influences. Yet on every level of the translation process it
can be shown that, if linguistic considerations enter into conflict
with considerations of an ideological and/or poetological nature the
latter tend to win out.
A. W. SchlegeFs fateful pronouncement that "one of the first
principles of the art of translation is that, for as far as the nature
of a language allows, a poem should be recreated in the same
meter" (52), which has been responsible for all kinds of metrical
contortions in many translations produced between 1830 and
1930, was obviously not made on linguistic grounds. Browning's
insistence on the " use of certain allowable constructions which,
happening to be out of daily favour, are all the more appropriate
to archaic workmanshi p" ( 1095) is responsible for the fact that
most Victorian translations of the classics of Antiquity read
so monotonously alike. It was not inspired by any linguistic
necessity but by the desire to acquire the timeless through use of the
archaic.
Even the creation of words bears out the same proposition.
When the early Christians needed to translate the Greek word
musterion, they did not want simply to Latinize it, because it was
too close to the vocabulary used by the mystery c u l t s ,
Christianity's main competitor at the time. For the same reason
they rejected words like sacra, arcana, initiawhich would have
been semantically acceptable. They settled for sacramentum because
it was a term both neutral and close to the original. But when St
Jerome wrote the Vulgate translation of the Bible Christianity had
won the battle against the mystery religions and he felt free to
simply Latinize musterion into mysterium ( cf. Klopsch 37- 8 )
Similarly, the Aramaic Jesus Christ is supposed to have spoken did
not have a copula. He can therefore never have said Thi s is my
body when pointing at a loaf of bread. The copula was put in by
translators for ideological rather than linguistic reasons.
Chapter 4
Translation the categories
Translation : the categories
Lifelines, noses, legs, handles the Lysistrata
of Aristophanes
Two factors basically determine the image of a work of literature
as projected by a translation. These two factors are, in order of
importance, the translator's ideology ( whether he/she willingly
embraces it, or whether it is imposed on hi m/her as a constraint
by some form of patronage ) and the poetics dominant in the
receiving literature at the time the translation is made. The ideology
dictates the basic strategy the translator is going to use and
therefore also dictates solutions to problems concerned with both
the universe of discourse expressed in the original ( objects,
conceptscustoms belonging to the world that was familiar to
the writer of the original ) and the language the original itself is
expressed in.
At the end of Aristophanes' Lysistrata, the heroine asks
Peace/ an allegorical character played by a naked young lady of
great beauty, to bring the Spartan peace emissaries to her, and she
adds the line En m dido tn cheira, tes saths age" (l i ne 1119
in Coulon and van Dael e). The line translates literally as if he
doesn't give you his hand, take him by the what is in the 1968
reprint of Liddell and Scott's famous Greek-English lexicon still
translated by means of the Latin phrase m em brum virile the
penis, in other words. Since the way these and other membra can be
referred to in literature is to no small extent indicative of the
ideology dominant at a certain time in a certain society, this may be
as good a point as any to enter in mdias res,
Patrick Dickinson translates the line quoted above as"But if they
won't/Give you their hands, take them and tow them, politely, / By
their l i f e-l i nes" ( 118) . Sixty-eight years earlier Wi lli am James
Hickie who translated Aristophanes for the Bohn Classical
Library, rendered the same line as If any do not give his hand,
lead him by the nose ( 442 ) * Hickie is fond of noses in this
connection, witness his translation of "kou m tot alle sou kuon ton
orcheon labetai" [lest not any other of the dogs grab you by the
testicles] (line 363) as And no other bitch shall ever lay hold of
your nose" (405) . He goes on to explain in footnote: meaning that
she would anticipate such a casualty by pulling it off ( 405 ). He
then proceeds to shore up his interpretation of the line in a
somewhat incongruous manner, by quoting Droysen's German
translation of i t: doch sollte bei den Hoden dann kein Koeter
mehr dich packen" [then no dog should take you by the testicles
again] (405).
Fifty-nine years after Hickie
f
Sutherland translated the same
line as If he won' t give his hand, then lead him by the pri ck"( 43) .
Three years later Parker translated : I f hands are refused, conduct
them by the handle" ( 78) . Ten years earlier Fitts wrote "Take
them by the hand, women/or by anything else if they seem
unwi l l i ng" ( 51 ), and twenty years before that Way had written :
"I f they don' t give a hand, a leg will do49) . We could keep
going, and there is no lack of passages in Aristophanes that could
keep us entertained in a similar manner as we shake our heads over
so many different translations. But the point should have been made
by now.
It has been made perhaps most succinctly by Gilbert Seldes in
the foreword to his Lysistrata. He points out that Aristophanes
comedy has been performed as a propagandistic work for both
pacifism and the rights of women, as an operetta and as a typical
sexual comedy quite in the French manner ( i x) . The play, to
coin a phrase, allows for many interpretations," including the
interpretation of merely rendering it in as literal a translation as
possible. What concerns me here, though, is the simple fact
that the interpretations quite literally become the play for those
who are unable to read the original or, in other words, that the
translation projects a certain image of the play in the service of a
certain ideology.
This fact is most apparent in the passages various translators
insert in their translations, passages that are most emphatically
not in the original. Seldes himself added a passage for the chorus
that allows a group of senators to air their views on the inter-
minable war
Chorus of Senators : We owe all to the war. The war must go on.
Chapter 4 Translation the categories
First Senator: For if the war ends, all the laws we have passed.
emergency measures to keep us in power, will become nul l and
void and we' ll have to go back to the work that we di d, which
wouldnt be pleasant. (27)
It is not particularly hard to guess that the following insert could
not possibly have been written by Aristophanes himself, aiid that it
must have been inserted for a purpose :
Small particles of earth become a pot
That' s change and growth the formless given form
And then it's fired and finished in the flame-
Out of the chaos and the formlessness
Of senseless war, of tribe wi th tribe, we'll moul d
Wi t h delicate skill a whole Nigeria.
(Harri son and Si mmons 40)
The insert is taken from a transl ati on/adaptati on, in short : a
rewriting of Aristophanes* Lysistrata published in I badan. Nigeria,
before, not after the Biafran war*
Similarly, the following insert can easily be linked to the cause
(the ideology ) that made a certain translator adopt a certain
strategy in 1911 :
For here is a Cause to your hand
More holy than any before :
And in it lies beauty, and wi sdom,
And courage, and love of your land.
Nay, surely the mothers who bore you.
The silent mothers of yore,
They also were made of this metal,
And out of the bed of the nettle,
Wherein they bred you of old,
They, too, who spake not a word,
They, too, brave hearts, could have told
Their tale of wrongs unheard.
So forward I bid you, nor fail,
Nor yield what ye hold in your hand :
For the wind which now blows in your sail
Shall bear you to land.
( Housman 44}
It will come as no surprise that the translation containing this
extract was published by The Women' s Press during the heyday of
the suffragette movement in Britain.
Since Aristophanic comedy is rather radical in attacking certain
ideologies and defending others
y
most of the translators whose
Lysistratas have been published over the past century and a half
have felt the need to state their own ideology. Most of the
translators whose work was published during the first half of that
century and a half would agree wi th A. S- Way' s statement "the
indecency of Attic comedy, which is all-pervading which crops up
in every play, and in the most unexpected places, is a sad
stumbling-block to the reader, and a grievous embarrassment to the
translator" ( xix ). Whi l e most of these translators fervently
disagreed wi th an ideology that condoned this indecency, few went
as far as the first translator of Aristophanes during the past century
and a half, C. A. Wheel wri ght, who stated in his introduction that
The Lysistrata bears so evil a character that we must make but
fugitive mention of it, like persons passing over hot embers" ( 62) .
In his translation he simply omits the very crux of the play the
oath the women take at the formal start of their sex strike.
Furthermore, he simply ends his translation at line 827 of the
original, refusing to translate lines 828 to 1215one quarter of the
play, not because he had suddenly forgotten all his Greek, but
because his ideology was incompatible with the one expressed in
Greek by Aristophanes.
Most other translators have tried to make Lysistrata fit their
ideology by using all kinds of manipulative techniques. Al l of their
strategies have been adequately described by Jack Lindsay in the
introduction to his translation. Their effort, he points out, "i s
always to show that the parts considered offensive are not the actual
expression of the poet, that they are dictated externally" ( 15 ).
Thus J P. Maine states in his 1909 introduction that "At hens was
now under an oligarchy, and no references to politics was [sic]
possible, so Aristophanes tries to make up indecency [si c]I : x-
xi ). In his introduction written in 1820 and reprinted in 1909, in the
second volume edited by Mai ne, John Hookham Frere states that
Ari stophanes, it must be recollected, was often under the
necessity of addressing himself exclusively to the lower class (2
xxvi ), Both Maine nd Hookham Frere blame patronage for
Aristophanes* woes, but each blames a completely different type of
patronage. Two years later Benjamin Bickley Rogers writes that "i n
truth this very coarseness, so repulsive to ourselves, so amusi ng to
an Atheni an audience, was introduced, it is impossible to doubt,
for the express purpose of counterbalancing the extreme gravity and
earnestness of the pl ay" ( x) . In this case Aristophanes is portrayed
not as the sovereign author, but as the conscientious craftsman who
has no other choice than to bow to the demands of his craft, and
nothi ng will prevent ( some ) readers from wanti ng to feel that
Aristophanes the man would not have done what Aristophanes the
craftsman had to do.
It was left to A. S. Way, twenty-three years later, to express
the translator's dilemma in the most delicately wordy manner:
The traduttore, then, who woul d not willingly be a traditore,
may not exscind or alter, but he may well so translate, where
possible, that, while the (i ncorrupti bl e) scholar has the stern
satisfaction of finding that nothi ng has been shirkedthe reader
who doefe not know the Greek may pass unsuspectingly over not a
few unsavoury spots not that his utmost endeavours can make
his author suitable for reading (al oud) in ladies' school. ( xx)
The translator is caught between his adherence to an ideology that
is not that of Aristophanes, indeed views sexual matters in a quite
different manner, and his status as a professional who must be able
to convince other professionals that he is worthy of that title, while
at the same time not producing a text that runs counter to his
ideology.
Yet ideology is not the only factor to determine the transl ator^
strategy. Poetics is another. Some early translators, in fact, use
Aristophanes' poetics as an argument to defend hi m against the
ideological charge of indecency. Wheel wri ght, for instance, states
that Aristophanes
works occasionally wi th unclean tools and * chastises vice by
open exposure of its turpitude, offending the ear whilst he aims
to mend the heart. Thi s fashion of plain speaking was that in
which he wrote, and the audience demanded and woul d have it. If
we cannot entirely defend the indelicacy of his muse, we cannot
deny that a great share of the blame rests wi th the spectators.
( i x)
In other words, Aristophanes could not have written otherwise,
even if he had wanted to
T
and the translator can ease his own
conscience and that of his readers by strongly implying that
Aristophanes would have wanted to if only he had been allowed
lo. The constraints imposed by patronage and poetics left him
little choice, but still, the reasoning goes and this is probably
perceived as the mark of true genius he was able to transcend
the situation to some extent, at least, and mend a few of the
spectators "hearts.
Seventy-three years later Maine wrote that Aristophanes'
"indecency is due, partly to the survival at the festivals of Dionysus
of very primitive forms of worship, and partly to the simple and
outspoken frankness of the Greeks on topics which modern taste
leaves rigorously unmentioned" ( viii). This sort of statement tends
to turn Aristophanes into some kind of noble savage," and so to
make him more acceptable to the receiving culture, not least by
subtly confirming that culture's view of itself as superior to most, if
not all others. Twenty-five years later Way states that' thi s loose
jesting was part of the tradition of the theatre. It had the sanction
of immemorial prescription ( xix ), Way' s statement echoes
Wheel wri ghts in part, but falls short of suggesting that
Aristophanes actually did transcend his society.
Other translators try to merge the poetics of Aristophanes with
a poetics acceptable in their own culture. Al an Sommerstein
points out in his introduction that some of the songs 1 have
written with existing music in mi nd 37). He goes on to define
some of that music, designed to make the Attic comedy look more
like a light operetta, as well-known traditional tunes ( 3 7 ) ,
whereas other incidental music is taken from "the operas of Gilbert
and Sullivan ( 37) , In one of the funniest scenes of the play
Kinesias, who has just been cheated out of sex by his wife
Myrrhine, " bursts into a sorrowful song" ( 220 ). The song is
addressed to his own "woeful" penis and "may be sung to The Blue
Bells of Scotland '
n
( 252) . Similarly, Gilbert Seldes states in his
introduction that
The original play would have run some forty minutes and a great
part of this would have been taken up by lengthy choruses for
which our ears are no longer grateful, and by secondary scenes
which had meanings for the Greeks twenty centuries ago, but
have none for us. Some of the major scenes, however, have
implications which Aristophanes had no need to work out and
they have given the clue to the new scenes which have been
added. (xi )
These new scenes have been added not only to make the play look
more like what theater-goers of Seldes's own day and age had
come to expect, but also to make an actual performance of it
possible since the very format of a theatrical performance has
changed so much over the centuries, Ari stophanes has to be made
to fit the contemporary format. The alternative woul d be to leave
hi m unperformed. Therefore, before one casts philological stones
at Seldes, one could do worse than entertain the notion that he
did not want to disfigure Ari stophanes, but to actually save
hi m for his own ti me. A classical philologist woul d thi nk of
Aristophanes poetics as absolute a man of the theater woul d
not.
Seldes accordingly adds an introductory scene in whi ch the chorus
of old women explains to the audince what is going to happen, in
the best tradition of the well-made play* The same chorus
actually dresses up the Atheni an magistrate for a mock funeral as
suggested ( but not carried out ) in the original textputs hi m on a
litter, and has hi m carried away by the chorus of old men, thus
adding some in Seldes's opinion no doubt much needed action
to the play. The scene between Kinesias and Myrrhi ne is expanded
to include similar games of advances and rejections between other
soldiers and their wives, thus achieving a chori c" effect much
closer to that usually seen in the musical than in Greek comedy, and
one for which Seldes thinks our earsare likely to be more
grateful .
In the introduction to Aikin Mata
r
their rewriting ( transl ati on/
adaptation? the term rewriting absolves us of the necessity to
draw borderlines between various forms of rewriting, such as
"transl ati on, " adaptation, emulation ) of Lysistrata, T. W.
Harri son and J, Si mmons state that "by restoring music and dance
to an integral place in a production of Greek Comedy, the play itself
could be performed in a manner nearer to the Greek than the kind of
productions one has i n European theatre ( 9 ) , hi nti ng that the
poetics of Afri can theater are closer to those of Greek comedy than
those of contemporary European theater. The unstated ideological
assumpti on is, of course, that African culture is closer to what is
generally considered the cradle " of European civilization than
contemporary Europe itself, even though Europe imposed its own
culture on Africa in the name of civilization. " Harrison and
Simmons mention specifically masquerades like the Yoruba
Egun g un of Oshogbo with their dual sacred and profane functions
as ancestor spirits and as comic entertainers" (10). Accordingly, in
Aikin Mata, the chorus of old men and the chorus of old women
actually fight to the accompaniment of drums. The Athenian
magistrate is given the local title of "Al kal i and the old women
remove their shawls, tie them together, then run around Al kal i ,
winding the cloth around him until he cannot move" ( 42 ). Aikin
Mata also makes the struggle between matriarchy and patriarchy,
which may well have been at the origin of Lysistrata, more explicit
in the African context. The leader of the men's chorus addresses
the women as "descendants of stern matri archs"(36), and the two
choruses sing praise songs For each other, interjecting another
element taken from traditional African poetics. One of the songs
sings the praises of Queen Ami na of Zazzau, a warrior queen
beautiful and brave/Conquering as far as Kworarafa" ( 50) . The
rewriting of Aristophanes in this fashion seems to be designed to
make him part and parcel of African culture, a classic in that
culture in a way that is not within the power of the Penguin
Classics" rewritings used in African universities
+
Conversely, the
u
transposition" of classical Greek culture to Africa appears designed
to suggest the existence of a common culture, and to raise questions
about the legitimacy of claims made by one part of that common
culture" to superiority over the other part.
Ideology and poetics particularly shape the translator^
strategy in solving problems raised by elements in the Universe of
Discourse of the original and the linguistic expression of that
original. The two problems coalesce in Lysistrata as in other
plays by Aristophanes in the guise of the "cultural stereotype.
Aristophanes introduces Dorians ( Spartans and Megarans) on the
Athenian stage, and the to Athenians uncouth way they speak
Greek produces a comic effect. Perhaps the link between ideology
on the one hand and strategies used for solving Universe-of-
Discourse and linguistic problems on the other is nowhere as
obvious as in the justifications used by translators to maintain in
their translations some of the linguistic and cultural differentia-
tions Aristophanes uses in the original. Lindsay states in a footnote
that
the translator has put the speech of the Spartan characters in
Scotch dialect, which is related to English about as was the
Spartan dialect to the speech of Athens. The Spartans, in their
character, anticipated the shrewed, canny, uncouth Scotch
highlander of modern times. (26)
The Lindsay translation's popularity in Scotland may not have been
overwhelming, especially not since a Scottish translator woul d,
presumably, make the Spartans speak cockney. For similar
reasons, Sutherland' s translation may not go over too well in the
south of the United States, His Dorians speak with a southern
accent because Dorian sounded rustic and yet could suggest
aggressive pomposity, like certain Texan subvarieties of our
Southern normxi v) . Neither translator stops to consider either
the validity of the stereotypes, cultural mechanisms to affirm
the superiority of one subgroup over another, or the probable
anachronistic effect of the use of Scotch" or Texan in classical
Athens.
Other nodes where ideology and/or poetics are seen to inspire
strategies for dealing with problems related to Universe of
Discourse, or simply discourse, are enumerated by Moses Hadas in
his introduction to the Bantam Aristophanes : allusions to
contemporary persons, events or usages
t
special connotations of
words" ( 2 )al so implying double entendre as well as the
volume of literary allusion which the audience was expected to
recognize" ( 9) . In his 1820 introduction, John Hookham Frere had
already sketched the two mutual l y incompatible strategies available
to translators grappling with these problems. Wi t h the benefit of
hindsight we can link each of his archetypal translators to a certain
ideology and a certain poetics. The first archetype is that of the
faithful translator, who
renders into English all the conversational phrases according to
their grammatical and logical form, without any reference to the
current usage which had affixed to them an arbitrary sense and
appropriated them to a particular and definite purpose. He retains
scrupulously all the local and personal peculiarities, and in the
most rapid and transient allusions thinks it his duty to arrest the
attention of the reader with a tedious explanatory note. (xvi )
The archetypal translator just described tends to be conservative in
both ideological and poetological terms. He translates the way he
does our of reverence for the cultural prestige the original has
acquired. The greater that prestige, the more grammatical and
logical" the translation is likely to be, especially in the case of texts
regarded as the "foundati on texts" of a certain type of society: the
Bible, the Quran, The Communist Manifesto. Thi s translator will
use the explanatory note " to ensure that the reader reads the
translation interprets the text, arid certainly the foundation text
in the " ri ght " way. He will also use the note to resolve" any
discrepancies that may be thought to exist between the actual text
of the original and the current authoritative interpretation of that
text, gladly changing both translation and notes as that
interpretation changes.
Frere's "Spirited Translator,
on the contrary, employs the corresponding modern phrases but
he is apt to imagine that a peculiar liveliness and vivacity may be
imparted to his performance by the employment of such phrases
as are particularly connected wi th modern manners; and if at any
time he feels more than usually anxious to avoid the appearance of
pedantry, he thi nks he cannot escape from it in any way more
effectively than by adopting the language and jargon of the day.
The peculiarities of ancient times he endeavors to represent by
substituting in their place the peculiarities of his own time and
nation, (xvi i )
This archetypal translator is not conservative in either poetological
or ideological terms. He is less awed than the
11
faithful translator"
by the prestige of the original indeed, it is often his intention to
shock his audience by "updati ng" the original in such a way that it
tends to lose at least some of its "classical" status. He gladly takes
the risks involved in anachronism. Hi s rewriting is, in essence,
subversive, designed to make the reader question both the prestige
of the original and is received" interpretation in both poetological
and ideological terms. Struggles between riva! poetics are often
sparked off by translationsand not seldom fought also by means of
translations. Needless to say, this way of translating is not without
risks where foundation texts are involved : many a "spirited Bible
translator for instance, was burned at the stake, and the faithful
were not allowed to translate the Quran.
It is easy to see which archetype Wi l l i am James Hickie chose for
his model, Hickie states in his introduction that he has
endeavoured to give what Aristophanes actually wrote, as far as
could be accomplished in English words, excepting in passages of
extreme indelicacy
T
which are necessarily paraphrasedv-vi ).
Paraphrase joins the explanatory note to ensure the " r i ght "
reading of the text. Douglass Parker, on the other hand, represents
the contemporary avatar of the opposite archetype. He states in his
introduction that he
aims at recreating in American English verse what I conceive
to have been Aristophanes, essential strategies in Greek. To
do this fields of metaphor have often been changed, jokes
added in compensation for jokes lost, useless proper names .
neglected. ( 4)
Whereas the conservative translator works on the level of the
word or the sentence, the "spi ri ted" translator works on the level
of the culture as a whole
t
and of the functioning of the text in
that culture. Yet in the course of time, many translations succeed
each other and sometimes they are diametrically opposed to each
other.
One may well ask what relevance this fact amply demon-
strated here may have for the vexed question of "fi del i ty" and
"f reedom in translation. If we accept that translations get
published, whether they are f ai t hf ul " or not, and that there is
little one can do to prevent an unfaithful translation from
projecting its own image of the original, that ought to be an end
to the matter. Faithfulness is just one translational strategy
that can be inspired by the collocation of a certain ideology with a
certain poetics To exalt it as the only strategy possible
t
or even
allowable, is as Utopian as it is futile. Translated texts as such can
teach us much about the interaction of cultures and the manipulation
of texts. These topics, in turnmay be of more interest to the
world at large than our opinion as to whether a certain word has
been properl y translated or not. In fact, far from being
"objective
M
or value-free, " as their advocates would have us
believe, faithful translations" are often inspired by a conservative
ideology.
When the Boeotian delegate to the women' s conference arrives,
near the beginning of the play, Lysistrata exclaims: " N Di
hos Boiotia/kalon g echousa to pedion " [By Zeus, a Boeotian
allright, she has a beautiful plain] ( 87) . Calonice, Lysistratas
friend, remarks Kai ne Dia kompotata ten blecho ge
paratetilmene" [and by Zeus the pennyroyal has been plucked clean
from it in the most elegant fashion] (88-9). The 1968 edition of
Liddell and Scott dutifully translates the past participle
paratetilmenos as " clean-plucked
f
and adds :
44
a practice among
voluptuaries and women, " suggesting that even such bastions of
objectivity as dictionaries might have some kind of ideology
behind them.
The anonymous translator of Aristophanes. The Eleven Cotn^
edies renders the dialogue as follows: Ah ! my pretty Boeotian
friend, you are as blooming as a garden. / Yes
t
on my word! And
the garden is so prettily weeded t oo! (232). He then proceeds to
add an explanatory note, though not necessarily a tedious
one :
the allusion, of course, is to the garden of love the female
parts, which it was the custom with the Greek women, as it is
with the ladies of the harem in Turkey to this day, to depilate
scrupulously, with the idea of making themselves more attractive
to men. (232)
The word "depilate" may have somewhat of a distancing effect, but
the reader gets a pretty particular idea of what is going on.
Hickie turns the Bohn Classical Library translation, usually
considered a monument of faithfulness, into "a Boeotian with a
beautiful bosom/And, by Jove, with the hair very neatly plucked
out ( 393) , It should be obvious that faithfulness in this transla-
tion has nothing to do with knowledge of Greek. Hickie knows
very well what he is translating wrong and why he is doing it. No
supernatural force has suddenly smitten him with amnesia or
removed the relevant page from his dictionary. His ideology
quite simply will not allow him to translate what is on the page.
By submitting to the dictates of that ideology he makes nonsense
of the original, except perhaps if we are willing to consider the
somewhat remote possibility that Greek women did, indeed, have
hair on their chests. But the woman in question is from Thebes,
not Sparta, which would interfere with one of our cultural
stereotypes. It should perhaps also be noted that, if one is to
mention any part of the female anatomy at all within the confines
of Hickie's ideology, the
44
bosom" has been rendered innocuous
rx>ugh by clich to assume an almost mtonymie role, even though
T e
metonymy would tend to stretch the imagination somewhat in
this case.
Housman, whose ideology prescribes the exaltation of women on
tiieir way to liberation, accordingly renders the same dialogue as:
O fair Boeotia with the full sweet breast/And locks wherein the
5-nIight seems to rest" ( 11) . Not only does his Boeotian woman
hair she also grows it in acceptable places. In other
rewritten) words : Greek suffragettes cannot be subjected to even
K n t l y erotic double entendre. Parker, on the other hand, makes
e double entendre more obvious by means of the judicious
i ^ndi i ng of stage directions
Lysistrata :
45 they inspect Ismenia
Ah, picturesque Boiotia
her verdant meadows, her fruited plain . . .
Kalonike
Peering more closely
Her sunken
garden where no grass grows. A cultivated country. (13
:e disjunction between what is said and what is done on the state
renders the dialogue funny, presumably reproducing the intentions
: : Ari stophanes,
Consider next an object and a concept that belonged to
Aristophanes* Universe of Discourse. The object appears in line
w
Ouk eidon, says Lysistrata, "oud olisbon okt odakt ul on. "
e
goes on to say "hos en an hmin skutine pi kouri a. Since the
\tiesians abandoned the Athenian cause, she complains, she has
seen "a single eight-fingered olisbos which could be a leather
sc:5ce for us. An olisbosLiddell and Scott obligingly inform us,
^
3
penis coriaceus, After briefly consulting the nearest Latin
-c:i onary
f
we are able to find out that the phrase means : leather
The conservative translator would stop at this point the
^ ; : r i t ed" one might perhaps go on to something like " leather
" The Milesians were famous for manufacturing these items,
^ when they abandoned the Atheni an cause the women of Athens
r e faced with a dire calamity indeed.
Housman omits the line altogether suffragettes do not use this
of thing, Hickie translates, but manages to do it in such a way
that the reader still does not know what Lysistrata is talking
about (he is definitely not trying to convey information ). Hi s
translation reads : I have not seen a thi ng of the kind which
mi ght have consoled us in the absence of our husbands ( 394) .
He does supply a further explanatory note stating that the
Milesians, at the instigation of Alcibiades, had revolted in the
Summer of the year 412" ( 394) . It is well known that Athens
lost one ally after another during the closing years of the Peloponn-
esian war, but the reader remains somewhat puzzled as to why
the defection of the Milesians, in particular, is such a bl ow.
Wheel wri ght also opts for the cryptic, for ideological reasons,
perhaps confusing the reader as he does so. Hi s translation
reads: "For since we were betrayed by the Mi l esi ans/I have
not seen a vase eight fingers l ong/That we mi ght have a leather
consolation" ( 6 8 ) . The reader may be excused for wondering
about the strange Atheni an custom of putti ng flowers in leather
vases.
Fitts translates! "I ' ve not seen so much, even/as one of those
devices they call Wi dows' Delight ( 1 0) * Dickinson omits the
lines altogether, and merely translates the preceding line: Not
even the ghost of a lover' s/Been left to us women" ( 84) . Harrison
and Si mmons quite logically translate : "there^s little consolation in a
kzvaroro"(20) , informing the reader in a footnote that a "kwaroro"
is a "woven penis-sheath worn by the pagan tribes of the Plateau.
The concept belonging to Aristophanes Universe of Discourse
is that of Herakles, dinner. Towards the middle of the play
Kinesias, the husband of one of the women who occupy the
Acropoliscomes either to fetch her back home or, at least, to
make her sleep wi th hi m. She leads hi m on, always forgetti ng"
something that is needed to make their marital duties more
comfortable (a pi l l ow, perf ume) , and she finally runs off j ust
before he thinks he will be able to have sex wi th her. Kinesias
voices his disappointment as follows: "al l e to peos tod Herakles
ksenizetai" [but this penis here is waited on like Heracles] (l i ne
928) . The anonymous translator of the Eleven Comedies renders
the line as f ol l ows: " Oh dear, oh dear! They treat my poor self for
all the world like Herakl es" ( 275) . He adds in an explanatory
not e":
The comic poets delighted in introducing Heracles (Hercul es) on
the stage as an insatiable gl utton, whom the other characters
were forever tantalizing by promising toothsome dishes and then
making him wait indefinitely for their arrival. (275)
-ne footnote makes the analogy clear to the reader, who can then
rraily understand" the line he or she just read in the text. The
mediacy of understanding so important in comedy is, of course,
::ally lost. Being "fai thful " to the original, Hickie again manages
'transl ate something the reader, who is deprived of all
explanatory notes, " will not be able really to understand: Trul y
:y carease is entertained like Hercules" (429). Fitts does basically
same thing, fifty-two years later: I don,t suppose even
Herakles/would stand for t hi s" ( 8 1 ) , rather easily deflating the
double entendre.
Lindsay tries to incorporate the explanation of the concept
:o the concept as such: They treat you just like Heracles at a
Wi t h cheats of dainties" ( 89) . Sommerstein also opts for the
explanatory note" to supplement his rendering of the line as "Thi s
^ a Heracles' supper and no mistake! " ( 219 ). Onl y Sutherland
("Poor prick, the service around here is terrible! [34]) and Parker
*What a lovefeast ! Onl y the table gets l ai d! [66] ) opt for
-tr.dering the basic information by eschewing the concept that
Served as its vehicle in the original. By doing so, they may arguably
said to remain much more fai thful " to that original than their
^. l eagues who remain tied to the word and do riot see the function
I hat word within the totality of the scene, or even the whole
êxt.
Literary allusions represent another type of Universe of
lAscourse element. In their discussion with the magistrate the
iraen are maki ng fun of the men strutting around Athens in full
: i r t i al regalia and committing acts of valor like the following :
* l i e r a s d'au Thraks pel ten seion kakontion hosper ho Tereus/
firrditteto tn ischadopolin kai tas orupepeos katepinen" [Another,
a Thracian, shaking a small light shield and a spear, like
Tereus frightened the dealer in figs and gobbled up the olives]
:53-4 >, Tereus is the title of a lost play by Aristophanes
1
best
tnjrmv, Euripides. Sutherland gives us the author, but not the
^'^y "and a Thracian who, brandishing shield and spear/like some
i ^mge Euripides staged once" ( 22) . The anonymous translator of
Eleven Comedies gives us the play
T
but not the author "There
x^ s Thracian warrior too, who was brandishing his lance like
56 Translation , Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame
Ter eus i n the pl ay" ( 2 5 7 ) . Roger s and Li ndsay f ol l ow basi cal l y t he
same st r at egy, but most t r ansl at or s si de wi t h Housman and make
no at t empt at al l t o save t he al l usi on, ei t her because t hey gi ve i t up
as a l ost cause, or because t hey compensat e" f or i t at some ot her
pl ace i n t he pl ay.
I n l i nes 138-91 Lysi st r at a compl ai ns: Ouk etos aph hmon
ei si n hai t r agodi ai / ouden gar esmen pl n Posei don kai skaph
( not f or not hi ng are t he t ragedi es about us / we are not hi ng but
Posei don and s h i p ) . The al l usi on as Hi cki e t el l s us i n an
" expl anat or y not e, i s t o " t he Sophocl ean t r agedy of Tyro, wher e
t he beaut i f ul gi r l appears wi t h Nept une i n t he begi nni ng, and at
t he cl ose wi t h t wo l i t t l e boys, wh o m she exposes i n a boat ( 359-
60 ) . Housman changes t he al l usi on i n accordance wi t h hi s
i deol ogy : " Oh, wr et ched race whi ch makes al l Greece i t s gr av e! /
Women be vessel s dr i ven by wi nd and wav e ( 1 5 ) but Gr eek
suf f r aget t es do not sl eep wi t h gods i nt o t he bar gai n. Wheel wr i ght
t r ansl at es l i t er al l y, but t he al l usi on i s l ost on an audi ence t hat
has not heard of Tyro: " T h e Tr agedi es descri be us not i n v a i n ; /
For we are nought save Nept une and hi s bar k " ( 6 9 ) . Roger s
abandons t he al l usi on as t he cul t ur al vehi cl e sui t ed t o t he or i gi nal
and si mpl y gi ves t he i nf or mat i on Ar i st ophanes pr esumabl y
i nt ended t o convey
11
Al way s t he same: not hi ng but l oves and
cradles165. Par ker and Way t r y t o steer a mi ddl e course,
conveyi ng t he i nf or mat i on i nt ended i n t he or i gi nal and Unki ng
i t t o Gr eek dr ama i n gener al , not t o t he speci f i c pl ay Ar i st ophanes
had i n mi nd, Par ker wri t es We' r e perf ect r aw mat er i al f or
Tr agedy, / t h e st uf f of heroi c l ays. Go t o bed wi t h a god/ and t hen
get r i d of t he baby ( 1 6 ) . Way renders t he same l i ne as N o
wonder we are pi l l or i ed on t he s t a g e ! / Ac t One wi t h t he usual God
and t he Gi r l b e g i n s ; / Ac t T w o t r ot s out t he i nevi t abl e
t wi ns 10) .
On t he whol e, most t r ansl at or s do not t r y t o convey t he l i t -
er ar y al l usi ons, except i n an expl anat or y n o t e . Maybe because
al l usi ons poi nt t o t he f i nal , real apori a of t r ansl at i on, t he real
unt r ansl at abl e, whi c h does not resi de i n synt act i c t r ansf er s or
semant i c const r uct i ons, but r at her i n t he pecul i ar way i n whi ch
cul t ur es al l devel op t hei r o wn " shor t hand, whi ch i s what al l usi ons
r eal l y are. A wor d or phrase can evoke a si t uat i on t hat i s symbol i c
f or an emot i on or a st at e of af f ai r s. Th e t r ansl at or can render
t he wor d or phrase and t he cor r espondi ng st at e of af f ai r s wi t hout
muc h t r oubl e. Th e l i nk bet ween t he t wo , whi c h i s so i nt r i -
Chapter 4 Transl at i on the categories
r ar el y bound up wi t h t he f or ei gn c ul t ur e i t s el f , i s mu c h har der t o
t r ansl at e.
I t r emai ns t o say a f ew wor ds about t he f i nal cat egor y i n
t r ansl at i on : l anguage. T h e r el at i ve negl ect w i t h wh i c h l anguage i s
t r eat ed her e is of cour se, i nt ent i onal , but wi l l be r emedi ed t o some
ext ent i n Chapt er 7. Fo r n o w, I s i mp l y wa n t t o mak e t he poi nt
i l i a t , c ont r ar y t o t r adi t i onal opi ni on, t r ans l at i on i s not p r i ma r i l y
* s b o u t l anguage. Rat her , l anguage as t he expr essi on ( and
r epos i t or y ) of a c ul t ur e i s one el ement i n t he c ul t ur al t r ansf er
di sown as t r ans l at i on.
T o wa r d t he end of t he pl ay t he f o l l o wi n g di al ogue t akes pl ace
: e: ween t he At h e n i a n magi s t r at e and t he Spar t an emi ssar y
Al Fes t uk as , o mi ar ot at e
O u t o n Di ' o u k egonga med au pl addi e
Ti d est i soi t odi ?
Sk ut al a L a k o n i k a . ( 989- 91)
Sat her l and t r ansl at es :
But you have an er ect i on, oh y ou r epr obat e
B a h Zeus, Ah ' v e no sech t h i n g ! A n d don' t you f ool aroud
A n d wh a t have you got t her e?
A Spaht an s c r ol l - s t i c k , suh, ( 3 7 )
>: 33mer st ei n gi ves us t he Sc o t t i s h / En g l i s h var i ant on t he Ame r i c a n
: : r t h / s o u t h t heme :
Wh y , you r ascal , y ou' v e got p r i c k i t i s !
No , I hanna. Di nna be s t upi d.
We l l , wh a t ' s t h a t , t hen?
I t s a st andar d Spar t an c i pher - r od. ( 2 2 1 )
Ha r r i s o n and Si mmo n s obl i ge wi t h t he St a n d a r d / Pi d g i n Engl i s h
" r i a t i o n on t he same t heme :
But wh a t i s t hat t hi ng?
D e y done gi ve me powa t o say
He l ooks d o wn at hi s g r o i n )
We t i n ? Na Shango s t af f . ( 6 4 )
A Shango st af f i s, of cour se, a st af f used d u r i n g t he r i t ual wor s hi p
: : c h e god Shango- T h e poi nt i s made, h o we v e r : i t i s v er y di f f i c ul t
r ender connot at i ons i n t r ans l at i on, or di f f er ent l evel s of di c t i on,
r , a p r i o r i , di f f er ent di al ect s or i di ol ect s. Connot at i ons and l evel s
of di ct i on al so t end t o bel ong t o t he ' ' cul t ur al s hor t hand" r ef er r ed t o
above, as do pr oper names. Or , t o put i t i n a mor e gener al way ,
whenever l anguage moves on t he i l l ocut i onar y, r at her t han t he
l ocut i onar y l evel , t he l evel of ef f ect r at her t han t hat of
communi cat i on, i t t hr eat ens t o become an apor i a f or t r ansl at or s.
Di al ect s and i di ol ect s t end t o r eveal t he t r ansl at or s' i deol ogi cal
st ance t owar d cer t ai n gr oups t hought of as i nf er i or or
" r i di c ul ous , bot h i nsi de t hei r cul t ur e and out si de.
I t mi ght be sai d t hat comedy, as anal yzed i n t hi s chapt er , i s a
speci al case i n t r ansl at i on because i t hi ghl i ght s t he i deol ogi cal f act or
t o such a gr eat ext ent . But what i f t r ansl at i on as a whol e i s a speci al
case a case i n whi c h t he mani pul at i on of t ext s can be most cl ear l y
document ed, because t he or i gi nal and t he mani pul at ed t ext can be
put si de by si de and anal yzed compar at i vel y? An d what i f al l
l i t er at ur e i s, t o some ex t ent , t r ansmi t t ed of necessi t y i n t he same
mani pul at or y manner ?
Chapter 5
Translation : ideology
On the construction of different
Anne Franks
There are al l ki nds of st at ement s i n Anne Fr ank' s di ar y t hat
^ a k e i t obvi ous t hat she want ed t o be a wr i t er and t hat she
wanted her di ar y publ i shed af t er Wor l d War T wo , l ong bef ore
Hol kest ei n, a mi ni st er i n t he Dut ch cabi net i n exi l e i n London,
-roadcast a message t o t he occupi ed Net her l ands over t he BBC,
. r gi ng hi s count r ymen t o make a col l ect i on of di ari es and
- : t er s af t er t he war '
1
(Paape 162) . That col l ect i on was made, and
. has since gr own i nt o t he Ri j ksi nst i t uut voor Oor l ogs-
l ocument at i e, " o r St al e I nst i t ut e f or War Document at i on, whi ch
z - bi i shed t he most compl et e edi t i on of t he Dagboeken van Anne
r - Mi k ( An n e Fr ank' s di ar i es) f or t y- f our years af t er t he Bol kest ei n
: r oadcast .
A compar i son bet ween t he or i gi nal , 1947 Dut ch edi t i on of t he
and t he mat er i al col l ect ed i n t he 1986 edi t i on gi ves us i nsi ght
:o t he process of const r uct i on" of an i mage of t he wr i t er , bot h by
- r sel f and by ot her s. A f ur t her compar i son bet ween t he Dut ch
ngi nal and t he Ger man t r ansl at i on sheds l i ght on t he
^ i nst r uct i on" of t he i mage of a wr i t er who bel ongs t o one cul t ur e
and especi al l y f or anot her .
I shal l quot e onl y one of t he many st at ement s i n t he di ar y
i t t est i ng Anne F r ank' s ambi t i on t o become a wr i t er or , at l east , a
- ma l i s t : " ! have ot her ideas as wel l , besi des Het Achterhuis. But
I Tl l wr i t e mor e f ul l y about t hem some ot her t i me, when t hey have
e n a cl earer f or m i n my mi nd ( Mooyaar t ^Doubl eday 194) .
_
:5. at l east , i s i n t he Engl i sh t r ansl at i on of t he Dut ch t ext as
: - bas hed i n 1947. The cor r espondi ng ent r y ( f or Ma y 11, 1944) i n
di e or i gi nal di ar i es, f i r st publ i shed i n t he 1986 Dut c h edi ti on also
: : mai ns a det ai l ed pl ot f or a shor t st or y ent i t l ed " Cady' s Li f e and
:Lêd on t he l i f e of Anne' s f at her , Ot t o Fr ank ( Paape 661) . The
shor t st or y had al ready " t aken a cl earer f or m i n Anne Fr ank' s mi nd
and was pr obabl y suppressed by Ot t o, or by Cont act , t he publ i sher
of t he 1947 Dut ch edi t i on.
When i t became cl ear t o Anne t hat t he di ar y coul d, and shoul d
be publ i shed she began t o r ewr i t e i t . The or i gi nal ent ri es wer e
made i n not ebooks; t he r ewr i t t en ver si on was pr oduced on l oose-
l eaf paper . Anne Fr ank was unabl e t o f i ni sh t he r ewr i t i ng. Bot h
t he not ebooks and t he l oose-l eaf ver si on wer e recovered by Mi ep,
one of t he Dut ch empl oyees of t he Fr ank f i r m who hel ped t he
Fr anks and ot her s t o hi de out i n t he Achterhuis. Mi ep di scovered
t he mat er i al af t er t he Ger man Si cher hei t sdi enst had ar r est ed t he
Fr anks and t hei r f r i ends, and t aken t hem away (see Paape 69- 88) -
Anne Frankes o wn r ewr i t i ng of t he ent r i es i n t he or i gi nal di ar y
amount s t o a ki nd of a u t o - e d i t i n g . I n edi t i ng her sel f she seems
t o have had t wo obj ect i ves i n mi nd, one per sonal and t he ot her
l i t er ar y. On t he per sonal l evel , she di scl ai ms earl i er st at ement s,
especi al l y about her mot her , " A n n e , i s i t r eal l y you who men-
t i oned hate? Oh, Anne, how coul d you? ( Mooyaar t - Doubl eday
112) , and about mor e i nt i mat e subj ect s: I am r eal l y ashamed
when I read t hose pages t hat deal wi t h subj ect s I pr ef er t o i magi ne
mor e beaut i f ul " ( Paape 3 2 1 ) . The ent r y f or Januar y 2, 1944,
si gnal s a t ur ni ng away f r om t he per sonal and t owar d t he l i t erary
" Th i s di ar y i s of gr eat val ue t o me, because i t has become a book of
memoi r s i n many pl aces, but on a good many pages I coul d cer t ai nl y
put
(
past and done wi t h " ( Mooyaar t - Doubl eday 112) . What i s
past and done wi t h " on t he per sonal l evel becomes mat er i al f or t he
l i t er ar y r ewr i t e.
An obvi ous exampl e of l i t e r a r y " edi t i ng i s t he descr i pt i on of
one of Anne' s encount er s wi t h Pet er , t he boy whose par ent s share
t he Fr anks hi di ng pl ace and who becomes Anne' s f i r st real l ove.
The or i gi nal ent r y reads : as I sat al most i n f r ont of hi s feet
(Paape 504) . The r ewr i t t en ent r y ( f o r Febr uar y 14, 1944) reads
. . . went and sat on a cushi on on t he f l oor , put my ar ms ar ound
my bent knees and l ooked at hi m at t ent i vel y ( Mooyaar t -
Doubl eday 132) . Th e edi t ed pose i s much mor e i n keepi ng
wi t h what Anne must have seen i n t he movi e magazi nes she so
avi dl y read. I t i s a ver y cl ose appr oxi mat i on of t he pose her cul t ur e
expect s t he young heroi ne ( i n t he t heat r e or f i l m ver si on of The
Life of Anne Frank, f or i nst ance) to assume. It is a Uni ver se- of -
Di scour se el ement ( one mi ght even say cl i ch) consci ousl y i nser t ed
i nt o t he t ext .
Transl at i on ideology 61
An exampl e of mor e consci ousl y l i t er ar y edi t i ng occurs i n t he
ent r y f or May 13, 1944. The or i gi nal ent r y ment i ons a t ree " st uck
f ul l of l eaves" ( Paape 6 6 2 ) ; t he r ewr i t t en ent r y has t he phr ase,
.vhich amount s t o a l i t er ar y cl i ch i n Dut ch, " l oaded down wi t h
.eaves" (Paape 662) . The most obvi ous exampl e of l i t er ar y edi t i ng
i s represent ed by t he deci si on t o change t he names of al l t hose who
have, si nce Januar y 2, 1944, become " char act er s" i n a " s t o r y .
Anne Fr ank obvi ousl y t hought t hi s a necessary st r at egy f or t he
" book ent i t l ed Het Achterhuis" ( she i s most def i ni t el y not r ef er r i ng
t o i t as a d i a r y s h e want ed t o publ i sh af t er t he wa r "
Mooyaar t - Doubl eday 194) . Consequent l y, Anne Fr ank appears as
An n e Robi n" i n t he l oose-l eaf ver si on.
Anne Fr ank was not t he onl y edi t or of Anne Fr ank' s di ar y,
however . When Ot t o Fr ank her f at her , came back t o Amst er dam
af t er t he war , he was gi ven bot h t he not ebook and t he l oose-l eaf
versi ons of t he di ar y. He pr oduced a t ypescr i pt of t he mat er i al , i n
Ger manand sent i t t o hi s mot her i n Swi t zer l and, who coul d not
read Dut ch, Thi s t ypescr i pt appar ent l y vani shed l at er on, but Ot t o
Fr ank pr oduced a second t ypescr i pt whi ch was t o become t he
t ext ual basi s of t he 1947 Dut ch edi t i on of t he di ar y, and of t he
t r ansl at i ons made i nt o many l anguages si nce. A compar i son
bet ween t he or i gi nal mat er i al now avai l abl e i n t he 1986 Dagboeken
and t he 1947 Dut ch edi t i on mer el y shows t hat edi t i ng has t aken
pl ace. I t does not show who act ual l y edi t ed what over and beyond
Anne Fr ank' s own " aut o- edi t s, whi c h st op when t he f ami l y was
arrest ed and t aken away.
Ot t o Fr ank t r i ed t o get hi s daught er ' s di ar y publ i shed af t er t he
war bot h i n t he Net her l ands and i n Ger many, He t r i ed a f ew Dut c h
publ i sher s and was event ual l y successf ul . Cont act , one of t he Dut ch
publ i shi ng houses agreed t o publ i sh t he t ypescr i pt , but on
condi t i on t hat changes be made. Since Ot t o Fr ank had al r eady made
some changes of hi s o wn , and si nce Anne Fr ank had r ewr i t t en most
of t he or i gi nal ent r i es, t he di f f er ence bet ween t he or i gi nal mat er i al
and t he publ i shed ver si on i s l i ke a pal i mpsest . I t i s poi nt l ess t o
specul ate as t o who changed what , but i t i s possi bl e, and
enl i ght eni ng, t o dr aw up a t opol ogy of t he changes made. These
ran be said to bel ong to t hr ee cat egori es : some changes are of a
persona! nat ur e, some are i deol ogi cal , and some bel ong i n t he
sphere of pat r onage.
On t he per sonal l evel , det ai l s of no possi bl e i mpor t ance t o
my one are omi t t ed. Al s o on t hat l evel , " unf l at t er i ng" ref erences
t o f r i ends, acquai nt ances, or i ndeed member s of t he f ami l y are
omi t t ed as wel l . The descr i pt i on of al l of Anne' s cl assmat es
(Paape 207) has di sappeared f r o m t he 1947 edi t i on, as have
ref erences t o her mot her and Mr s Va n Daan. Anne t el l s her
f at her t hat she l oves hi m much mor e t han she l oves her mot her
(Paape 284) , and Mr s Va n Daan, whose real name, preserved i n
t he f i r st dr af t of t he di ar y, was V a n Pe l s i s accused of greed
(Paape 240) and over eat i ng ( Paape 282) . Yet many unf l at t er i ng
.references t o bot h women r emai n i n t he 1947 edi t i on, whi ch
leaves t he reader a l i t t er puzzl ed as t o t he cr i t er i a f or edi t i ng t hat
wer e f ol l owed. Ther e may wel l not have been any, except f or t he
desi re t o pr ot ect peopl e' s r eput at i ons. Thi s desi re cont i nues t o
mani f est i t sel f i n t he 1986 Dut c h edi t i on, whi c h i s st i l l not
compl et e.
On page 449 of t he 1986 edi t i on, f or i nst ance, we are t ol d i n a
f oot not e t hat Anne Fr ank gi ves a ver y unf r i endl y and par t l y
i naccurat e descr i pt i on of her par ent s' mar r i age i n t he 47 l i nes t hat
have been omi t t ed her e. Thi s passage has been del et ed at t he
request of t he Fr ank f ami l y. The per sonal obvi ousl y i nt er f er es
wi t h t he l i t er ar y Or , i f you wi sh, t he edi t or s deci de t o bend t o one
ki nd of i deol ogi cal const r ai nt .
Li nes t hat may have been i mpor t ant f or t he ( aut o- ) const r uct i on
of t he charact er " An n e Robi n have been omi t t ed so as not t o gi ve
t he i mpr essi on t hat t he wr i t er Anne Fr ank di d not ent i r el y
cor r espond t o t he i deol ogi cal l y sanct i oned i mage of what a f our t een-
year - ol d shoul d be at t he t i me she was wr i t i ng t he di ar y.
Si mi l ar l y, unf l at t er i ng ref erences t o t he per sonal l i f e of " M . K . , "
an acquai nt ance of t he Fr anks who seems t o have col l abor at ed wi t h
t he Ger mans and gi ven pr omi scuousl y of her per son, are omi t t ed:
" 24 wor ds have been del et ed at t he request of t he per son i n
quest i on" (Paape 647) . Mor eover , as we are i nf or med on t he same
page, t he i ni t i al s M. K. wer e chosen at r andom because t he person
di d not want her o wn i ni t i al s used.
Ref erences t o bodi l y f unct i ons of al l ki nds have al so been
omi t t ed, as has a r at her gr aphi c descr i pt i on of a case of hemor r hoi ds
(Paape 282) * Li k e many persons her age, Anne Fr ank appears t o
have been mor e t han somewhat i nt er est ed i n bodi l y f unct i ons,
especi al l y def ecat i on, because def ecat i on was f or a whi l e associ ated
i n her mi nd wi t h t he bi r t h of chi l dr en, wi t ness t he descr i pt i on of
def ecat i on i n a chi l dr en' s book cal l ed Eva*s jeugd, whi ch she quot es
at some l engt h (Paape 285) ,
Tr ansl at i on i deol ogy 63
I n t he or i gi nal ver si on of t he di ar y , An n e Fr a n k keeps addr ess-
mg ( i magi nar y ) l et t er s t o var i ous f r i ends l ef t behi nd i n t he
41
r eal "
wor l d f or a f e w weeks af t er t he Fr a n k f ami l y went i nt o hi di ng.
Th e l et t er s are " i ma g i n a r y " i n t hat t hey wer e wr i t t e n , but coul d
- ev er be sent . These l et t er s r epr esent a mar k ed devi at i on f r o m t he
r r i gi nal i nt ent i on of t he di ar y as An n e Fr a n k her sel f concei ved i t .
r i gi nal l y t he di ar y was t o t ake t he pl ace of t he r eal l y good gi r l
f r i end" An n e Fr a n k never had. T h i s i s al so t he r eason w h y
f near l y ) al l ent r i es i n t he di ar y wer e wr i t t e n i n t he f o r m of l et t er s
and addr essed t o K i t t y , t he name An n e Fr a n k had gi ven her
di ar y / i magi nar y f r i end. T h e l et t er s t hat have been o mi t t e d
suggest t hat K i t t y was not enough, at l east not i ni t i al l y and t hat
Anne F r a n k / Ro b i n f ound i t mu c h mor e di f f i c ul t t o adapt t o t he
sudden cat acl ysmi c change i n her l i f e t han i s i mpl i ed by t he 1947
edi t i on. I n t hese l et t er s she cont i nues t o act as i f c ommuni c at i on
bet ween her sel f and t he r eal f r i ends she had l ef t behi nd i n t he
wo r l d out si de i s s t i l l possi bl e, mu c h as i t was bef or e t he Fr ank s
ent i nt o hi di ng. She even wr i t es a f r i end cal l ed C o n n y " t hat
" y o u are wel come t o st ay wi t h me f or a wh i l e " ( Paape 267 ) .
Fant asi es about l i f e af t er t he war ( Paape 3 0 1 ) and, especi al l y, a
: Hp t o Swi t z er l and wi t h her f at her , wh i c h poi nt i n t he same
" escapi st " di r ec t i on have al so been o mi t t e d f r o m t he Du t c h 1947
edi t i on.
T h e t opi c of sex act s as a l i nk bet ween t he per sonal and t he
- i deol ogi cal edi t s. Me u l e n h o f f t h e f i r st Du t c h publ i sher t o
eval uat e t he manus c r i pt of An n e Fr a n k ' s di ar y f o r publ i c at i on,
r ef used t o publ i s h i t because of
u
t he v er y per sonal nat ur e of t he
di ar y and t he sexual musi ngs i t cont ai ns" ( Paape 7 8 ) . Si mi l ar l y , De
\ e v e , an edi t or at Cont ac t , t ol d Ot t o Fr a n k t hat " s pi r i t ual advi ser s
) bj ect ed t o t he p r i n t i n g of cer t ai n passages ( about mas t ur bat i on,
:'or i n s t a n c e ) Pa a p e 8 0 ) . As may be expect ed, t he sexual
mus i ngs r ef er r ed t o are ma i n l y concer ned w i t h An n e Fr a n k ' s o wn
awakeni ng s ex ual i t y . T h e y consi st of a descr i pt i on of a di schar ge i n
ner under wear pr ecedi ng t he onset of mens t r uat i on ( Paape 286) of
mens t r uat i on i t sel f ( Paape 304 5 9 8 ) , of her geni t al s ( Paape 294,
" 3 3 - 4 ) , of di f f er ent st r at egi es used t o f i nd out about sex wi t h o u t
havi ng t o ask gr own- ups ( Paape 562, 5 7 6 ) o f al l t he el ement s, i n
s hor t t hat wo u l d f i t t he h e r o i n e " of any L i f e of An n e F r a n k "
publ i shed f r o m t he si xt i es onwar ds , but not t he her oi ne of t he di ar y
publ i shed i n 1947.
I t i s of cour se al so possi bl e t hat t he per son An n e Fr a n k may
64 Translation , Rewri ti ng, and the Manipulation of Li terary Fame
i ndeed have been r e a l l y a s h a me d wh e n she ( re~) r ead t hose
pages ( Paape 3 2 1 ) and t hat she her sel f may have o mi t t e d t h e m i n
t he l oose- l eaf ver si on. T h e y have been o mi t t e d i n any case, as has
Be p / El l i ' s s t or y about an u n we d mo t h e r ( Paape 305) and t he d i r t y
wo r d s " l i k e " b o r d e e l " ( b r o t h e l ) and " c o c o t t e " An n e pi cked u p f r o m
her r eadi ng ( Paape 3 0 5 ) , Fi n a l l y , i n t he or i gi nal di ar y Pf ef f er
( wh o s e name i s changed t o " Du s s e l " i n t he l oose- l eaf v er s i on) l i v es
t oget her w i t h a Gent i l e woman mu c h y ounger t han he i s, and
ni ce, and he i s pr obabl y not ma r r i e d t o h e r ( Paape 3 2 0 ) . I n t he
f i r s t publ i s hed ver si on ot t he di ar y , DussePs wi f e wa s f or t unat e
enough t o be o u t of t he c o u n t r y wh e n wa r br ok e o u t " ( Mo o y a a r t -
Doubl eday 5 1 ) .
An o t h e r edi t i n v o l v i n g b o t h t he per sonal and t he i deol ogi cal
concer ns t he Go l d s mi t h / Go u d s mi t af f ai r . Go l d s mi t h was a l odger
i n t he Fr a n k s ' house i n Ams t e r d a m. A f t e r t he F r a n k f ami l y went
i nt o h i d i n g , t hey l ef t h i m mo r e or l ess i n char ge of t hei r
possessi ons. I n t he passages t hat have been o mi t t e d f r o m t he 1947
edi t i on ( Paape 256 309 ) . An n e F r a n k hi nt s heavi l y at t he
pr obabi l i t y t hat Go l d s mi t h sol d or o t h e r wi s e di sposed of t he
F r a n k possessi ons t o hi s o w n advant age. Thes e passages may
have been o mi t t e d out of an unwi l l i ngnes s on t he par t of t he
F r a n k f a mi l y t o admi t t hat t hey had been decei ved, or out
of a sense of s ol i dar i t y , even pi et y , among t h e v i c t i ms of t he
Ho l o c a u s t ,
T h e mos t obv i ous l y i deol ogi cal omi ssi ons ar e t hose of t he
passages An n e F r a n k wr o t e on t he p r o b l e m of t he emanc i pat i on of
wo me n , T h e l ongest passage, i nt r oduc ed b y t he quest i on " W h y
wo ma n occupi es a pos i t i on so mu c h l o we r t han man' s among t he
nat i ons " ( Paape 6 9 2 ) , i s del et ed i n i t s e n t i r e t y , and f u r t h e r passi ng
r ef er ences t o t he t opi c are ei t her weakened or del et ed.
Fi n a l l y , i t i s obv i ous t hat Ot t o F r a n k b o we d t o c ons t r ai nt s i n t he
spher e of pat r onage, and i t i s al so obv i ous t hat he had no ot her
choi ce. T h e t y pes c r i pt of An n e Fr a n k ' s di ar y had t o c o n f o r m t o t he
speci f i cat i ons l ai d d o wn by Cont ac t , t he p u b l i s h i n g house, f or i t s
" Pr o l o o g " ser i es of wh i c h t he di ar y wo u l d be a par t . As a r es ul t ,
Cont ac t ' s edi t or ( s ? )
u
Pr o p o s e d 26 del et i ons, 18 of wh i c h wer e
i ndeed car r i ed out i n t he t ypescr i pt , ( Paape 8 2 ) .
An n e F r a n k ( per haps t he t i me has come t o cal l her An n e
Fr ank i s subj ect ed t o f u r t h e r t r a n s f o r ma t i o n s i n t he Ge r ma n
t r ans l at i on of her di ar y . T h a t t r ans l at i on, based on Ot t o Fr a n k ' s
( s e c o n d ) t y pes c r i pt , was made ear l y on by Annel i ese Sc ht z a
Transl at i on ideology 65
r nend of t he Fr ank f ami l y . Annel i ese Scht z was a j our nal i st wh o
d emi gr at ed t o t he Net her l ands t o escape f r o m t he Nazi s, j ust
=5 t he Fr ank s had. Si nce Ot t o Fr ank was t r y i n g t o publ i sh t he
: : r nposi t e mat er i al l abel ed wi t h hi s daught er ' s name ei t her i n
Net her l ands or i n Ger many , i t st ood t o reason t hat he woul d
i J o w a f r i end t o t r ansl at e hi s t ypescr i pt i nt o Ger man, so t hat i t
r cul d be of f er ed t o publ i sher s i n Ger many . Annel i ese Scht z
t r ansl at ed f r o m a t ypescr i pt t hat had not yet been edi t ed by t he
Jont act edi t or ( s ) , whi c h i s wh y t he Ger man t r ansl at i on cont ai ns
ref erences t o sexual i t y whi c h had been r emoved f r o m t he Du t c h
1 r 47 edi t i on, and whi c h wer e l at er i nser t ed back i nt o t he Engl i s h
t r ansl at i on.
The not or i ous passage i n whi c h A n n e Fr ank asks a gi r l
f r i end ( i dent i f i ed by name i n t he or i gi nal entry ) whet her , as
I r oof of our f r i endshi p, we shoul d f eel one anot her ' s br east s
n
Mooyaar ^Doubl eday 114 ) t her ef or e appears i n bot h t he Ger man
md t he Engl i sh t r ansl at i ons, but not i n t he Dut c h 1947 or i gi nal ,
r.or i n t he Fr ench t r ansl at i on, whi c h i s ent i r el y based on t hat
r i gi nal -
Ot t o Fr ank ' s eval uat i on of Annel i ese Scht z, s t r ansl at i on i s,
unf or t unat el yaccur at e. He st at es t hat she was t o o ol d t o do i t ,
ni any expr essi ons are school mar mi sh and not i n t he t one of y out h.
She has al so mi sunder st ood many Dut c h expr essi ons" ( Paape 8 4 ) .
Amo n g t he most obvi ous ar e: ogenschi j nl i j k " ( Paape 201 )
seemi ngl y] , whi c h i s t r ansl at ed as " ei gent l i c h" [ r e a i l y ] ( Scht z
13) " daar zi t hem de knoop [ s omet hi ng l i ke t her e' s t he r u b . "
t er al l y , " t her e si t s t he k n o t " ] ( Paape 201 ) becomes " i c h bi n wi e
zugeknpf t [ I feel as i f I m but t oned up]| ( Scht z 10) , Zu I ke ui l en "
such i di ot s ] ( Paape 2 1 5 ) i s t ur ned i nt o " sol che Faul pel ze" [ s uc h
l ^zy peopl e] ( Sc ht z 1 2 ) ; On g e r u s t [ w o r r i e d ] ( Paape 307 )
becomes " u n r u h i g " [ r est l ess] ( Scht z 3 9 ) . " R o t " [ r o t t e n ] ( Paape
: 72) i s r ender ed by r t l i c h [ r e d d i s h ] ( Scht z 6 4 ) , a t ypi cal
el ement ar y cl assr oom howl er . Rat apl an [ t h e whol e ki t and
boodl e] ( Paape 402) becomes " Ra t t e n n e s t " [ r a t ' s nes t ] ( Sc ht z
78) . " I k zat op spr i ngen" [ I was about t o expl ode] ( Paape 529) i s
: ur ned i nt o I c h wr e i hr am l i ebst en i ns Gesi cht gespr ungen" [ I
woul d have l oved t o have j umped i nt o her f ace] ( Scht z 9 0 ) .
Springen can mean bot h " expl ode" and j u mp i n Dut c h, as i t can
m Ger man t oo. Scht z opt ed f or t he h o mo n y m t hat does not f i t t he
cont ext . " Wa t l os en vast zi t " [ wh a t i s l oose and what i s secur ed]
Paape 595) t ur ns i nt o Wa s ni cht ni et - und nagel f est i s t " [ wh a t i s
not secured and f ast ened down] ( Scht z 147) and de l anden di e
aan Dui t sl and gr enzen [ t h e count r i es bor der i ng on Ger many
" gr enzen" i s a v er b] ( Paape 669 ) becomes di e an Deut schl ands
Gr enzen" [ t hose at Ger many' s b o r d e r s Gr e n z e n " i s a pl ur al
noun] ( Scht z 180) .
As i f mor e pr oof wer e needed, t he Scht z t r ansl at i on once
agai n i l l ust r at es t he f act t hat publ i sher s r ar el y care over much
about t he qual i t y of t he t r ansl at i on of any manuscr i pt t hat ei t her
mi ght not sel l ( as t he Lamber t Schnei der Ver l ag, whi ch publ i shed
t he Tagebuch i n har dcover i n 1950, may have t hought ) or sel l s
ver y wel l ( as t he same publ i sher and, especi al l y, t he Fi scher
Ver l ag, whi c h publ i shed t he f i r st paper back edi t i on, must have
t hought af t er 1955) . The fact t hat t he Scht z t r ansl at i on was
and i s r epr i nt ed t i me and agai n al so poi nt s t o anot her i nst i t ut i onal
const rai nt t he per ni ci ous i nf l uence of copyr i ght l aws whi ch i n
t hi s case, even embarrasses t he publ i sher - The most recent
edi t i ons of t he Tagebuch cont ai n a not e i n whi ch t he publ i sher
apol ogi zes i n vei l ed t er ms f or t he i nf er i or qual i t y of t he t r ansl at i on
and pr omi ses to i ssue a bet t er t r ansl at i on as soon as l egal l y
possi bl e.
The most f amous of Schi i t z' s mi s t r ans l at i ons i s t hat of t he
Dut ch er bestaat geen gr ot er vi j andschap op de wer el d dan
t ussen Dui t ser s en Joden" [ t her e i s no gr eat er enmi t y i n t he wor l d
t han bet ween Ger mans and Jews] (Paape 292) , whi ch i s t r ansl at ed
as :
a
ei ne grssere Fei ndschaf t al s zwi schen diesen Deut schen und
den Juden gi bt es ni cht auf der We l t ! [ t her e i s no gr eat er enmi t y i n
t he wor l d t han bet ween these Ger mans and t he Jews] ( Scht z 37) .
Th e edi t or s of t he 1986 Dut ch edi t i on comment :
11
Ot t o Fr ank
di scussed t hi s sentence wi t h Annel i ese Scht z and t hey came t o
t he concl usi on t hat
4
diesen Deut schen cor r esponded mor e cl osel y
t o what Anne had want ed t o say ( Paape 85 ). Thi s
" mi st r ansl at i on" i s onl y one among many t hat have been made f or
reasons best descri bed as i deol ogi cal a mi x t ur e of a mor e ol d-
f ashi oned " i deol ogy" based on a cer t ai n vi ew of t he wor l d, and t he
mor e cont empor ar y i deol ogy of pr of i t pur e and si mpl e* I n
Annel i ese Schutzes o wn words " a book you want t o sel l wel l i n
Ger many . . . shoul d not cont ai n any i nsul t s di r ect ed at Germans, *
(Paape 86) .
Scht z t r ansl at es accor di ngl y and t ones down al l i nst ances of
descr i pt i ons of Ger mans i n Anne Fr ank s di ar y t hat coul d be
const r ued as i nsul t i ng. As a r esul t , t he pl i ght of t he Jews i n t he
Transl ati on ideology 67
Net her l ands i s, cor r espondi ngl yt made t o appear less har sh t han i t
act ual l y was. " Jodenwet vol gde op Jodenwet " [ one Jewi sh l aw
f ol l owed t he ot her ] ( Paape 203) i s t ur ned i nt o " ei n di kt at or i sches
Gesetz f ol gt e dem ander en" [ one di ct at or i al l aw f ol l owed anot her ]
( Scht z 1 1 ) , as i f these l aws had l i t t l e or not hi ng t o do wi t h t he
Jews. The det ai l s of these l aws, t he t er mi nol ogy t hey wer e
expressed i n, are al so hushed up. Wher e Anne Fr ank says her
f ami l y had t o l eave Ger many because t hey wer e vol bl oed Joden"
f ul l - bl ooded Jews] ( Paape 202 ) , Scht z t r ansl at es s i mpl y : A l s
Juden
, f
[ as Jews] ( 1 0 ) .
When Ot t o Fr ank has gi ven hi s wi f e*s bi cycl e " bi j Chr i st en-
mensen i n bewar i ng [ t o Gent i l es f or saf ekeepi ng] ( Paape
218) , Scht z si mpl y wr i t es: bei Bekannt en [ t o acquai nt ances]
( 1 4 ) t h u s obscur i ng t he ver y di st i nct boundar i es t he Nazi s
want ed t o dr aw bet ween Jews and Gent i l es al l over Eur ope. When
Mr s Va n Daan keerde t er ug en begon t e ki j ven, har d, Dui t s,
gemeen en onbeschaaf d [ came back and began t o scol d, har sh,
Ger man, mean and unci vi l i zed] ( Paape 2 7 4 ) Ger man, " used
here as an adj ect i ve t o convey a f ur t her i nsul t , i s l ef t out i n Scht z
<34.
Anne Fr ank, s descr i pt i on (based on hear say) of West er bor k, t he
Ger man concent r at i on camp i n t he Net her l ands f r om wher e Jews
wer e shi pped " Ea s t , as t he cur r ent euphemi sm woul d have i t , i s
weakened i n a si mi l ar way. Anne Fr ank wri t es voor honder den
mensen I wasr ui mt e en er zi j n veel t e wei ni g WC s. De sl aappl aat sen
2i j n ai l e door el kaar gegooi d" [ washr oom f or hundr eds of peopl e,
and t her e are f ar t oo f ew t oi l et s. Th e sl eepi ng spaces have al l been
t hr own t oget her ] ( Paape 2 9 0 ) . Scht z has vi el zu weni g
Waschgel egenhei t en und WC' s vor handen. Es wi r d er zhl t , dass i n
den Bar acken al l es dur chei nander schl f t " [ f a r t oo f ew washi ng
f aci l i t i es and t oi l et s avai l abl e. I t i s said t hat t hey al l sleep t oget her
i n t he bar r acks] ( 3 6 - 7 ) . Th e t r ansl at i on suggest s t hat t her e are
mor e washr ooms t han j ust t he one of t he or i gi nal and t he i mpact of
t he " sl eepi ng t oget her i n a di sor der l y f ashi on i s weakened by t he
addi t i on of " i t i s sai d,
The rest of t he descr i pt i on, concer ni ng t he consequences of t he
state of af f ai r s j ust ment i oned, i s si mpl y omi t t ed i n t he t r ans-
l at i on. Anne Fr ank wr i t es on : men hoor t daardoor van ver r e-
gaande zedel ooshei d, vel e vr ouwen en mei sj es, di e er wat l anger
ver bl i j f houden, zi j n i n ver wacht i ng [ t her ef or e you hear of
f ar - r eachi ng i mmor al i t y ; many women arid gi r l s who st ay t her e
68 Translation , Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Li t erary Fame
f or a l onger per i od of t i me are pr egnant ] ( Paape 290 ), I f t hi s
fact i s not ment i oned i n t he t r ansl at i on, t he Germans whose
f ami l i es and descendant s are supposed to read t he Tagebuch,
al so, qui t e l ogi cal l y, di d not gas any pr egnant women or gi r l s i n
Auschwi t z.
I n t he di ar y, Anne Fr ank i s ver y upset by t he Ger man pol i cy of
shoot i ng host ages, whi ch she descri bes as f ol l ows: zet de Gest apo
doodgewoon een st uk of 5 gi j 2el aars t egen de mu u r " [ t h e Gest apo
si mpl y put s 5 host ages or so agai nst t he wa l l ] ( Paape 292 ) . The
t r ansl at i on weakens t hi s t o dann hat man ei nen Gr und, ei ne
Anzahl di eser Gei sel n zu erschi essen [ t hey t hen have a reason t o
shoot a number of these host ages] ( Scht z 3 7 ) . [ T ] hey" i nst ead
of t he dreaded " Gest apo" makes t he descr i pt i on seem somewhat less
t er r i bl e, and " shoot i nst ead of " put s agai nst t he wa l l " el evat es"
t he act t o a mor e abst r act l evel .
Si mi l ar l y, t he person who mi ght di scover t he secret ent rance t o
t he place wher e Anne and her f ami l y are hi di ng, gr ows i n Anne s
i magi nat i on i nt o " een reus en hi j was zo*n f asci st al s er geen ergere
bestaat[a gi ant , and he was such a f asci st $ no wor se exi st s]
(Paape 2 9 8 ) . I n Ger man, t he per son has si mpl y become ei nen
unber wi ndl i chen Ri esen" [ an unconquer abl e gi ant ] ( Scht z 39 ) .
The " f asci st " has di sappeared f r om t he Ger man t ext so as not t o
depress i t s sal es. An anal ogous omi ssi on occurs i n t he t r ansl at i on of
Anne Fr ank' s st at ement on t he l anguages spoken i n t he hi deout :
t oegest aan zi j n al l e cul t uur t al en, dus geen Dui t s [ a l l ci vi l i zed
l anguages are al l owed, so no Ger man] ( Paape 330) . Th e Ger man
t r ansl at i on reads: al l e Kul t ur spr achen, aber l ei se" [ a l l ci vi l i zed
l anguages, but s of t l y ] ( Scht z 46) ,
Annel i ese Scht z uses omi ssi on t o f ur t her pol i t i cal ( and
economi c) advant age. Wher e Anne Fr ank wr i t es: de Mo f f e n ni et
t er or e komen [ not come t o t he ears of t he Kr aut s ] ( Paape 490) ,
t he Ger man t r ansl at i on reads : den ' Mof f en
T
ni cht zu Ohr en
k ommen" [ not t o come t o t he ears of t he " Mo f f e n " ] ( Scht z 114) .
A f oot not e expl ai ns Mo f f e n " as a Spot t name f r di e Deut schen
[ abusi ve name f or t he Ger mans] ( Scht 2 114) . M o f / pl ur al
Mo f f e n , " was i ndeed t he war t i me abusi ve name f or t he
Ger mans. I n t he Dut ch t ext , t her ef or e, Mo f f e n H E S qui t e an
i mpact on t he r eader . That i mpact i s under cut i n Ger man si mpl y by
t he non- t r ansl at i on of t he t er m. To a Ger man r eader , Mo f f e n
t ends t o sound exotic,even when suppl ement ed by a f oot not e,
and not r eal l y i nsul t i ng.
Transl ati on ideology 69
Not coi nci dent al l y t he mean, aggressi ve cat i n t he war ehouse i s
cal l ed Mo f f i by t he i nhabi t ant s of t he hi deout . Ger man
readers, who ei t her do not know what a " Mo f " i s unt i l t hey reach
page 114, and/ or t hi nk of Mo f " as exot i c af t er t hey have
been enl i ght ened, are l i kel y t o mi ss t he poi nt of t he i nsul t .
Logi cal l y, t he mo f f en l i ve i n
a
Mo f f r i k a " ( Paape 6 9 5 ) , whi ch
Schtz leaves unt r ansl at ed. It becomes Bochel and i n Engl i sh
Mooyaar t - Doubl eday 210 ) and l es Boches i n Fr ench ( Car en
md Lombar d 269) . The cat dul y becomes Bochi " i n Fr ench
k Caren and Lombar d 9 1 ) and " Bo c h e " i n Engl i sh ( Mooyaar t -
Doubl eday 6 8 ) .
The Engl i sh t r ansl at i on somet i mes t r i es t o convey t he f act
t hat t he Fr anks and t he ot her s i n hi di ng wi t h t hem, al l bei ng
Ger man refugees di d not r eal l y speak st andar d Dut ch but r at her a
mi xt ur e of Dut ch and Ger man, mor e Dut ch t han Ger man i n t he
case of t he chi l dr en, mor e Ger man t han Dut c h wher e t he par ent s
i r e concerned. Thi s mi x t ur e of l anguages hel ps t o hi ghl i ght t he
fact t hat t he charact ers i n t he di ar y are peopl e who have
al ready been upr oot ed once and are now hi di ng f r om t hei r
f or mer count r ymen i n mor t al fear of t hei r l i ves. None of t hi s i s
conveyed by t he Ger man t r ansl at i on, Dussel , f or i nst ance, says i n
i he or i gi nal :
u
Du kannst dies t och van mi j aannemen. Het kan mi j
r . at uur l i j k ni et s schel en, aber Du musst het zel f w e t e n [ ( G e r m a n
: : al i ci zed) You can t ake this f r om me. I t does not mat t er t o me, of
cour se, but you must know f or your sel f ] ( Paape 412) . Mooyaar t -
Doubl eday, t he Engl i sh t r ansl at or , t r i es: " Bu t du kannst t ake t hi s
f r om me. Nat ur al l y I don' t care a bi t , aber du must k n o w f or
your sel f " ( 9 4 ) .
Nei t her t he Ger man nor t he Fr ench t r ansl at or makes any
at t empt at al l t o r ender t he mi xt ur e of languages^ I n f act , Scht z
orales t he hei ght s of absur di t y by " t r ansl at i ng DusseTs next
" macar oni c" st at ement , " i ch mach das schon[I I I t ake care of i t ]
Paape 502) as I c h wei ss schon was i ch t ue" [ I k now what I ' m
doi ng] ( 1 1 8 ) .
Yet pol i t i cal , or pol i t i co- economi c f eat ures are responsi bl e f or
: ne set of changes onl y. Ther e i s anot her set of changes i n
: he Ger man t ext , al so caused by i deol ogi cal mot i vat i ons, but of a
:ess obvi ous, mor e i nsi di ous nat ur e. Scht 2 consci ousl y or
unconsci ousl y t ur ns Anne Fr ank i nt o t he cul t ur al st er eot ype
: f t he pr oper " young adol escent gi r l of a t i me t hat bad not yet
nvent ed t he t eenager, pr oper l y educat ed as bef i t s her soci al
s t at us , pr es umabl y t o make her mor e accept abl e t o a f i f t i es
audi ence.
F i r s t , Scht z c l eans u p " A n n e Fr ank , s l anguage. He r f r i end
Ha r r y , f or i nst ance, wi l l not be al l owed t o say i n Ge r ma n wh a t he
says i n Dut c h- Wher eas t he Du t c h Ha r r y says " He t i s daar ook
zo' n r or nmel zoot ] e
w
[ i t ' s such a mess t h e r e ] ( Paape 2 2 1 ) , t he
Ge r ma n Ha r r y " ec hoes " : gef i el es mi r da n i c h t " [ I di d not l i ke i t
t her e] ( Scht z 15 ) . Peopl e wh o c ompl ai n about t hei r def ecat i on
( o n t l a s t i n g [ Paape 269] ) i n Du t c h c ompl ai n about t hei r di gest i on
( " V e r d a u u n g " [ Sc ht z 3 2 ] ) i n Ge r ma n .
A f t e r a b o mb i n g r ai d on Ams t e r d a mt An n e F r a n k wr i t e s t hat i t
wi l l t ake days bef or e al l t he v i c t i ms have been d u g up ( " o p g e
gr av en" [ Paape 3 8 9 ] ) . I n Ge r ma n , t he v i c t i ms ar e g e b o r g e n
[ r ec ov er ed] ( Sc ht z 72) i n a mu c h mor e decor ous wa y , wh i c h al so
t akes t he s t i ng out of t he h o r r o r . T h e chamber pot An n e F r a n k
t akes wi t h her t o t he b a t h r o o m i n t he Du t c h or i gi nal ( Paape 339)
vani shes i n Ge r ma n . I t r emai ns qui t e sensi bl y p o t de n u i t i n
Fr enc h ( Gar en and L o mb a r d 116 ) and becomes pot t i e i n
En g l i s h ( Mo o y a a r t - Do u b l e d a y 88 ) . Wh e n Dusse! begi ns
" v r o u we n - v e r l a n g e n s t e k r i j gen i n Du t c h [ g e t a desi r e f or
wo me n ] ( Paape 6 7 9 ) , he get s mu c h mor e decor ous Fr h -
l i ngs gef hl e [ S p r i n g f eel i ngs ] ( Scht z 184 ) i n Ger man- T h e
Ge r ma n t r ans l at i on al so c ompl et el y l eaves out An n e Fr a n k ' s r at her
el abor at e des c r i pt i on of t he wa y Mouschi Pet er s cat , ur i nat es i n
t he at t i c .
Se c o n d An n e F r a n k has t o behave pr oper l y f or a chi l d her
age. She has t o c o n f o r m t o wh a t i s consi der ed pr oper c ul t ur al
behavi or f or t he upper - mi ddl e- cl ass f our t een- y ear - ol d even i f t hat
k i nd of " p r o p e r behav i or " has been made l ess t han a l i t t l e r i di cul ous
by t he war and t he l i v i ng c ondi t i ons i n t he hi deout . Wh e n t he
Du t c h An n e F r a n k i s al l owed t o l achen t o t i k er b u k p i j n van
k r i j g " [ l a u g h u n t i l I get a bel l y ac he] ( Paape 4 4 6 ) , t he Ge r ma n
An n e Fr a n k i s o n l y al l owed t o do wh a t Ge r ma n c hi l dr en do
wh e n t hey l augh, at l east accor di ng t o Annel i ese Scht 2
" u n b e s c h we r t und gl c k l i c h l a c h e n [ l a u g h wi t h o u t a care and
h a p p i l y ] ( 9 8 ) .
T h e Du t c h An n e F r a n k successf ul l y accompl i shes t he f o l l o wi n g
t a s k : " n i t een l i c ht bl au we o n d e r j u r k met kant van Mans a heb i k een
hy per moder ne dans j ur k vervaardi gd* f r o m one of Mans a s
( mo t h e r ' s ) l i ght - bl ue sl i ps wi t h l ace I made a h y p e r mo d e r n danci ng
dr ess] ( Paape 4 6 9 ) . T h e Ge r ma n An n e F r a n k has her mo t h e r do
Tr ansl at i on i deol ogy 71
t he same t h i n g f or her : aus ei nem hel l bl auen Spi t zenkl ei d hat
Mans a mi r ei n hyper moder nes Tanz k l ei d gemac ht " [ Ma n s a made me
a hy per moder n dance dr ess f r o m a l i ght - bl ue sl i p wi t h l ace of her s ]
( Scht z 107) .
Th e r e are ot her t hi ngs a y oung g i r l , Ge r ma n or n o t , of An n e
Fr a n k ' s age and soci al st at us i s not supposed t o k n o w or do. Wh e n
An n e Fr a n k descr i bes t he f l ower s she get s f or her bi r t hday as de
k i nder en van F l o r a " [ t h e c hi l dr en of Fl o r a ] ( Paape 1 9 8 ) t her eby
di spl ayi ng her k nowl edge of my t h o l o g y , wh i c h i s one of her
hobbi es, Scht z wi l l have none of t hi s pr ecoci ous namedr oppi ng i n
Ger man, An n e Fr a n k get s Bl umengr s s e [ f l o we r g r e e t i n g s ]
( Scht z 1 9 ) .
No ef f or t i s made t o r epr oduce i n Ger man any of t he st yl i st i c
ef f ect s An n e Fr a n k t r i es t o achi eve i n Du t c h , as she does i n t he
f o l l o wi n g exampl e by means of t he r epet i t i on of t he wo r d k o u d "
( c o l d ) . I n Du t c h , c hi l dr en wa l k v a n h u n koude wo n i n g weg naar
de koude st r aat en k o me n op school i n een nog kouder e kl as" [ f r o m
t hei r col d home t o t he col d st r eet t o end up i n an even col der
cl assr oom at s c hool ] ( Paape 3 4 9 ) . I n Ge r ma n , t he chi l dr en wa l k
aus der k al t en Wo h n u n g auf di e nasse, wi ndi ge St r asse und
k o mme n i n di e Schul e, i n ei ne f eucht e, ungehei zt e Kl as s e" [ f r o m
t hei r col d home t o t he we t , wi n d y st r eet and t hey ar r i ve at school i n
a dampunheat ed cl assr oom] ( Sc ht z 5 4 ) .
Four t een- year - ol d gi r l s are al so not al l owed t o si t i n j u d g me n t on
t hei r mot her s or el der si st er s. An n e Fr a n k wr i t es i n Du t c h t hat she
wo u l d never be sat i sf i ed w i t h zo' n b e k r o mp e n l ev ent j e [ s u c h a
l i mi t ed l i f e ] ( Paape 650 ) as her mo t h e r and Ma r g o t , her el der
si st er , seem wi l l i n g t o set t l e f or * T h e Ger man An n e F r a n k , on t he
ot her hand wr i t e s " s o ei n ei nf aches L e b e n " [ s u c h a si mpl e l i f e ]
( Scht z 1 7 2 ) . Fi n a l l y , wi t h a r el ent l ess l ogi c t hat bor der s on t he
gr ot esque and s houl d, pr oper l y speaki ngr ender t he whol e of An n e
Fr a n k ' s endeavor usel ess o r , at best , s uper f l uous , t he gi r l s
Annel i ese Scht z model s her An n e Fr a n k on are not even supposed
t o keep di ar i es. An n e Fr a n k wr i t es i n Du t c h t hat t her e are cer t ai n
t hi ngs she does not i nt end " aan i emand ander s mee t e del en dan aan
mi j n dagboek, en een enkel e keer aan Ma r g o t " [ t o communi cat e t o
anyone el se but my di ar y , and once i n a whi l e t o Ma r g o t ] ( Paape
705) * I n Ge r ma n , An n e F r a n k wr i t es t hat she has t hi ngs she i s
det er mi ned t o ni emal s j emandem mi t zut ei l en hchst ens ei nmal
Ma r g o t " [ nev er c ommuni c at e t o anyone, at t he mos t once i n a whi l e
t o Ma r g o t ] ( Sc ht z 196) T h e di ar y , t he obj ect of t he exer ci se, t he
t ex t r ead al l over t he wo r l d s i mp l y vani shes f r o m t he t r ansl at i on,
sacr i f i ced t o t he " i ma g e of An n e Fr ank t he Ger man t r ansl at or
wi shes t o pr oj ect .
P r o p e r " gi r l s al so wr i t e i n a pr oper " st yl e. Cr eat i v i t y i s
act i vel y di scour aged i n t he Ger man t r ansl at i on. Wh e n Anne
Fr ank wr i t es , we zi j n zo st i l al s babymui sj es [ we are as qui et as
baby mi c e ] ( Paape 279 ) t h e Ger man t r ansl at i on r eads wi r
ver hal t en uns sehr r u h i g " [ we are ver y qui et ] ( Scht z 3 5 ) . Wh e n a
bag of beans suspended agai nst t he door of t he at t i c bur s t s ,
spi l l i ng i t s cont ent s and l eavi ng An n e st andi ng al s een e l andj e
t ussen de bonengol v en l i k e a smal l i sl and among waves of
beans] ( Paape 318) t t he t r ansl at i on s i mpl y descr i bes her as
ber i esel t von br aunen Bohnen [ bedr i zzl ed by b r o wn beans
( Scht z 4 3 ) .
Wh e n t he Jews are l ed t o onzi ndel i j ke sl acht pl aat sen" [ d i r t y
sl aught er houses] ( Paape 3 6 8 ) t h e
44
d i r t y obvi ousl y has t o
di sappear f r o m t he Ger man t r ansl at i on, i n whi c h t he Jews are
s i mpl y " z u r Schl acht bank g e f h r t " [ l e d t o t he sl aught er benc h:
( Scht z 6 2 ) . Fi nal l y , when t he i nhabi t ant s of t he hi deout
u
k i j k e n
met bange voor gevoel ens t egen het gr ot e r ot s bl ok , dat Wi n t e r heer ,
op [ l ook up at t he bi g r ock cal l ed Wi n t e r wi t h f ear f ul
appr ehensi on] ( Paape 4 2 2 ) , t hey s i mpl y " sehen mi t gr osser Sor ge
dem Wi n t e r ent gegen [ l o o k ahead at Wi n t e r wi t h gr eat wo r r y "
( Scht z 9 0 ) .
Th e gi r l An n e Fr ank wr i t i n g her di ar y has become t he aut hor
An n e Fr ank because she her sel f and ot her s wer e const r ai ned by
i deol ogi cal , poet ol ogi cal T and pat r onage consi der at i ons. Once
An n e Fr ank t ook t he deci si on t o r ewr i t e f or publ i cat i on what Anne
Fr ank had wr i t t e n , t he per son An n e Fr ank spl i t up i nt o a per son
and an aut hor , and t he aut hor began t o r ewr i t e i n a mor e l i t er ar y
manner what t he per son had wr i t t e n . Ot her s r esponded t o t he
const r ai nt s of i deol ogy and pat r onage i n her st ead, and t hey di d so
as t hey saw f i t . She had no say i n t he mat t er T h a t i s wh y par t of
her exper i ence, ver y def i ni t el y a f or mat i v e par t , i s mi ssi ng f r o m
t he 1947 Dut c h t e x t , and wh y she has been made t o c onf or m, i n
Ger man, t o a c ul t ur al st er eot ype and made t o wat er down
t he descr i pt i on of t he v er y at r oci t i es whi c h dest r oyed her as a
per son.
Chapter 6
Translation : poetics
The case of the missing qasidah
Of ai l t he gr eat l i t er at ur es of t he wor l d, t he l i t er at ur e produced i n
he I sl ami c syst em i s ar guabl y t he l east avai l abl e t o readers i n
Eur ope and t he Amer i cas. An y reader wal k i ng i nt o a decent
bookst or e i s l i kel y t o f i nd ant hol ogi es of Chi nese and Japanese
l i t er at ur e, as wel l as f ai r l y recent t r ansl at i ons of i mpor t ant wor k s ,
>ome even i n cheap paper back edi t i ons. Whi l e t her e seems t o be
no compr ehensi ve ant hol ogy of I ndi an l i t er at ur e, par t i cul ar l y
not t he l i t er at ur e pr oduced i n Dr avi di an l anguages, t he cl assi cs
of t hat l i t er at ur e are al so avai l abl e t o a much gr eat er ext ent t han
those of I sl ami c l i t er at ur e. I n cont r ast , James Kr i t zeck' s aut hor -
i t at i ve Anthology of Islamic Literature t or i gi nal l y publ i shed in
hardback i n 1964, at a pri ce t hat mi l i t at ed agai nst i t s wi de
di ssemi nat i on among non- pr of essi onal readers of I sl ami c, or any
ot her l i t er at ur e, was made avai l abl e i n paperback onl y i n 1975,
and has not been r epr i nt ed si nce. Since Kr i t zeck wor ked wi t h
exi st i ng t r ansl at i ons, some of whi ch had been made by schol ars
f or schol ars and some by Vi ct or i an t r ansl at or s f or t he non-
prof essi onal readers of t hei r t i me, t he cont empor ar y reader may
also be f or gi ven f or not havi ng experi enced an aest het i c revel a-
t i on when per usi ng t he Anthology. As Kr i t zeck poi nt s out : I n
recent years a consi derabl e number of mast erpi eces oi I sl ami c
l i t er at ur e have i ndi vi dual l y di spl ayed t hei r mer i t s t hr ough
t r ansl at i on i nt o West er n l anguages 3 ), but most of these
t r ansl at i ons have not been abl e t o move t he West er n reader much
mor e t han many of t hose cont ai ned i n Kr i t zeck' s own ant hol ogy,
wi t h t he r esul t t hat [ F ] e w of t hem have become wi del y k n o wn
( 3 ) .
Genres f r om non- Eur opean l i t er at ur es have est abl i shed t hem-
selves wi t hi n Eur opean poet i cs. The haiku i s now pract i ced al l
over t he wor l d. A genre bel ongi ng t o t he I sl ami c syst em also
est abl i shed i t sel f wi t hi n Eur opean poet i cs and enj oyed consi derabl e
popul ar i t y f or a number of decades, si gni f i cant l y i n t he wake of a
f amous r ewr i t i ng t hat coul d har dl y be cal l de a t r ansl at i on i n
t he sense i n whi ch t hat wor d was used by t he r ewr i t er ' s
cont empor ar i es. Edwar d Fi t zger al d' s Rubayat of Omar Khayyam
t
publ i shed i n 1859, i nt r oduced t he roba'i, or quat r ai n i nt o Eur opean
poet i cs, and unt i l about 1920 many poet s of not e i n t he l i t er at ur es
of Eur ope and t he Amer i cas t r i ed t hei r hand at t he genr e. I n hi s
ant hol ogy publ i shed i n 1900, t her ef or e, Epi phani as Wi l son coul d
wr i t e t hat some of these " l i t t l e songs mi ght have " been wr i t t en by
Anacr eon, Moor e, and ot her s by Cat ul l us" ( 4 9 ) . The quat r ai n' s
popul ar i t y has been wani ng since t he 1920s, however , and shows
f ew si gns of r evi vi ng.
Fur t her mor e, I s l ami c peopl es r egar d t he Rubayat [ a n d , one
mi ght add, t he Thousand and One Nights ] as qui t e i nf er i or
mor sel s of what t hei r r i ch l i t er at ur es c ont ai n" ( Kr i t z ec k 3 ) . On t he
ot her hand, t he qasidahsf regarded as t he supr eme canon and
model of poet i c excel l ence" ( Kr i t z ec k 52) by r eader s, pr of essi onal
or not , i nsi de t he I sl ami c syst emt are har dl y avai l abl e i n easi l y
accessi bl e t r ansl at i ons i n Eur ope and t he Amer i cas, ei t her
separat el y or as a gr oup. The t er m qasidah, whi ch has been used
f or about f i f t een hundr ed years t o desi gnat e t hese wor k s , does not
rat e ment i on i n t he Micropedia of t he cur r ent Encyclopedia
Britannica t t he compendi um of what West er n cul t ur e consi ders
i mpor t ant . The sonnet , whi c h has been pr act i ced f or a l i t t l e mor e
t han hal f t hat t i me, rat es a f ai r l y ext ensi ve ent r y. The Britannica ' s
Macropedia does ment i on t he qasidah i n t he ent r y dedi cat ed t o t he
A r t s of t he I sl ami c Peopl es, but unaccount abl y negl ect s t o
ment i on t he aut hor of t he qasidah I shal l be concent r at i ng on i n t hi s
chapter Labi d I bn Raki ah. The ef f ect of t hi s over si ght woul d be
compar abl e t o t he sudden omi ssi on of Swi nbur ne, Tennyson, or
Br owni ng f r om ent r i es devot ed t o Vi ct or i an Engl i sh poet r y or
Engl i sh poet r y i n general i n maj or ref erence wor k s of t he Ar abi c
wor l d.
I t i s my cont ent i on t hat t he reason f or t hi s sad st at e of af f ai r s
need not be sought among t he wr i t er s of t he qasidahs, but among
t hose who have t r i ed t o r ewr i t e t hem i n t er ms acceptabl e wi t hi n
Eur opean and, l at er , Eur o- Amer i can poet i cs. I ndeedas I hope t o
show i n what f ol l ows, t he reason, t he f aul t , or bot h do not l i e wi t h
t he r ewr i t er s ei t her , but r at her wi t h t he i ncompat i bi l i t y of t he
Transl ati on : poetics 75
poet i cs of t he Eur opean and t he I sl ami c syst ems. The apparent
f ai l ur e t o nat ur al i ze t he qasidah i n t he Eur o- Amer i can syst em t o
t he degree t hat t he haiku, f or i nst ance, or even t he roba
f
i have been
nat ur al i zed, has absol ut el y not hi ng t o do wi t h t he compet ence of
the r ewr i t er s: t hei r knowl edge of Ar abi c i s not quest i oned. Si mpl y,
no r ewr i t er has, as yet , f ound a " s l ot " i n Eur o- Amer i can poet i cs t o
f i t t he qasidah
Nor i s t he i ncompat i bi l i t y of t he t wo poet i cs t he onl y reason
f or t he f ai l ur e t o nat ur al i ze t he qasidah. That i ncompat i bi l i t y i s
compounded by t he r el at i vel y l ow prest i ge of I sl ami c cul t ur e i n
Eur ope and t he Amer i cas. Thi s r el at i vel y l ow pr est i ge, i n t u r n ,
cal l s f or t h t wo r eact i ons. The most radi cal r eact i on consi st s of a
ref usal t o get t o k now I sl ami c cul t ur e. The second r eact i on consi st s
of a wi l l i ngness t o make t he acquai nt ance of I sl ami c l i t er at ur e, but
st r i ct l y on t he basi s of a domi nant / domi nat ed r el at i onshi p. Eur o-
Amer i can l i t er at ur e i s seen as t he t r ue" l i t er at ur e, and what ever
I sl ami c l i t er at ur e has t o of f er i s measured agai nst t hat yar dst i ck.
Thi s at t i t ude i n t ur n al l ows f or a r at her caval i er t r eat ment of
I sl ami c cul t ur e by t hose ot her t han pr of essi onal schol ars who
prof ess an i nt er est i n i t . What Fi t zger al d wr ot e t o hi s f r i end E. B,
Co we 11 on t he subj ect of t he Per si an poet s he was deal i ng wi t h
coul d wi t hout much exagger at i on be ext ended t o represent a not
unwi del y di ssemi nat ed at t i t ude t owar d I sl ami c l i t er at ur e as a
whol e : I t i s an amusement f or me t o t ake what Li ber t i es I l i ke wi t h
these Persi ans who ( as I t h i n k ) are not Poet s enough t o f r i ght en
: ne f r om such excur si ons, and who r eal l y do want a l i t t l e A r t t o
shape t hem" (6 r x v i ) . Fi t zger al d, i t i s safe t o say, woul d never
nave dared t o t ake such L i b e r t i e s " wi t h cl assi cal Gr eek or Lat i n
: t er at ur e, because of t he pr est i ge enj oyed by t hese l i t er at ur es
: n hi s t i me and si nce at l east i n t er ms of desi gni ng syl l abuses.
Not onl y woul d t her e have been f ar t oo many schol ars who coul d
have cor r ect ed hi m, but Gr eek and Lat i n l i t er at ur e wer e ( ar e?)
consi dered t he ver y f oundat i ons of t he l i t er at ur e Fi t zger al d was
:>ecoming a par t of . He woul d have been under mi ni ng hi s own
r ul t ur al base had he t r i ed t o t ake any Li ber t i es wi t h t hem.
Persi an and by ext ensi on, I sl ami c l i t er at ur e wer e and are
n as mar gi nal , e x o t i c , and can be t r eat ed wi t h much less
reverence.
Eur o- Amer i can r ewr i t er s of I sl ami c l i t er at ur e seem t o have
approached t hei r t ask ei t her wi t h a basic at t i t ude of apol ogy f or
what t hey wer e about t o do, and t hat apol ogy di d, occasi onal l y
modul at e i nt o bar el y di sgui sed i ndi f f er ence, or even vei l ed
c ont empt , or wi t h a basi c at t i t ude of admi r at i on wh i c h of t en made
t h e m l ook i n t hei r nat i ve or adopt ed l i t er at ur es f or anal ogi es t o
t hose el ement s of t he poet i cs of t he I sl ami c syst em t hey t r i ed t o
i nt r oduce i nt o t hei r o wn l i t er at ur es.
I n t er ms of i deol ogy t he t wo pol es can be f ound qui t e ear l y on
i n t he pr ocess of t he r ecept i on of Ar abi c l i t er at ur e i nt o Engl i sh-
Ap o l o g y domi nat es t he i nt r oduc t i on t o Cl ment Hu a r t ' s History
of Arabic Literature, or i gi nal l y wr i t t e n i n Fr enc h, t o be sur e, but
a shaper of An g l o - Ame r i c a n at t i t udes t owar d I sl ami c l i t er at ur e
i n i t s Engl i s h t r ansl at i on. Hu a r t wr i t es : On e bur s t of ent husi asm
i t was but a f l ash sent f o r t h t hese men t o conquer t he
whol e wo r l d . But t he Bedoui n f el l back ere l ong i nt o hi s pr i mi t i v e
way of l i f e ( 2 ) . T h e Ar a b s l i v i ng i n t o wn s , on t he ot her hand,
wer e subj ect t o " t hos e vi ces wh i c h are t he vi r t ues of t he pr i mi t i v e
man c u n n i n g , gr eed, suspi ci on, c r uel t y " ( 2 ) . I ndeed, t hey have
har dl y changed over f our t een cent ur i es, si nce Hu a r t goes on t o
say t hat t hose same vi ces r ei gn unchecked, even t o t hi s day,
i n t he hear t s of t he dwel l er s i n t hese i naccessi bl e t owns "
( H u a r t 2 ) .
Si r Wi l l i a m Jones t akes up t he opposi t e posi t i on, but not wi t h o u t
bet r ayi ng a cer t ai n i gnor ance about t he act ual nat ur e of t he obj ect oi
hi s admi r at i on, when he wr i t es :
we mus t concl ude t hat t he Ar abi ans , bei ng pr oper l y conver s-
ant wi t h t he most beaut i f ul o b j e c t s s p e n d i n g a cal m and
agr eeabl e l i f e i n a f i ne cl i mat ebei ng ex t r emel y addi ct ed t o t he
sof t er passi ons and havi ng t he advant age of a l anguage
s i ngul ar l y adapt ed t o poet r y , mus t be nat ur al l y excel l ent poet s.
(10 340)
Hi s panegyr i c i s sur passed onl y by t hat of F, E. Johnson, an
ear l y t r ansl at or of t he qasidahswho char act er i zes t he pr e- I sl ami c
Ar a b s as
t hi s nat i on whi c h was dest i ned by God t o r i se t o gr eat
i mpor t ance l at er on, and t o succeed t he Romans i n pr esi di ng over
t he dest i ni es of a gr eat par t of t he wo r l d . . . deserves al l pr ai se f or
t he hi gh st at e of c ul t ur e, ci vi l i zat i on and advancement whi c h i t s
peopl e at t ai ned by means of sel f - devel opment of t hose super i or
l i t er ar y f acul t i es wi t h wh i c h i t had pl eased God t o endow t hem.
( v i )
^ S, Bl unt anot her admi r er of ear l y I sl ami c l i t er at ur e, put s t he
i - ' pgy st r at egy t o use i n t he i nt r oduct i on t o hi s t r ansl at i ons of t he
weîdahs :
Eur ope t he nearest anal ogy t o i t i s perhaps t o be f ound i n t he
pr e- Chr i st i an verse of Cel t i c I r el and, whi ch by a st range acci dent
Tras i t s close cont empor ar y, and l ost i t s wi l d nat ur al i mpul se
t hr ough t he ver y same ci r cumst ance of t he conver si on of i t s pagan
bards t o an over mast er i ng t heol ogy. ( i x )
T' - r poi nt 1 am t r y i ng t o make can be made qui t e i ndependent l y of
val i di t y of Bl unt ' s anal ogy, or l ack t her eof . What am t r y i ng t o
- : i s t hat Bl unt and ot her s f el t t he need t o r ewr i t e ( pr e- ) I sl ami c
_- t r at ur e i n t er ms of a syst em t hei r pot ent i al audi ence woul d be abl e
i : underst and.
The anal ogy st r at egy can al so be put t o use i n negat i ve t er ms. I f
:[ i s convi nced t hat West er n l i t er at ur es const i t ut e t he "right
j Ter at ur e, one can al so pr oj ect t hat convi ct i on back i n t i me and
: r ei end t hat onl y t hose l i t er at ur es whose evol ut i on i s si mi l ar t o t hat
Western l i t er at ur es are wo r t h y of compar i son wi t h West er n
i i er at ur es . An y l i t er at ur e whose hi st or y does not begi n wi t h
i x y t hi ng compar abl e t o t he Homer i c epics i s, t her ef or e, of
- ^r essi t y suspect . As Hu a r t put s i t : T h a t wondr ous appanage of
I ndo- Eur opean races, t hei r power of t r ansl at i ng hi st or i c or
- êndar y event s i nt o mi ght y poems . . . has no exi st ence i n t he br ai n
: : : h e peopl es speaki ng t he Semi t i c t ongues" ( 5 ) . These peopl e, i t
strongly i mpl i ed, t her ef or e do not j ust pr oduce i nf er i or l i t er at ur e
"hey al so bel ong t o an i nf er i or race. Car l yl e r emar ks i n t he same
em, but wi t hout dr awi ng any raci st consequences: A s no
exampl es t aken f r om any Epi c or Dr amat i c poems, are f ound
i ^nongst t he speci mens here sel ect ed, i t may be supposed t hat t he
\ i ^ bi ans wer e unacquai nt ed wi t h t he t wo most nobl e exer t i ons of
poet ' s artxi). He addshowever , t hat t hi s i s t r ue onl y i f we
j bmi t t o a st r i ct i nt er pr et at i on of Ar i st ot l e' s poet i cs, whi c h
specifies t hat t he epic has t o be wr i t t en i n verse. A cent ur y or so
e r Ni chol son i s wi l l i ng t o r el ax t hi s st r i ct i nt er pr et at i on of
Ar i st ot l e, t hough not compl et el y. He observes t hat t he l ongest of
he qasidahs " i s consi der abl y shor t er t han Gr ay' s Elegy" and goes
t o st at e t hat an Ar abi an Homer or Chaucer must have
: : ndescended t o pr ose" ( 7 7 ) .
Bl unt al so poi nt s out i n hi s i nt r oduct i on t hat mor al bl emi shes
zot a f ew t her e are i n al l t he poems, but one woul d not wi sh
t h e m absent , f or t hey ser ve t o poi nt out t he r eal i t y of t he l i f e
descr i bed" ( x v i ) . I n Labi d I b n Raki ah' s qasidah one of t hose
bl emi shes mi ght be t he l ot of t he g i r l wh o pl ucks t he l ut e. Pol k" s
t r ansl at i on reads
Wi t h many a mor ni ng, l i mpi d ( d r a u g h t and) t he pl uc k i ng of t he
si ngi ng gi r l
On a l ut e as her t h u mb adj ust s t he s t r i ng
I hast en t o sat i sf y l he need of her whi l e t he cock c r ows at f i r st
l i ght
I n or der t hat I mi g h t d r i n k a second r ound whi l e t he ni ght ' s
sl eepers r ouse t hemsel ves. ( 121- 3)
Johnson obvi ousl y t r i es t o shi f t t he b l e mi s h " f r o m one " mo r a l
cat egor y t o anot her deemed mor e accept abl e. He t r ansl at es I
hast ened i n t he ear l y mor ni ng bef or e t he c r owi ng of t he cock, t o
r el i eve my want f or i t ( i . e wi ne) t hat mi ght t ake a second dr aught
f r o m i t , wh e n t he sl eepers a wo k e " ( 1 1 5 ) . Si xt y- f i ve year s l at er ,
Ar b e r r y al so opt s f or t hi s s ol ut i on, al bei t by means of a use of
l anguage t hat mi g h t be consi der ed somewhat unf or t unat e : and a
c har mi ng gi r l p l u c k i n g / wi t h ni mbl e f i nger s t he st r i ngs of her
mel odi ous l u t e ; / y e s I ' v e raced t he cock br i ght and ear l y, t o get me
my s pi r i t ' s need/ and t o have my second we t t i n g by t he t i me t he
sl eepers s t i r r ed" ( 1 4 6 ) .
Bl unt appl i es t he same st r at egy, ma k i n g use of t he ar chai c
c r af t s mans hi p" pr opagat ed by Br o wn i n g i n t he t r ansl at i on of ol der
l i t er at ur e, whi c h was supposed t o r esul t i n di ct i on of a t i mel ess
qual i t y . Bl u n t per haps al so count ed on t hi s
u
t i mel es s di c t i on" t o
def l ect at t ent i on f r o m t he f act t hat t he wr i t er s of t he qasidahs, and
t he char act er s t hey i nt r oduce see absol ut el y not hi ng wr o n g wi t h
what are " mo r a l bl emi shes
1
' t o t he Wes t er ner . On t he c o n t r a r y : " A l l
wi t h t hem i s f r ank l y , i ns pi r i t i ngl y , st upendousl y hedoni st i c" ( Bl unt
x i ) . No t s ur pr i s i ngl y , Bl u n t , wh o t r ansl at ed t he qasidahs t oget her
wi t h Lady Anne Bl u n t , had t he t r ansl at i ons pr i vat el y publ i shed i n
1903, even t hough l i nes l i ke: Wh i l e she pl ayed, t he sweet si nger
f i nger i ng t he l ut e- st r i ngs, s howi ng her ski l l t o me / Er e t he cock had
cr owed once, a f i r st cup was quaf f ed by me " ( 29)sound ext r emel y
i nnocuous t o t he c ont empor ar y ear .
Jones, wh o t r ansl at ed t hese l i nes t wi ce, obvi ousl y waver s
bet ween " mo r a l bl emi s hes . I n pr ose he si des wi t h Po l k , and opt s
f or a
11
bl emi s h" of a sexual nat ur e : H o w of t en do I quaf f pur e wi ne
m I he mor ni ng, and dr aw t owar ds me t he f ai r l ut ani , whose del i cat e
f i nger s ski l l f ul l y t ouch t he st r i ngs! ( 1 0 : 67- 8) . I n verse, on t he
3t her hand, he sides wi t h Johnson and pr ef er s a " b l e mi s h
connect ed wi t h dr i nk i ng: Sweet was t he dr aught and sweet t he
bl oomi ng ma i d / Wh o t ouch' d her l yr e beneat h t he f r agr ant shade; /
We si p' d t i l l mor ni ng pur pl ed ev r y pl ai n / The damsel s sl umber d,
but we si pM agai n" ( 10: 343) .
The same t wo pol ar at t i t udes can be observed i n West er n
di scourses on I sl ami c poet i cs. The qasidahs are di smi ssed by
Wi l son, who poi nt s out t hat t he essent i al qual i t i es of Ar abi an
poet r y appear i n t he Romance of A n t a r and t he tal es of t he
"Thousand and One Nights ( 4 9 ) . Accor di ngl y, he pr i nt s
Labi cTs qasidah i n Car l yl e' s t r ansl at i on, whi ch i s not a t r ansl a-
t i on of t he whol e qasidah, but mer el y of t he nasib f or amat or y
pr el ude, cal l s t he qasidah an el egy and suppl i es t he reader
wi t h a summar y of Labi d' s l i f e i n a f oot not e. A si mi l ar ef f ect woul d
be obt ai ned i f an edi t or of an ant hol ogy of Engl i sh poet r y wer e t o
di smi ss t he el egy as uni mpor t ant , pr i nt onl y t he f i r st t hi r t y - t wo
l i nes of Gr ay' s Elegy, and gi ve a pot t ed ver si on of Gr ay' s l i f e i n a
f oot not e.
Charl es Tuet ey, t he most recent t r ansl at or of Labi d' s qasidah,
opt s f or basi cal l y t he same st r at egy about ei ght y- f i ve years l at er ,
wi t h t he not uni mpor t ant di f f er ence t hat he act ual l y i nf or ms t he
reader of what he i s doi ng : Poem 18 by Labi d i s t he i ngress
to hi s Mu allaka . It i s t he poet r et ur ni ng af t er years to t he same
spot , and r emember i ng. A f i ne piece of nost al gi c descr i pt i on, i t
l acks t he dr amat i c concent r at i on we f i nd i n I mr ul kai s, f or instance
( 18) , Tuet ey uses t he t er m mu allaka t o ref er t o t he qasidah. I n
doi ng so he al l udes t o t he ( apocr yphal ) st or y t hat hel d t hat not
j ust Labi d" s qasidah but t he si x ot her great qasidahs, or mu
allakat, t he pl ur al wer e cast i n gol d and suspended f r om t he
kaahah i n Mecca probabl y t he most vi sual l y ar r est i ng exampl e
of canoni zat i on. Not onl y do West er n readers who r el y on
Tuet ey, s ant hol ogy not get t he whol e qasidah t hey are al so i nvi t ed
t o make a compar i son bet ween an aut hor t hey have j ust been
i nt r oduced t o and anot her aut hor t hey may never have heard of
bef ore and who i s i nt r oduced t o t hem i n an equal l y f r agment ar y
f ashi on.
Yet ot her s ri se t o t he defense of I sl ami c poet i cs, once t hey have
acknowl edged t he possi bi l i t y of i t s bei ng di f f er ent f r om West er n
poet i cs. The r el at i vi st i c appr oach t o poet i cs, whi ch al one can l ead
t o pr oduct i ve r ewr i t i ng i s expl i ci t l y st at ed by I l se Li cht enst adt er
4 <
However , our West er n st andards of what makes good poet r y do
not suf f i ce t o appreci at e t he ar t i st r y [ of I sl ami c poet r y] . The nat i ve
j udgment s of t he respect i ve mer i t s use cr i t er i a t hat di f f er wi del y
f r om our s" ( 26) But t he r el at i vi st i c appr oach has been i mpl i ci t i n
many st at ement s made by t he mor e pr ogr essi ve r ewr i t er s of
I sl ami c l i t er at ur e i n t he past . I t i s si gni f i cant t o observe t hat t he
st at ement j ust quot ed was publ i shed i n 1974. Li cht enst adt er ' s book
was publ i shed i n paperback i n 1957. By t he same t oken, however ,
Wi l son' s ant hol ogy di smi ssi ng t he qasidah s was r epubl i shed
unchanged i n 1971.
Mos t defenses of I sl ami c poet i cs make use of t he st r at egy of
anal ogy ment i oned above. To j us t i f y t he f act t hat I sl ami c
" epi cs" are wr i t t en i n a mi x t ur e of verse and pr ose, Car l yl e enl i st s
t he hel p of t he sacred book of hi s o wn cul t ur e by st r essi ng t hat
f r o m var i ous par t s of t he Old Testament we may percei ve t hat
t hi s mode of wr i t i ng was pract i sed among t he Hebr ews" ( x i i ) . Thi s
st at ement not onl y st r ongl y suggest s t hat what was good for t he
one must al so be good f or t he ot her , but goes on t o pl ace t he
Semi t i c peopl e whi ch became f undament al t o t he devel opment of
" t he West not l east t hr ough an i mmense oper at i on of r ewr i t i ng,
on t he same f oot i ng as t he Semi t i c peopl es whi ch have, f r om 700 of
t he Common Er a onwar ds, been seen as a t hr eat t o t he same
" Wes t .
Car l yl e goes even f ur t her and argues t he super i or i t y of t he Ar abi c
t ype of epi c, i n wor ds ant i ci pat i ng Poe' s at t acks on t he t r adi t i onal
West er n epic :
as i n ever y poem of consi derabl e l engt h t her e must be t r i f l i ng
ci r cumst ances t o r el at e, t hey wer e by t hi s cont r i vance less
l i abl e t o i ncur t he r i di cul e whi ch woul d ari se f r om any
i ncongr ui t y bet wi xt a mean subj ect and a spl endi d di ct i on a
r i di cul e f r om whi ch nei t her t he subl i mi t y of t he wor k s of
Homer nor t he elegance of t he Aenei d coul d ent i r el y exempt
t hei r respect i ve aut hor s, ( x i i i )
I n ot her wor ds, t he wr i t er s of t he f oundat i on epi cs of West er n
l i t er at ur e mi ght have been gr at ef ul f or t he oppor t uni t y t o use a
mi xed f or m used by I sl ami c poet s as a mat t er of cour se.
One hundr ed and sevent y- f i ve years af t er Car l yl e, Tuet ey also
makes use of t he Homer i c anal ogy, and al so t o j us t i f y t he use of a
cer t ai n di ct i on. He wr i t es t hat t he Ar a b i a n poet s of t he si xt h
cent ur y l i ved i n t he heroi c age . . . compar abl e t o t hat por t r ayed i n
Homer , Thi s means di r ect ness, r eal i sm, st r i ki ng det ai l , poet r y
t hat i s as l arge as l i f e" ( 9 ) even, pr esumabl y, when i t deal s wi t h
" mean subj ect s, si nce i n t he years whi ch have el apsed bet ween t he
publ i cat i on of Car l yl e, s book and t hat of Tuet ey' s, West er n
t hi nki ng about t he epic has changed agai n, not l east because t he
successful r ewr i t i ng of t he epic by Pound and Wi l l i ams, r esul t i ng i n
a t ype of epic t hat can be made pr oduct i ve agai n i n cont empor ar y
l i t er at ur e, has f i r ml y put t he t r adi t i onal epic i nsi de t he
boundar i es of hi st or y, t her e t o be st udi ed but no l onger emul at ed.
About a hundr ed years af t er t he publ i cat i on of Car l yl e s book,
Bl unt echoes hi s defense of I sl ami c poet i cs by st at i ng t hat ear l y
poet r y produced i n t he I sl ami c syst em can onl y be compar ed t o " t he
l yr i cal por t i on of t he ol der Hebr ew s c r i p t u r e s i x ) . Li k e ot her
r ewr i t er s, t hough, Bl unt al so f i nds i t di f f i cul t t o r ewr i t e t he
qasidah convi nci ngl y i n t er ms of t he genres of f er ed by West er n
poet i cs. Ly ai l put s t he mat t er succi nct l y as f ol l ows: " t he f o r m and
spi r i t of anci ent Ar abi an poet r y are ver y di st i nct , t hough i t i s not
easy t o br i ng i t wi t hi n t he classes k nown t o Eur opean cr i t i ci sm. I t i s
not epi c, nor even nar r at i ve , * . st i l l less i s i t dr amat i c , t h e Gr eek
i dyl l i s perhaps t he t ype whi c h comes cl osest t o i t i n Cl assi cal
poet r y" ( x v i i i ) . Ni chol son cal l s t he qasidah an ode ( 76 ) i n hi s
Hi story
t
and Jones wr i t es about
14
cassei da' s or ecl ogues ( 1 0 :
341 ) . The same Ni chol son t r i es t o si destep t he i ssue i n hi s book of
t r ansl at i ons by decl ar i ng : I di sagree wi t h t he opi ni on t hat success
may t ur n on t he exi st ence i n t he t r ansl at or ' s l anguage of a nat i ve
f or m and manner cor r espondi ng vi i i ) , but adds r at her l amel y i n
t he same br eat h : but undoubt edl y advant age shoul d be t aken of
such model s when possi bl e" ( v i i i ) . Hi s anal ogy f or t he qasidah i s
t he Engl i sh verse nar r at i ve as pi oneered by Scot t and made popul ar
by Byr on.
To br i ng home t o t he reader i n a most f or cef ul manner t he generi c
di f f er ence bet ween t he qasidah and anyt hi ng ext ant i n any West er n
l i t erat ure Ar b e r r y quot es at l engt h f r o m I bn Qut ai ba' s Poetry and
Poets i n Ni chol son' s t r ansl at i on
I have heard f r om a man of l ear ni ng t hat t he composer of Odes
began by ment i oni ng t he desert ed dwel l i ng places and t he
rel i cs and traces of habi t at i on. Then he wept and compl ai ned
and addressed t he desol at e encampment , and begged hi s
compani ons t o make a hal t , i n or der t hat he mi ght have
occasi on t o speak of t hose who had once l i ved t her e and
af t er war ds depar t ed; f or t he dwel l er s i n t ent s wer e di f f er ent f r om
t ownsmen and vi l l ager s i n comi ng and goi ng, because t hey moved
f r om one wat er - spr i ng t o anot her , seeki ng past ur e and searchi ng
out t he places wher e r ai n had f al l en. Then t o t hi s he l i nked the
er ot i c pr el ude r and bewai l ed t he vi ol ence of hi s l ove and t he
angui sh of separ at i on f r om hi s mi st r ess and t he ext r emi t y of his
passi on and desi r e, so as t o wi n t he hear t s of hi s hearers and
di ver t t hei r eyes t owar ds hi m and i nvi t e t hei r heart s t o l i st en t o
hi m, since t he song of l ove t ouches men' s soul s and t akes hol d of
t hei r heart s . . . No w, when t he poet had assured hi msel f an
at t ent i ve hear i ng, he f ol l owed up hi s advant age and set f or t h hi s
cl ai m : t hus he went on t o compl ai n of f at i gue and want of sleep
and t r avel l i ng by ni ght and of t he noonday heat , and how hi s
camel had been reduced t o l eanness. An d when, af t er
r epr esent i ng al l t he di scomf or t and danger of hi s j our ney, he
knew t hat he had hi s due meed f r om t he per son t o whom t he
poem was addressed, he ent er ed upon t he panegyr i c, and i nci t ed
hi m t o r ewar d, and ki ndl ed hi s gener osi t y by exal t i ng hi m above
hi s peers and pr onounci ng t he great est di gni t y, i n compar i son
wi t h hi s, t o be l i t t l e. ( 15- 16)
Tuet ey, on t he ot her hand, i s t empt ed t o gi ve up. He st at es i n hi s
i nt r oduct i on t hat i t must be said t hat f or an i nt r oduct i on t o
Ar abi c poet r y t he Mu allakat i n t hei r present f or m are an
unf or t unat e choi ce, t he mor e so as t hey have di ver t ed at t ent i on
f r om much i n pr e- l sl ami c poet r y t hat i s bot h bet t er preserved and
super i or ( 13 ) at least f r om t he cont empor ar y West er n poi nt of
vi ew. Obvi ousl y ver y aware of t he chal l enge he has j ust i ssued t o a
l ong t r adi t i on of I sl ami c cr i t i ci sm and schol ar shi p, Tuet ey l ooks f or
suppor t t o a r el at i vel y shor t er - l i ved count er t r adi t i on, whi ch
decl ared t he mu allakat to be spur i ous, as a whol e or i n par t . He
does not go t hat f ar , but uses phi l ol ogi cal ar gument s t o di scredi t
and under mi ne t he place t he mu allakat have occupi ed i n t he
t r adi t i on of I sl ami c l i t er at ur e, suggest i ng t hat si nce t hei r
aut hent i ci t y i s i n doubt t hei r cent r al posi t i on shoul d be as wel l ,
and f or get t i ng, of cour se, t hat t he r ecept i on of a wo r k of l i t er at ur e
has not hi ng what soever t o do wi t h i t s aut hent i ci t y. As i s wel l
k n o wn , Goet he ent hused over Ossian and even t r ansl at ed par t s of
i t . The f act t hat t hat t ext was a t ot al f or ger y di d not hi ng at al l t o
al t er i t s- t r i umphant - r ecept i on i n t he Eur ope of i t s t i me, nor does
t r ^ t f act change t he hi st or i cal i mpor t ance of t hat t ext and i t s
recept i on i n any way.
Tuet ey t r i es t o r ei nf or ce hi s poi nt by r emi ndi ng t he reader t hat
^successi ve edi t or s sought to br i ng t hera \_mu allakat 3 up to
"st andar d l engt h by addi ng and i nt er pol at i ng what ot her f r agment s
t he same met r e and r hyme t hey f ound i n t he aut hor s' wo r k s "
: i ). I n ot her wor ds, si nce t he mu allakat are not aut hent i c
i ny way , and si nce we k now f or a f act t hat Hammad ( of Kua)
was appar ent l y al so responsi bl e f or t he sel ect i on of t he mu
pl ayi ng a par t not unanal ogous t o t hat pl ayed i n Gr eek
er at ur e by t he l i br ar i ans of Al exandr i a, wa s caught out addi ng
es of hi s own t o a poem by Zuhai r " ( 1 3 ) , why bot her t r ansl at i ng
tnese f akes" at al l ? The real poi nt , of cour se, i s not whet her t he
^ s i d a h s i n quest i on are aut hent i c or not . but t hat t hey wer e
z^rcei ved by a whol e cul t ur e as cl ose t o t he pi nnacl e of
r ^noni zat i on, and t hat i t i s st r ange, t her ef or e, t hat t hey shoul d
r r mai n r el at i vel y unk nown i n ot her cul t ur es.
Recent r ewr i t er s, who do not have recourse t o t he t wi n
st rat egi es of apol ogy or anal ogy, have succeeded i n sheddi ng
: ght on t he t o t he West er n reader pecul i ar " st r uct ur e of t he
^ s id ah. They l i nk t hat st r uct ur e to t he genesi s of t he genre
:<elf and t he soci al condi t i ons obt ai ni ng at t hat t i me, addi ng
mot her obst acl e i n t he pat h of any at t empt t o t r ansf er t he qasidah
f r om i t s nat i ve cul t ur e t o anot her . I n anci ent t i mes, I l se
l i cht enst adt er poi nt s out , Near East er n poet r y was not t he
expressi on of per sonal , i ndi vi dual , but of communal , r el i gi ous
amoti ons i t per f or med a f unct i on wi t hi n anci ent soci et y and i t s
rel i gi ous rites(21 ) . Andr eas Hamor i seeks ot her reasons" t han
:hose nor mal l y adduced f or t he " r epet i t i ve t endency of t he qasida
2Jid r i t ual i s t he one wor d t hat pr oper l y sums t hem up" ( 2 1 ) . W. R,
Pol k r emi nds t he West er n reader of t he fact t hat t he "audi ence was
expected t o break i n at t he end of each verse, t o comment , t o reci t e
r i mpar abl e verses, and to savor t he ar t i st r y of t he poet " ( xxi ) f
expl ai ni ng bot h t he t o t he West er n mi nd " chaot i c st r uct ur e of
: ne qasidah and i t s l ack of sequent i al nar r at i ve as def i ned i n l ogi cal
t erms*
The Uni ver se of Di scour se f ami l i ar t o t he ol d I sl ami c poet s,
whi ch i s by no means f ami l i ar t o t he West er n reader, present s
ot her f or mi dabl e obst acl e t o t he r ecept i on of t he qasidah i n t he
West , Many el ement s bel ongi ng t o t hat Uni ver se of Di scour se wi l l
! i i t o st r i ke t he West er n reader as f i t t o be ment i oned i n poet r y.
Car l yl e t ransl at es t he f i r st bayt ( a " ver se consi st i ng of t woof t en
l ongi shhal f l i nes) as f ol l ows :
u
Th o s e dear abodes whi ch once
contai ned t he f a i r / Ami d s t Mi t at a' s wi l ds I seek i n v ai n/ Nor t ower s,
nor t ent s, nor cot t ages are t her e/ But scat t er d r ui ns and a si l ent
pl ai n" ( 4 ) . He goes on t o t r ansl at e t he begi nni ng of t he second bay:
as: T h e pr oud canal s t hat once Rayana g r a c d 4 ) . Pol k s
comment s on t he t r ansl at i on of these bayt s wi l l serve admi r abl y t o
i l l ust r at e t he Uni ver se of Di scour se pr obl ems conf r ont i ng
pr ospect i ve t r ansl at or s of t he mu allakat and ot her qasidah>
" Car l yl e, wr i t es Pol k , " wh o was f ami l i ar onl y wi t h set t l ed Ar abs,
t hought Labi d was r ef er r i ng t o houses, and so he descri bed t he
openi ng scene as a desert ed Ar abi an vi l l age ( xvi i ). The or i gi nal
ref ers t o an abandoned camp si t e i n t he deser t , wher e t ower s " anc
" cot t ages" woul d be har d t o f i nd, l et al one decay t o " s c a t t e r ?
r ui ns. By t he same t oken, what Car l yl e t akes t o be r eal canal s,
conj ur i ng up an i mage of Veni ce or Ams t er dam, r eal l y ref er t c
f l ood channel s, meani ng t he eroded gul l eys t hat car r y of f the
occasi onal r ai ns" ( pol k x x v i i i ) channel s dug ar ound t he t ent s, IT.
f act .
Si gni f i cant l y, l at er t r ansl at or s r et ai n t he abodes" ( Ar b e r r y 142
or change t hem i nt o a " c our t " ( Tuet ey 117) . Ar b e r r y speci fi es t ha:
t he abodes are basi cal l y a " hal t i ng- pl ace and encampment ( 142) .
but Tuet ey adds dwel l i ngs " and even a hear t h" t o hi s cour t
( 117) * One reason f or t hi s may be t hat most recent t r ansl at or s of
t he mu allakat i nt o Engl i sh have i ndeed chosen to adopt the
r omant i c- exot i c i di om est abl i shed i n t he Vi ct or i an age Tuet ey 8 ) .
r ef er r ed t o above. The al t er nat i ve, accor di ng t o Tuet eyf woul d bt
t o " f l y of f on a t angent , so t o speak, and t r y t o be avant - gar de at i:
c os t 8) .
Jones t r ansl at es par t of Labi d s descr i pt i on of sunr i se i n the
desert as t he wak i ng bi r ds, t hat sung on ev' r y t r ee/ Thei r early
not es wer e not so bl i t he as we 3 4 3 ) t o t a l l y over l ooki ng ht
fact t hat t he presence of bi r dsl et al one t r ees, i n t he desert >
r at her unl i kel y, even t hough t hey are a st apl e of t he "eclogues* ht
want ed t o t ur n t he qasidahs i nt o. Ni chol son dr ast i cal l y shor t ens the
descr i pt i on of t he camel i n hi s t r ansl at i on of Labi d, but wi t hou:
t el l i ng t he reader so. Tr adi t i onal l y, t he poet s who pr oduce:
earl y poet r y i n t he I sl ami c syst em went t o great l engt hs descri bi ng
t hei r camel s, whi l e pr opor t i onat el y devot i ng f ar f ewer l i nes t o xht
descr i pt i on of t he women t hey l oved. West er n poet i cs has ai way-
t ended t o t ake a r at her di f f er ent vi ew of pr opor t i ons i n t hi s
r sat t er .
The l ast , but not least obst acl e t o t he r ecept i on of t he qasidah i n
zx West i s t he ver y l anguage i t i s wr i t t en i n, or r at her , a
r r mbi nat i on of t he pr oper t i es of t hat l anguage and t he r equi r ement s
: : I s l a mi c poet i cs. Gi bb sums up t he pr obl em as f ol l ows:
where t he poet i s hel d al most whol l y t o speci fi c t hemes, and hi s
ai m i s t o embel l i sh t hose t hemes wi t h al l t he ar t at hi s command,
: o surpass hi s predecessors and r i val s i n beaut y, expressi veness,
terseness of phr ase, i n f i del i t y of descr i pt i on and gr asp of r eal i t y,
t hen such poet r y can never be sat i sf act or i l y t r ansl at ed i nt o any
ot her l anguage, j ust because t he t hi ng said vari es so l i t t l e and t he
whol e ar t l i es i n t he unt r ansl at abl e manner of sayi ng i t . ( 22)
7 " r mai n pr obl em i s t hat of t he si ngl e end r hy me. Ever y bayt i n t he
zi^sidah ends i n t he same sound- No t r ansl at or i nt o Engl i sh has ever
t r: ed t o keep i t . Bl unt wri t es i t has t her ef or e been deci ded t o
i : : empt nei t her t he r hyme nor t he t er mi nal syl l abl e, t hough
^ vant age has been t aken of al l conveni ent occasi ons of conf or mi ng
t he l at t er ( xxi ) . Ni chol son made t he same deci si on, t hough
ch f ewer r egr et s" Now and t hen I have copi ed t he monor hyme of
Lhnental odes, but i t i s not easy t o do so i n poems of any l engt h
^ cr i s i t wor t h t he t r oubl e (1922 v i i ) .
Bot h Ni chol son and Bl unt agree t hat f ar mor e depends on t he
TZsjice of a met r e consor t i ng wi t h t he t onespi r i t , and movement of
^r-e or i gi nal " ( Ni chol son 1922: v i i i ) . Unf or t unat el y t hi s met er i s,
i least i n Ni chol son' s case, of t en achi eved onl y at t he pri ce of near
compl et e l ack of i nt el l i gi bi l i t y. I t i s har d t o det ect behi nd
X. r hol son^s " Or as t raceri es on a woman' s wr i st a t at t oo of r i n g s : /
r . ked i n wi t h powder y soot t he pat t er n st i cks of f di st i nct ( 1922 :
what Pol k renders in honest prose as : t he r enewi ng of a t at t oo
:he spr i nkl i ng and r ubbi ng of soot i n ci rcl es above whi ch t he
appears" ( 1 9 ) . Ni chol son pays a hi gh pri ce f or hi s Ar abi c
^ c r j n g r h y t h m, " as does Bl unt , who t r ansl at es t he same bayt as:
Se: r ed wi t h l i nes and ci r cl es, l i mned wi t h r i ngs and bl azoni ngs/ as
ZTL-Z pai nt s a mai d' s cheek poi nt l i ned i n i ndi go ( 2 6 ) . Ar ber r y s
~r . s l a t i o n of t he same passage agai n reveal s t he ext ent of hi s
-ridence on t he di ct i on of hi s predecessors: or t he back and f or t h
-i woman t at t ooi ng, her i ndi go/ i n r i ngs scat t er ed, t he t at t ooi ng
reveal ed above t hem ( 142 ). Carl yl e obedi ent to t he
-*:*e:ologicaI const r ai nt s of hi s t i me, t ransl at es A s t he dust
spr i nkl ed on a pupct ur ' d hand/ Bi ds t he f ai nt t i nt s r esume t hei r
azure hue" ( 6 ) , and has t o make t he sense cl ear i n a f oot not e: " I t i s
a cust om wi t h Ar abi an women, i n or der t o gi ve t he vei ns of t hei r
hands and ar ms a mor e br i l l i ant appearance, t o make sl i ght
punct ur es al ong t hem, and t o r ub i nt o t he i nci si ons a bl ue powder ,
whi ch t hey r enew occasi onal l y as i t happens t o wear out " ( 6 ) . The
poet i cs of anot her t i me al l ow Tuet ey t o say much t he same t hi ng
i nsi de hi s t r ansl at i on of t he act ual poem: " as wi t h i ndi go- bl ue t he
gi r l r edr aw/ t he faded pat t er ns mar k i ng her pal m" ( 1 1 7 ) .
Bot h met r i cal paddi ng and hi ghl y expl anat or y prose t end t o di l ut e
t he power of t he pr i mor di al f eat ur e of t he ear l y qasidahs: t he
i mage. No t r ansl at or seems t o have succeeded i n sol vi ng t he cr uci al
pr obl em t hat faces t hose who t r y t o accul t ur at e t he qasidah i n t he
West , namel y: " t o r ender t hi s poet r y i n a f or m t hai i s reasonabl y
sel f - expl anat or y t o t he Engl i sh reader whi l e r et ai ni ng t he economy
and compact ness t ypi cal of pr e- l sl ami c poet r y ( Tuet ey 8 ) .
Fi l sht i nsky may poi nt t o one of t he reasons why t hi s shoul d be so
" t he poet s di scarded al l t hat t hei r hearers coul d suppl ement wi t h t he
ai d of t hei r o wn i magi nat i on. Thi s endowed t hei r wor l d wi t h a
conci se, dynami c qual i t y, and enabl ed t he l i st ener t o percei ve t he
i mage qui ckl y and easi l y" ( 1 9 ) ,
The f aul t lies not onl y wi t h t he t r ansl at or , but al so wi t h t he wi de
di vergence i n Uni ver ses of Di scourse t hr ough no f aul t of t hei r
own. West er n readers can suppl ement ver y l i t t l e wi t h t he ai d of
t hei r own i magi nat i on. The t r ansl at or has t o do i t f or t hem,
t r adi t i onal l y by smuggl i ng wor dy expl anat i ons i nt o t he t ext , or by
r el yi ng on f oot not es. The t r ansl at or can al so t r y t o recreat e t he
i mage i n anot her way, as W. R. Pol k has done, by of f er i ng the
reader a schol ar l y i nt r oduct i on, a l i t er al t r ansl at i on, not est and
" f i nal l y , phot ogr aphs" t hat " at t empt t o capt ur e t he mood presented
i n each ver se" ( v i i i ) : an abdi cat i on of t he power of l anguageT as the
Cambridge History of Arabic Literature r emi nds us to " t r ansl at e
f r om Ar abi c cl assi cs i n a way at t r act i ve t o a reader unacquai nt ed
wi t h t he or i gi nal t ongue and ci vi l i zat i on associ ated wi t h i t " ( x ) .
Chapter 7
Translation : Universe of Discourse
"Holy Garbage, tho by Homer cook't
The subt i t l e of t hi s chapt er i s t he phrase t he Ear l of Roscommon
( c . 1685) uses i n hi s Essay on Translated Verse to ref er to t he
rel uct ance t r ansl at or s of hi s t i me di spl ayed t owar d t r ansl at i ng
rtain aspects of t he Homer i c Uni ver se of Di scourse cert ai n
: bj ect sT cust oms, and bel i ef s t hought unaccept abl e i n t hei r own
r ul t ur e. Based on a compar i son of t r ansl at i ons of t he f uner al of
Pai r ocl us ( I l i ad x x i i i ) and t he mar t i al expl oi t s of I domeneus ( I l i ad
x i ) f t hi s chapt er wi l l expl or e t r ansl at or s at t i t udes t owar d t he
Uni ver se of Di scour se expressed i n t he or i gi nal t ext i n r el at i on t o
e Uni ver se of Di scourse of t hei r o wn soci et y.
Thi s at t i t ude i s heavi l y i nf l uenced by t he st at us of t he or i gi nal ,
sel f -i mage of t he cul t ur e t hat t ext i s t r ansl at ed i nt o, t he t ypes of
Texts deemed acceptabl e i n t hat cul t ur e, t he l evel s of di ct i on deemed
acceptabl e i n i t , t he i nt ended audi ence, and t he " c ul t ur al scr i pt s
n
.nat audi ence i s used t o or wi l l i ng t o accept .
The st at us of t he source t ext can r un t he whol e gamut f r o m
r ent r ai t o per i pher al i n ei t her t he source or t he t ar get cul t ur e. A
: ext t hat i s cent r al i n i t s own cul t ur e may never occupy t he same
posi t i on i n anot her cul t ur e, as I have shown i n t he pr evi ous chapt er
r y ray anal ysi s of at t empt s to accu It ur at e t he qasidah. In Homer ' s
i t i s safe t o say t hat t he I l i ad was a cent r al t ext i n i t s o wn
r uhur e ari d became one of t he cent r al t ext s of West Eur opean
: j i t u r e (110 mat t er what l anguages t hat cul t ur e made use of ) unt i l
i bout Roscommon' s t i me. I n Macpher son' s words The l east
mpar t i al nat i ons have cont ent ed t hemsel ves wi t h gi vi ng t he second
; I ace t o t he most f avour ed of t hei r nat i ve poet s. An d t o al l ow t he
: i r>t seat t o Ho me r " (i i ) .
The sel f -i mage of t he t ar get cul t ur e i s by no means const ant and
unchangeabl e. A case may be made f or t he st at ement t hat a cul t ur e
wi t h a l ow sel f -i mage wi l l wel come t r ansl at i on ( and ot her f or ms of
r ewr i t i ng) f r om a cul t ur e or cul t ur es i t consi ders super i or t o i t sel f .
The cul t ur e of t he Fr ench Renai ssance, f or i nst ance, l ooks up t o
Homer wi t hout reserve. I t s at t i t ude persi st s i n t he r ewr i t i ngs of
Ho me r i n t he gui se of bot h cr i t i ci sm and t r ansl at i on aut hor ed by
Madame Daci er ,
Th e cul t ur e of t he Fr ench ei ght eent h cent ur y, on t he ot her
hand, whi ch t hought of i t sel f as havi ng come of age, " no l onger
had t he same unst i nt i ng admi r at i on f or t he I l i ad. Renai ssance
t r ansl at or s woul d t r ansl at e Homer among ot her t hi ngs al so t o
i nt er i or i ze t h e " r ul es, t hat i s, t he poet i cs of t he epi c, and t o
pr opagat e t hem. They t hought of cl assi cal Gr eek cul t ur e as t he
r eposi t or y of t hose r ul es. By t he ei ght eent h cent ur y, t hough,
Fr ench cul t ur e consi dered i t sel f super i or t o cl assi cal Gr eek cul t ur e
and t hought of i t sel f as t he t r ue guar di an of t he poet i cs of t he West .
Accor di ngl y, De l a Mot t e suggest s t hat Homer shoul d be j udged
by cont empor ar y st andar ds Qui naul t i s openl y condemned because
he bel ongs t o our cent ur y, and t he f avor abl e pr ej udi ce we have
t owar ds ant i qui t y r esul t s i n our not dar i ng t o f eel Homer ' s f aul t s
( 197a) .
By t he ei ght eent h cent ur y t he Engl i sh al so no l onger consi dered
Homer t he supr eme l aw- gi ver f or al l epic wr i t i ng, nor di d t hey
cont i nue t o r egar d hi s epi cs as t he t ouchst one agai nst whi ch al l
f ut ur e epics shoul d be t est ed. Rat her hi s st at ur e i s f el t t o exer t a
st i f l i ng i nf l uence on at t empt s t o wr i t e t hose f ut ur e epics T h e
f et t er s, whi ch t he pr evai l i ng t ast e of moder n Eur ope [ shaped by
t hose who unr eser vedl y admi r e Ho me r ] has i mposed on poet r y,
may wel l be admi t t ed as an excuse f or a man of t he best geni us f or
not succeedi ng i n t he char act er i st i c si mpl i ci t y of Homer
( Macpher son x i i ) -
I n t he Fr ench t ar get cul t ur e of t he sevent eent h and ei ght eent h
cent ur i es, t he epic as a genr e, or t ype of l i t er ar y t ex t , no
l onger occupi es t he domi nant posi t i on i t di d occupy dur i ng t he
Renai ssance when Ronsar d f or i nst ancet Pai nst aki ngl y composed L^
Fraiiciade, whi c h remai ned and remai ns l ar gel y unread,
si mpl y because to be t r ul y r at ed gr eat , a poet had to compose
an epi c. I n t he sevent eent h and ei ght eent h cent ur i es t he epic
l ost i t s pr edomi nant posi t i on t o t he tragdie, and i t i s qui t e
cl ear t hat De l a Mot t e j udges t he epi c by t he st andards of t hai
tragdie. He makes t hi s qui t e expl i ci t i n t he i nt r oduct i on t o hi s
t r ansl at i on of t he Iliadt whi c h cont ai ns somet hi ng l i ke a br i ef
Translation Uni verse of Discourse 89
f ^ r amar y" of al l t hat i s needed i n t he tragdie and l acki ng i n
- i : me r :
I have t r i ed t o make t he nar r at i ve f ast er t han i t i s i n Ho me r ,
:he descr i pt i ons l ar ger and less bur dened by detai l s t he
: ompar i sons mor e exact and less f r equent . 1 have f r eed t he
speeches f r om al l I deemed cont r ar y t o t he passi on t hey
r xpr ess, and I have t r i ed t o i nt r oduce i nt o t hem t hat gr adual
bui l d- up of power and sense on whi ch t hey depend f or
: hei r gr eat est ef f ect . Fi nal l y, I have seen t o i t t hat t he charact ers
i r e consi st ent , si nce t he reader i s l i kel y t o be most sensi t i ve t o
t hat r ul e now so wel l k n o wn , and t o j udge most severel y
accor di ngl y, ( 214b)
- Engl and t he si t uat i on i s less cl ear - cut , owi ng t o t he st at ur e of
^ i l t on' s Paradise Lost as a nat i onal epic poem t hat i s act ual l y r ead,
: t he epic can be seen t o begi n t o lose i t s domi nant posi t i on t her e
i s wel l .
Di ct i on sui t ed t o t he composi t i on of wor ks of l i t er at ur e was
Tr r v nar r owl y def i ned by t he Acadmi e i n t he Fr ench t ar get
r _: t ur e of t he sevent eent h and ei ght eent h cent ur i es. Thi s ext r emel y
r t ^t r i ct ed di ct i on made i t ver y di f f i cul t f or t r ansl at or s t o i ncl ude
r t r t ai n el ement s of t he Homer i c Uni ver se of Di scour se even i f
-ney want ed t o go beyond t he boundar i es of t he agrable. The
Tr : r ds wer e si mpl y not t her e. Or r at her , t he wor ds wer e t her e, but
use of t hose wor ds in a wor k of l i t er at ur e was not deemed
^r cept abl e. The mer e use of t hi s t ype of wor d woul d aut omat i cal l y
: : ndemn a t r ansl at i on t o a subl i t er ar y exi st ence, causi ng i t t o
rej ect ed as
a
v ul gar , no mat t er what i t s ot her vi r t ues mi ght be.
bxe mor e t he si t uat i on i s somewhat di f f er ent i n Engl and,
mi ddl e- and l at e- August an poet i c di ct i on af f or d a def i ni t e
mal ogy
A
u
c u l t u r a l scr i pt " coul d be def i ned as t he accepted pat t er n of
: ^havi or expect ed of peopl e who f i l l cer t ai n rol es i n a cer t ai n
: : i t ur e. The Fr ench peopl e of t he sevent eent h cent ur y had a ver y
i -efi ni te cul t ur al scr i pt f or t he r ol e of k i n g That scr i pt had been
great l y el aborat ed on by Loui s X I V . I n one way coul d i t be made t o
: : H o me r i c ki ngs most of wh o m woul d be seen by Fr ench peopl e
gout t o be l i vi ng t he l i ves of i mpover i shed nobl emen i n t hei r own
zay and age* I n De l a Mot t e' s words
One does not see a mul t i t ude of of f i cer s or guar ds ar ound t he
ki ngs t he chi l dr en of t he soverei gns wo r k i n t he gardens and
guar d t he herds of t hei r f at her s; t he palaces are def i ni t el y not
superb nor t he t abl es sumpt uous. Agamemnon dresses hi msel f
and Achi l l es prepares wi t h hi s o wn hands t he meal he gi ves t o
Agamemnon' s ambassador s. ( 192b)
Si mi l ar l y, wher e Homer ' s sol di ers j ust si t about af t er t hey have put
down t he wood t hat wi l l be used f or Pat r ocl us f uner al pyr e,
Madame Daci er expl i ci t l y makes t hem wai t f or or der s, as a good
sol di er was supposed t o do i n t he cul t ur al scr i pt set t i ng f or t h what
good sol di ers wer e t o do i n her t i me. I n Macpher son' s t r ansl at i on,
Achi l l es does not j ust put t he l ocks he has cut f r om hi s hai r i nt o t he
hands of t he dead Pat r ocl us : he does so neat l yt as any good
Scot sman woul d.
Si nce most sevent eent h- and ei ght eent h- cent ur y t r ansl at i ons of
t he Gr eek and Lat i n cl assi cs wer e made f or peopl e who knew Greek
and Lat i n t o some or even a consi derabl e ext ent , t he i nf or mat i on
val ue of t he t r ansl at i on was r at her l ow. I n f act , a case coul d be
made f or not t r ansl at i ng or embel l i s hi ng cer t ai n aspects of the
Homer i c Uni ver se of Di scourse si mpl y because most readers woul d
be abl e t o check what was l ef t out or embel l i shed i n t he or i gi nal .
Yet t r ansl at i ons of t he cl assi cs di d have i nf or mat i on val ue i n one
i nstance i f and when t hey wer e made f or use i n t he cl assr oom or t o
be read by young, readers, I n t hese cases, t he t r ansl at i on woul d
st r i ct l y be ad us um Delphini.
The t r ansl at i ons of Homer wr i t t en i n Fr ance and Engl and
i n and somewhat bef or e Roscommon' s t i me are st i l l pr ephi l -
ol ogi cal and r el at i vel y ahi st or i cal i n nat ur e. They t her ef or e
i l l ust r at e bot h t he pr obl em of t r ansl at i ng a Uni ver se of Di scour r a
and t he st rat egi es f or sol vi ng t hat pr obl em wi t h a cl ar i t y ul t i mat ei y
r oot ed i n t he cul t ur al nai vet t hat preceded cul t ur al r el at i vi sm i n the
West . Dur i ng t he per i od under consi der at i on t he i mage and prest i ge
of t he or i gi nal , t he Iliacl, began t o be quest i oned somewhat -
Madame Daci er consi ders her t r ansl at i on a t r i but e t o t he geni us
of Ho me r ; Houdar De l a Mot t e consi dered hi s t r ansl at i on an
at t empt t o make Homer pal at abl e t o t he Fr ench r eader shi p of his
t i me.
Wi l l i am Cowper wr i t es i n hi s i nt r oduct i on t o hi s t r ansl at i on of the
Iliad It i s di f f i cul t to ki l l a sheep wi t h di gni t y i n a modem
l anguage" ( x i x ) . My cont ent i on i s t hat l anguage has absol ut el y
not hi ng t o do wi t h i t . I f t he or i gi nal enj oys a hi ghl y posi t i ve
Tr ansl at i on Uni verse of Di scourse 91
ut at i on i n t he t ar get c ul t ur e, t he t r ansl at i on i s l i kel y t o be as
r al as possi bl e, wh i c h means t hat sheep wi l l , i ndeed, be k i l l ed,
- n e t h e r wi t h di gni t y or n o t . Or , i n t he wo r d s of Madame Daci er :
t h a t per t ai ns t o t he c us t oms mu s t be k e p t " ( 1714 : 3 5 9 ) . Wh e n
i mage of t he or i gi nal i s no l onger u n i f o r ml y posi t i ve i n t he t ar get
t ur e, mor e l i ber t i es are l i k el y t o be t aken i n t r ans l at i on,
i r r c i s e l y because t he or i gi nal i s no l onger consi der ed a quas h
^ r ed" t ex t As soon as mor al s became enl i ght enedt as soon as
t r , : I osopher s appear ed on t he scene, we began t o see c r i t i c i s m of
H r me r " ( De l a Mo t t e 2 0 5 b ) .
Once t he or i gi nal i s no l onger t aboo, t he t ar get c ul t ur e
t o devel op di f f er ent at t i t udes t o wa r d i t . T h e f i r st of t hose
i - ' t u d e s consi st s of at t empt s t o " j u s t i f y " Ho me r . I t i s t hen sai d
: : t h e poet of t he Iliad t h a t : H e wi l l appear t o excel hi s o wn
r i t e of soci et y, i n poi nt of decency and del i cacy, as mu c h as he
sur passed mor e pol i shed ages i n poi nt of geni us ( Wo o d
. , Ev en D e l a Mo t t e i s wi l l i n g t o admi t t h a t Ho me r i s not
- r >ponsi bi e f or t he t i mes he l i ved i n : " I n t he dar k t i mes i n wh i c h
: : l i v e d he coul d not have had any heal t hy i deas of t he Di v i n i t y ,
nd what ev er wi t i s i mp u t e d t o hi m he has not been abl e
n mp l e t e l y t o avoi d t he cont agi on of t he er r or s of Pagani sm and i t s
s u r d i t y " ( 1 8 9 b ) . F i f t y year s l at er Bi t aub under st ands t hat
ere are r eader s wh o wi l l r ej ect Ho me r because T h e mor e a nat i on
> ci vi l i zed, t he mor e del i cat e i t s manner s a r e t h e mor e one
abl e t o i magi ne t hat one mi g h t meet peopl e i n i t wh o wi l l
: ave d i f f i c u l t y b o wi n g t o mor al s s t r ongl y opposed t o t hose
r har act er i st i cs" ( 1 : 2 9 ) .
An o t h e r at t i t ude i s t hat of mor e or l ess compl et e accept ance of
Ho me r on t he basi s of an awak eni ng hi s t or i c i s m. Madame Daci er
wr i t es I f i n d t he ol d t i mes t he mor e beaut i f ul i n t hat t hey
r esembl e our s t he l es s " ( 1713, 1 : x x v ) . Yet she al so t r i es t o
j u s t i f y " Ho me r agai nst t he t ast e of her o wn t i me by i n v o k i n g
t he a u t h o r i t y of t he mos t cent r al t e x t of her c ul t ur e t h a t ,
par adoxi cal l y, t u r n s out t o be anot her t r ans l at i on: He of t en
speaks of caul dr ons, of k et t l es , of bl ood, of f at , of i nt est i nes, et c.
You see pr i nces cut up t he ani mal s t hemsel ves and r oast i ng
* hem. Peopl e of t he wo r l d f i nd t hi s s hoc k i ng; but one mus t
-ee t hat al l of t hi s t ot al l y c onf or ms t o wh a t one sees i n Ho l y Wr i t "
1: x x v i ) .
Th e di f f er ent at t i t udes devel oped t o wa r d t he or i gi nal gi ve r i se t o
i f f e r e n t t r ansl at i onal st r at egi es. Madame Daci er wr i t e s , qui t e
pr ed. t abl y"! conf ess t hat I have not t r i ed t o s o f t e n t he p o w of
L f eat ures t o br i ng t hem cl o. er t o our j 7 .
On t he ot her hand. Barbm,l e of the earl y j u s t ^ e r s , s a e^
t hi ngs t hat seem t oo l ow t o us t oday (.
F l
"
a l l y
' ' , ,
B u t s t he ar gument i n f avor of t he neocl assi cal r ul es he had so
p ect l y i n L o r i z e d " ! want ed m y t r a n s k u o n t o b e P ^ ^
r/ve t hLfore had substitute ,deas that are P e-ng today for
ot her M e a , = u r t o a
The genre that is domi nant in the target l u i
I U
. L ,
e x t e n t t he readers' hor i zon of ex pec t a t 1 0 n wi t h regard t o the
L d k t hat t nes t o t ake U s pl ace m t hat t ar get c l t u r e . 1
t does not conf or m t o the demands of t he genre t hat ^ m a he
a r g e t c l t u r e i t s r ecept i on i s l i kel y t o be rendered mor e d; f f cu t
hence Madame Daci er ' S l ament " Most peopl e now are spo. l t by the
f a d i n g of vast quant i t i es of vam and f r i vol ous b o o k , and t hey md
= W e S - a b l e t o bear wi t h not
t a s e ( 1713, 1 V) . Accor di ngl y, these peopl e t end t o expect
" h o e S bei ong i ng t c t he bour geoi se, ^ a y s S o = = :
cor r ect " ( l : v i > . Needl ess t o say t hi s t ype of hero us nor l i kel y t o be
f
H o b ^ e ^ S t h a t : , h e nances o f - - m e n , a , d t o o l , ^
art i f i ce and words of art, though of use the Schools are far
^ b i nB f i t t c be spoken by , her o" ( i v ) . Mor e t han a hundr ea
Bi t aub echoe Madame Daner Readers e x p e ^ a ^ o n
have changed, and the new expect at i ons d e t e r m. e ê at ut ude
wi t h whi ch t hey wi l l be r eadi ng t he t r ansl at . on of t he I L t a d .
2 e U h a v e , i n par t , a c c u . t o . e d u s t o g - e ^
, u k a ; / 1 . ? Because Homer s heroes are sc
- - u n p a l a ^ l e
h , own t i m e , De l a Mot t e
qu
ite Logl caUy states ^ t he e
reasons have I reduced t he t went y- f our b o o k s
f
1

t w e l v e whi c h are even much shor t er t han Homer s ( 213a/ b ) .
= h e has done mor e t han h.s best t o make t he heroes o
t h i a a / b e h a v e i n t he manner hi s audi ence want ed t hem o
b e h a v e " I have l ef t t he Go d , t hei r passi ons, bot I W me d t o
n v i t t heo, wi t h d l g n I t y - a I ^ e not f
t hat - w h , c h = = = =
away from them the avarice and the greed mai
eyes" ( 214b) .
Transl ati on Universe of Discourse 93
Generi c expect at i ons nur t ur ed by t he domi nant genre al so af f ect
:he composi t i on of t he t r ansl at i on. For De l a Mot t e t he tragdie i s
:he cent r al genre of t he poet i cs of hi s t i me and cul t ur e* He t her ef or e
qui te l ogi cal l y proceeds t o r et hi nk and recast t he Iliad i n t er ms of
: hat tragdie, and j ust i f i es hi s st r at egy by an expl i ci t appeal t o
A-hat hi s audi ence i s l i kel y to expect f r o m a tragdie, Woul d
spect at ors i n t he t heat er submi t t o bei ng t ol d dur i ng t he pauses i n a
:
r
agdie al l t hat i s goi ng t o happen i n t he next act? Woul d t hey
approve of t he act i on of t he pr i nci pal charact ers bei ng i nt er r upt ed by
the af f ai r s of confidants? Cer t ai nl y not " ( 214a) .
Generi c expect at i ons are l i kel y t o be somewhat di f f er ent i n
di f f er ent cul t ur es. The i nt r oduct i on t o an Engl i sh t r ansl at i on of t he
Iliad, al most cont empor ar y wi t h De l a Mot t e' s Fr ench t r ansl at i on,
r.as t hi s t o say of t he Fr ench al exandri ne " Fr enc h ver si f i cat i on,
r speci al l y of t he Her oi c sor t , i s i nt ol er abl y t edi ous" ( Ozel l 4 ) .
What i s t he epi t ome of st yl e and el egance f or De l a Mot t e i s not hi ng
f t he ki nd t o hi s Br i t i sh cont empor ar i es. On t he cont r ar y t hey
concl ude t hat " t he dr one of a bag-pi pe af f or ds every whi t as much
Har mony " ( Ozel l 6 ) , whi ch shoul d not r eal l y come as a sur pr i se
f r om t he pen of Br i t i sh schol ars who pr onounce t he Fr ench l anguage
" cer t ai nl y t he unf i t t est {or Her oi c Subj ect s " ( Ozel l 4 ) t h u s
ef f ect i vel y chal l engi ng t he r i ght of t he Fr ench t o t r ansl at e Homer at
i l l and advanci ng t he Br i t i sh cl ai m t o be t he t r ue successor t o t he
" gl or y t hat was Gr eece,
The i nt ended audi ence al so pl ays a par t i n det er mi ni ng st rat egi es
f or t he t r ansl at i on of Uni ver se- of - Di scour se f eat ur es. I f Homer i s
i r ansl at ed f or t he young, as he of t en was i n t hose stages of cul t ur es
whi ch rel i ed mai nl y, i f not excl usi vel y, on t he book t o propagat e
cul t ur al val ues, cer t ai n aspects of hi s Uni ver se of Di scour se are
: : kel y t o be omi t t ed. I n Bi t aube' s wor ds" I have not l ost f r om si ght
: he educat i on of t he young and of t hose who want t o st udy Hor ner
: n t he or i gi nal . A f ai t hf ul t r ansl at i on t hat i s not bar bar i c may make
t hi s st udy much easi er" ( 1 : 47) .
An d so t o t he t r ansl at i ons. The Gr eek noun enorchs means"Ke-
goat " and i s obvi ousl y associ ated wi t h t he adj ect i ve enorchos def i ned
by Li del l and Scot t as: " wi t h t he t est i cl es i n, uncast r at ed. Goat s
do not enj oy t he best of r eput at i ons i n t he cul t ur al scr i pt of t he
: arget cul t ur e ( s) of t he sevent eent h, ei ght eent h, and ni net eent h
: ent ur i es ( even i n t he t went i et h cent ur y t he Loeb Cl assi cal Li br ar y
Translates enorchs as r ams, mal es wi t hout bl emi sh
Accor di ngl y, Rochef or t t r ansl at es i t as " t aureauxbul l s), not
because he does not k n o w Gr eek or di d not bot her t o l ook up t he
wo r d , but because hi s c ul t ur al scr i pt cal l s f or t he sacr i f i ce of an
ani mal consi der ed mor e nobl e t han a mer e goat * Bi t aub t ur ns t he
he- goat s i nt o " bl i er s ( r a ms ) , but does not speci f y any f ur t her ,
pr esumabl y because t he Homer i c det ai l s are not l i kel y t o edi f y t he
y oung ov er muc h. Bar bi n pr obabl y adher es most cl osel y t o t he
c ul t ur al scr i pt of hi s day i f not t o t he or i gi nal he i s t r ans l at i ngby
r ender i ng enor chs as agneaux ( l ambs ) , t hus ef f ect i vel y
r ender i ng t he Gr eek c us t om l ess bar bar i c.
One Homer i c c ul t ur al scr i pt De l a Mo t t e i s def i ni t el y unabl e t o
accept i s t hat of t he f ai r l y el abor at e descr i pt i on of wounds execut ed
wi t h " a n anat omi cal pr eci si on t hat chi l l s t he i magi nat i on" ( 195a) of
anyone used t o an ei ght eent h- cent ur y scr i pt t hat rel i es heavi l y on
euphemi sms t o descr i be any par t s of t he body. Ac c or di ngl y , De l
Mo t t e r educes t he near l y t wo hundr ed l i nes i n t he t hi r t eent h book of
t he Iliad i n wh i c h Ho me r descr i bes t he expl oi t s of I domeneus, hi s
al l i es, and hi s adver sar i es i n gr aphi c det ai l t o no mor e t han t wo
l i nes i n hi s t r ansl at i on " I domne, Aj ax Mnl as, M r i o n n e / De
meur t r es et de sang assouvi ssent Bel l one [ I d o me n e u s , Aj ax
Menel aos, Me r i o n / Sa t i s f y Bel l ona wi t h mur der s and wi t h b l o o d :
( 2 4 5 a ) .
One descr i pt i on i n t he t hi r t eent h book of t he Iliad i s l i kel y t o
shock t he sevent eent h- ari d ei ght eent h- cent ur y r eader i n bot h
Fr ance and Engl and mor e t han al l ot her s. Mer i ones, t he Gr eek
her o, pur sues Adamas , wh o f i ght s on t he Tr o j a n si deand wounds
h i m wi t h hi s spear ai doi oon t e mesgu kai omphal ou, ent ha
mal i s t a/ gi gnet ' Ar s al egei nos oi zur oi si br ot oi si n ( l i nes 568-9 )
( b e t we e n t he geni t al s and t he navel wher e cr uel Ar es becomes
wo r s t t o unhappy mo r t a l s ) , On l y Hobbes and Cowper even t r y t o
t r ansl at e t he or i gi nal i n f ul l . Cowper wr i t es : " t h e shame bet ween
An d navel pi er ced h i m, wher e t he st r oke of Ma r s / Pr o v e s pai nf ul
mos t t o mi ser abl e man " ( 2 5 5 ) , r ender i ng t he geni t al s by t he
mor e decor ous s h a me , but ment i oni ng t hem at l east , as does
Hobbes by means of a si mi l ar c i r c uml oc ut i on: ^ Mer i ones sent
af t er h i m a spear , / Wh i c h ent er i ng at hi s hi nder par t s, came
out / Beneat h hi s navel , and above hi s g e a r / Wh e r e wounds most
f at al ar e " ( 155 ) . Yet t he euphemi sm "gear whi c h al so f i t s
t he r hy me, i s of f set by t he addi t i on of t he gr aphi c descr i pt i on of
t he pat h t he spear pur sues t h r o u g h t he body of Adamas. Amo n g
Fr enc h t r ansl at or s Rochef or t r esor t s t o zero t r ansl at i on l eavi ng
out t he of f endi ng l i nes al t oget her . Th e ot her s use var i ous ci r cum-
Tr ansl at i on Uni verse of Di scourse 95
l ocut i ons.
Bar bi n s i mpl y wr i t e s : L e f er est oi t ent r f o r t av ant " [ t h e i r on
bad ent er ed ver y f ar i n t he f r o n t ] ( 296 ) , pr obabl y wi t h t he
i nt ent i on of ma k i n g t he r eader t h i n k of a nobl er pl ace, l i ke t he
r hest , i n wh i c h t he spear mi ght have ent er ed. Madame Daci er i s
mor e dar i ng she has t he spear ent er somewhat l o we r , a u mi l i eu
du cor ps" [ i n t he mi ddl e of t he b o d y ] , and goes on t o add :
j u s t e me n t dans l ' endr oi t o l es bl essur es sont l es pl us
doul our euses et l es pl us mo r t e l l e s " [ pr ec i s el y at t he spot wher e
wounds are t he mos t pai nf ul and t he most l et hal ] ( 1 7 1 3 , 2 : 289 ) .
The st udi ed vagueness of t he wo r d i n g makes i t possi bl e f or t he
r eader t o t h i n k of t he s t omac h as wel l as of t he geni t al s, and
bend t he passage t o f i t hi s or her c ul t ur al scr i pt wi t h mi n i ma l
r evul si on. Bi t aub has t he spear ent er " sous l e n o mb r i l , o l es
at t ei nt es de Ma r s sont f at al es aux mal heur eux mo r t e l s " [ u n d e r t he
navel , wher e t he bl ows of Ma r s are f at al t o unf or t unat e mo r t a l s ]
( 2 : 2 1 ) , l ocal i zi ng t he wo u n d f ai r l y accur at el y wi t h o u t st oopi ng t o
f ur t her det ai l s. T h e ot her Engl i s h t r ansl at or s r ef er r ed t o her e,
Ozel l and Mac pher s on, have each adopt ed a si mi l ar st r at egy
al bei t one hundr ed, and f i f t y year s apar t . Ozel l has: B e l o w hi s
N' avel pl ung' d hi s f at al Spear , Wher e t he l east Wo u n d i nf l i c t s a
cer t ai n Deat h" ( 1 4 5 - 6 ) . Mac pher s on t r ansl at es Be l o w t he navel he
st r uck h i m wi t h f or ce : Wh e r e deat h ent er s, wi t h f at al ease" ( 2 :
3 3 ) .
Ac t u a l descr i pt i ons of a k i nd not deemed admi ssi bl e i n a
c ul t ur al scr i pt c onf r ont t r ans l at or s wi t h a def i ni t e chal l enge wh e n
t hey t r y t o t r ansl at e Uni ver se- of - Di scour se el ement s. Yet t he
pr obl ems are by no means l i mi t ed t o descr i pt i ons of r e a l t hi ngs :
t hey al so sur f ace i n t he case of " l i t e r a r y " devi ces such as t he si mi l e.
Th e T r o j a n her o Ha r p a l i o n , pi er ced by t he same Gr eek her o
Mer i ones , but t hi s t i me wi t h an' ar r ow di es i n t he ar ms of hi s
comr ades and h o o s t e skool ks epi gai / k ei t o t at hei s" [ l i k e a w o r m
on t he ear t h he l ay st r et ched o u t ] ( l i nes 6 5 4 - 5 ) . Roc hef or t obj ect s
t o t he v ul gar i mage of t he w o r m and r esor t s, once agai n, t o zer o
t r ansl at i on Fr a p p par M r i o n d ' u n coup i nat t endu, / I l t ombe et se
dbat dans l a poudr e t endu" [ H i t by Me r i o n w i t h an unexpect ed
b l o w / H e f al l s and wr i t h e s , st r et ched out i n t he p o wd e r ] ( 2 5 5 ) ,
Se dbat t hough s omewhat gr aphi c , ma y st i l l be sai d t o f al l
wi t h i n t he bounds of accept abl e di ct i on, and " l a poudr e" ( p o wd e r )
t akes t he pl ace of t he l ess decor ous pous s i r e" ( d u s t ) .
Madame Daci er t r ansl at es l a poussi r e, but omi t s t he w o r m i n
t he t ext of her t r ansl at i on, onl y t o ment i on i t i n a f oot not e. Her
t r ansl at i on reads : I I est oi t est endu sur l a poussi re " [ h e was
st r et ched out on t he d u s t ] ( 1713, 2: 294 ) . Th e f oot not e
apologizes L e Grec di t , il estait estendu comme un ver sur La
poussire [ t he Gr eek says ; he was st r et ched l i ke a wo r m on t he
dust ] , and goes on to di smi ss t he si mi l e as a " compar ai son basse"
[ si mi l e of a l ow k i n d ] , t hat ne r ussi r ai t pas en nost r e l angue
[ woul d not be successf ul i n our l anguage] ( 2 : 5 6 7 ) , The si mi l e' s
success or l ack t her eof has not hi ng t o do wi t h t he l anguage as such
but wi t h t he cul t ur al scr i pt t o whi ch t he users of t hat l anguage
subscr i be. I t i s r emar kabl e t hat Madame Daci er , who makes a
poi nt of t r ansl at i ng Homer as l i t er al l y as possi bl epar t s company
wi t h hi m here. She does not seem t o have real i zed t hat t he
anal ogy wi t h Hol y Wr i t , whi ch she hersel f ment i oned i n her cr i t i cal
t ext on Ho me r , mi ght have wor ked i n t hi s passage t oo. Af t e r al l ,
Chr i st i s l i kened t o a wo r m i n a passage desi gned t o f or egr ound t he
ut t er wr et chedness of t he human condi t i on. Bar bi n, who may
have real i zed t he pot ent i al of t he anal ogy, t r ansl at es: et i l
demeura t endu, comme un ver de t er r e que l ' on a cras" [ and he
st ayed st r et ched out , l i ke an ear t hwor m t hat peopl e have
cr ushed] ( 2 9 9 ) , even hei ght eni ng t he i mpact of t he si mi l e as he
does so.
The f act t hat Bar bi n and Madame Daci er seem t o have swi t ched
rol es here i s f ur t her pr oof of t he i mpor t ance of t he human f act or "
i n t r ansl at i on and ot her ki nds of r ewr i t i ng. Li k e great Homer , t he
t r ansl at or al so nods, over l ookst makes mi st akes. But t her e i s a
f undament al di f f er ence bet ween t hi s t ype of mi st ake and t he
mi st akes t r i umphant l y hel d up t o r i di cul e i n cer t ai n nor mat i ve
wr i t i ngs on t r ansl at i on. Thi s ki nd of wr i t i ng woul d summar i l y
di smi ss De l a Mot t e' s t r ansl at i on of t he Iliad as " not a t r ansl at i on
at al l and, i n doi ng so, r i d i t sel f of f asci nat i ng mat er i al f or the
anal ysi s of t he evol ut i on and devel opment of l i t er at ur es, si mpl y
because De l a Mot t e' s t ext does not conf or m t o a t i me- bound
concept of t r ansl at i on f i xat ed excl usi vel y on t he or i gi nal . An
approach t o t r ansl at i on whi ch rest s cont ent wi t h decreei ng whi ch
t r ansl at i ons ought t o exi st and whi ch ought not i s ver y l i mi t ed
i ndeed. Rat her , i t shoul d anal yze t ext s whi ch ref er t o t hemsel ves as
t r ansl at i ons and ot her r ewr i t i ngs and t r y t o ascert ai n t he par t t hey
pl ay i n a cul t ur e. The sheer number of r ewr i t i ngs shoul d al ert
wr i t er s on t r ansl at i on of t hi s i l k t o t he f act t hat t hey may not be
deal i ng adequat el y wi t h t he mat t er at hand, j ust as t he repeat ed and
Transl ati on Universe of Discourse 97
regul ar i nci dence of what t hey ref er t o as " mi st akes" ought t o al ert
hem t o t he fact t hat an i sol at ed mi st ake i s, pr obabl y, j ust t hat ,
whereas a r ecur r ent seri es of mi s t a k e s most l i kel y poi nt s t o a
pat t er n t hat i s t he expressi on of a st r at egy.
Unl i k e Madame Daci er, Bi t aub ment i ons t he wo r m but
el evates i t t o a hi gher r ank wi t hi n t he ani mal ki ngdom : hi s
Har pal i on " s' t end t er r e comme un r ept i l e" [ st r et ches hi msel f on
t he gr ound l i ke a r ept i l e] ( 2 : 2 4 ) . Amo n g t he Engl i sh t r ansl at or s
Ozel l r esor t s t o zero t r ansl at i on, whereas Macpber son t ransl at es
l i t er al l y : " St r et cht on ear t h, l i ke a wo r m, he l ay" ( 2: 35) . Cowper
also t r ansl at es l i t er al l y An d l i ke a wo r m l ay on t he gr ound
11
( 258 ) , whereas Hobbes has t o b e n u mb " t he wo r m i n hi s
Transl at i on i n or der not t o f al l shor t of t he r equi r ement s of t he
met er he has i mposed on i t . He t r ansl at es: An d l ay l i ke t o a
wo r m benumbed t h a t / Up o n t he gr ound i t sel f at l engt h ext ends
( 157) .
A f i nal , obvi ous exampl e of t he i nf l uence of cul t ur al scr i pt on
t he t r ansl at i on of Uni ver se- of - Di scour se el ement s i s t o be f ound i n
t he t went y - t hi r d book of t he Iliad. Af t er he has l i t t he f uner al
pvr e of hi s f r i end Pat r ocl us, Achi l l es sacri f i ces " doadeka de Tr ooon
megat humoon ueias est hl ous/ chal kooi di oon ; kaka de phr esi
mdet o er ga" [ t wel v e nobl e sons of t he gr eat - hear t ed Tr o j a n s / wi t h
bronze cut t i ng down bad t he wo r k he i nt ended i n hi s hear t ] ( l i nes
175- 6) . Rochef or t t ur ns t he t wo l i nes i nt o f our and wr i t es I I
accompl i t enf i n son pr oj et dt est al be/ I l s' l ance, et , d' un gl ai ve
ar mant son bras coupabl e / Dans l e sang mal heur eux de douze
Phr y gi ens / I l t r empe, sans pi t i , ses homi ci des mai ns "
He accompl i shes at l ast hi s det est abl e p r o j e c t / He t hr ows
hi msel f f or war d and, ar mi ng hi s gui l t y ar m wi t h a s wo r d / I n t he
unhappy bl ood of t wel ve Phr y gi ans / He di ps, wi t hout pi t y, hi s
homi ci dal hands] ( 2 6 2 - 3 ) . Not sur pr i si ngl y, t he passage has t he
di ct i on of t he tragdie. Th e bronze becomes un gl ai ve and
Achi l l es act ual l y di ps hi s hands i n t he bl ood of t he vi ct i ms an
act i on t hat may have seemed bar bar i c t o t he Homer i c Gr eeks
t hemsel ves, but was obvi ousl y accept abl e t o Rochef or t ' s audi ence
t hat had read Pl ut ar ch on t he assassi nat i on of Jul i us Caesar* I n
f act , Rochef or t ' s audi ence may wel l have pr oj ect ed t he l ast years
of Republ i can Rome back on t he Gr eeks of Homer t s t i me, r epl aci ng
one cul t ur al scr i pt by anot her .
I n Bi t aub t he bronze becomes " f e r " ( i r o n ) and t he evi l i n
Achi l l es' hear t becomes t he much mor e st andardi zed " cour oux, que
r i en ne pouvai t ar r t er " [ wr a t h t hat not hi ng coul d s t op] (2 382) .
Bar bi r i r emai ns vague : Achi l l es si mpl y sel ect s t wel ve Tr oj ans and
l eur f i t per dr e l a vi e [ made t hem l ose t hei r l i ves] ( 521) wi t hout
any gor y det ai l s. Goi ng agai nst her st at ed pr i nci pl es once agai n,
Madame Daci er t r i es t o weaken t he vi ol ence of t he or i gi nal ,
pr obabl y al so i n an at t empt t o make Achi l l es a mor e posi t i ve"
her o, by suppl yi ng t he reader wi t h t he r ul es of t he cul t ur al scr i pt i n
wh i c h t hat vi ol ence t akes pl ace. She t ransl at es Enf i n, pour
achever d' apai ser l ' ombr e de son ami , i l i mmol e douze j eunes
Tr oy ens des pl us vai l l ant s et des mei l l eur es f ami l es, car l ' excs de
sa doul eur et un dsi r de vengeance ne l ui per met t ai t pas de gar der
aucune modr at i on" [ Fi n a l l y , t o appease t he shade of hi s f r i end, he
i mmol at es t wel ve young Tr oj ans of t he most val i ant and of t he best
f ami l i es, f or t he excess of hi s pai n and a desi r e f or vengeance di d
not al l ow hi m t o keep any moder at i on] ( 1713 3: 2 9 7 ) ,
Chapter 8
Translation : language
Catullusmany sparrows
Tex t s , bot h or i gi nal and t r ansl at ed, achi eve, or at l east i nt end
t o achi eve, t hei r ef f ect on t hei r readers i n a number of ways.
The f i nal ef f ect i s usual l y achi eved t hr ough a combi nat i on of
i l l oc ut i onar y st r at egi es or ways t o make us of l i ngui st i c
devi ces. Readers of t r ansl at ed t ext s not i nf r equent l y expect t he
combi nat i on of i l l ocut i onar y st r at egi es t o be less ef f ect i ve i n t he
t r ansl at i on t han i n t he or i gi nal . They wi l l , i f not act i vel y expect , at
l east r esi gn t hemsel ves t o t he f act t hat " somet hi ng get s l os t i n t he
t r ansl at i on.
What get s l ost , not i nf r equent l y t o t he same ext ent i n bot h
or i gi nal t ext s and t r ansl at i ons, i s t he i deal combi nat i on of
i l l ocut i onar y st r at egi es, t he admi t t edl y r at her shadowy, but
nonet hel ess ef f ect i ve concept t hat t he t ext coul d have been
bet t er " wr i t t e n or r ewr i t t en. Readers wh o are abl e t o compar e
t he or i gi nal and a number of t r ansl at i ons, as t he present reader i s
about t o do i n t hi s chapt er , are of t en al so abl e t o poi nt out wh y t he
" i deal combi nat i on" of i l l ocut i onar y st r at egi es has not been achi eved
i n t he t r ansl at i on. The reason i s of t en t o be f ound i n t he si mpl e f act
t hat one st r at egy i s pr i vi l eged above ot her s i n t he t r ansl at i on, and
"hat t hi s i s f el t t o r esul t i n what i s of t en descr i bed as
~ awkwar dness, woodenness, l ack of st yl e, not f or reasons
gr ounded i n t he t ext of t he or i gi nal as such, but f or reasons
ext r i nsi c t o t he t ext . One reason i s t he di f f er ence bet ween t he
l anguages i n whi ch t he or i gi nal and t he t r ansl at i on have been
expr essed; t he ot her reason i s t he domi nant " poet i cs" of t r ansl at i on
i t t he t i me a par t i cul ar t r ansl at i on i s made. Ma n y ni net eent h-
r ent ur y t r ansl at i ons of Cat ul l us' second poem, f or i nst ance, whi ch
wi l l be br i ef l y di scussed her e, r hy me, even t hough t he or i gi nal
i oes not .
T h e need t o r h y me , t her ef or e, by no means comes out of th-r
" s t r u c t u r e " of t he or i gi nal ; qui t e t he c ont r ar y . I t i s i mposed or
t r ans l at or s by t he " t r a n s l a t i o n poet i cs" of t hei r day, wh i c h i n t h :
ni net eent h c ent ur y hel d t hat accept abl e poet r y t r ansl at i ons shoul c
mak e use of t he i l l oc ut i onar y st r at egi es of met er and r h y me
Tr a n s l a t i o n poet i cs, l i ke al l poet i cs, t end t o change over t he years
Languages al so change, but mos t of t en not i n any way t hat reduces
t hei r di f f er ences t he di f f er ence bet ween L a t i n and ni net eent h
c ent ur y En g l i s h has not become appr eci abl y l ess t han t hat bet weer
L a t i n and t went i et h- c ent ur y En g l i s h . Wher eas t r ans l at or s t hen d
have some r ecour se agai nst t he const r ai nt s of t he t r ans l at i on poet i c-
of t hei r t i me, t hey have absol ut el y no r ecour se agai nst t ht
di f f er ence bet ween t he l anguage of t he or i gi nal and t hat of th-:
t r ans l at i on.
Languages are di f f er ent , and no amount of t r ansl at or t r ai ni ng :
ever l i k el y t o r educe t hat di f f er ence. Tr a n s l a t o r t r ai ni ng can
howev er , al er t t r ansl at or s bot h t o t he r el at i v i t y of t r ansl at i on
poet i cs and t o st r at egi es t hat ma y be used not t o ov er c ome" th-
di f f er ences bet ween l anguages, wh i c h are an undeni abl e gi ven, bu'
t o pr oj ect " t h e i r " i mage of t he or i gi nal , wh i c h may be i nf l uenced by
var i ous consi der at i ons, not j us t of i deol ogy a n d / o r poet i cs but al s:
of t he i nt ended audi ence of t he t r ans l at i on. These st r at egi es are by
no means l i mi t ed t o t he r eal m of l i ngui st i cs al one. Rat her , t hey
oper at e on t he l evel of i deol ogy, poet i cs, Uni v er s e of Di scour se
and l i ngui st i cs.
T h e t r ans l at i on poet i cs of a gi ven per i od i n a gi ven c ul t ur e f t er ,
f or ces t r ans l at or s t o pr i vi l ege one or t wo i l l oc ut i onar y st r at egi es a:
t he expense of ot her s. Rh y me and met er have al r eady been
ment i oned above i n t he case of ni net eent h- c ent ur y t r ansl at i ons, T h :
ot her pr i vi l eged i l l oc ut i onar y st r at egy i s, of c our s et hat of t he
wor d t he desi r e t o enshr i ne l exi cal equi val ence ( t he cel ebr at es
wo r d f or w o r d " ) as t he k i n g p i n of t he whol e t r ans l at i on pr ocess.
t he cent r al el ement t hat wo u l d guar ant ee t he mu c h desire
" f i d e l i t y .
Hence t he quandar i es expr essed i n mos t wr i t i n g on t he t r ansl at i on
of l i t er at ur e. Henc e al so i t s r epet i t i veness and l ack of pr oduc t i v i t y
Tr ans l at or s , we are l i k el y t o be t ol d, wi l l be abl e t o r ender t he
sense of t he or i gi nal onl y at t he expense of t he s ound, and of t en
al so of t he. mor phos y nt ac t i c f eat ur es or gani zi ng t he or i gi nal . I f
t hey want t o r ender t he sound, t hey wi l l f i nd i t har d t o sal vage t h t
sense, and t hei r t r ans l at i on wi l l of t en be di smi ssed as a mer e exot i
Tr ansl at i on : language 101
: : r i os ur r u I f t hey t r y t o i mpose t he mor phosynt act i c sur f ace
st r uct ur e of t he sour ce l anguage on t he t ar get t e x t , t hey wi l l i n al l
pr obabi l i t y l ose what ever el egance and bal ance t he or i gi nal may have
possessed i n t hat r espect .
Mos t wr i t i n g on t r ansl at i on has el evat ed what ar e, basi cal l y,
r ^ npl e and i nescapabl e f act s r oot ed i n t he ver y di f f er ence of
i nguages and i n t he di ct at es of t r ansl at i on poet i cs t o t he l of t i er
st at us o f " p r o b l e ms , " o f t e n sai d t o def y any k i nd of s ol ut i on, or t o
r e capabl e of sol ut i on onl y af t er some pr ef er abl y t i t a n i c and
pr ot r act ed " s t r u g g l e agai nst t he l i mi t at i ons of l anguage. T h e
pr obl em t ends t o di sappear or , even bet t er t o al l ow of at t empt s at
E l u t i o n t hat may be sai d t o be " p r o d u c t i v e " t o t he ext ent t hat t hey
pen a wi der hor i zon not j us t f or t he st udy of t r ansl at i ons as such,
zûi f or t hei r i nser t i on i nt o a concept of l i t er ar y t heor y cl osel y
r ^nnect ed wi t h compar at i ve l i t er at ur e as soon as t he onl y r eason
fr t he pr obl em' s exi st ence t hat can di sappear does so: as soon as
he t r ansl at i on poet i cs i s no l onger nor mat i v e but descr i pt i ve i n
- i t u r e a s soon as i t no l onger consi st s of a seri es of pr escr i pt i ons,
r ut of descr i pt i ons of possi bl e st r at egi es t r ansl at or s can make use of
ip.d have made use of .
Ther e i s one l evel on whi c h t r ansl at i on r emai ns a pr escr i pt i ve
oper at i on: t r ansl at or s wo u l d be wel l advi sed t o bow t o t he
di ct at es of t he di ct i onar y, and not t r ansl at e Cat ul l us' passer
s wal l ow) by hi ppopot amus, f or i nst ance Th e ver y nat ur e of t he
exampl e i ndi cat es t hat t hi s l evel i s t r i vi al i ndeed i n r el at i on t o t he
i - scussi on we are engaged i n her e. Tr ans l at or s shoul d k n o w t he
gr ammar s and t he l exi ca t he l ocut i onar y aspect s of t he
l anguages t hey want t o wo r k wi t h bef or e t hey begi n t o t r ansl at e.
Tr ans l at i on t r ai ni ng shoul d not be desi gned t o t each pot ent i al
: r ansl at or s l anguages, but t he i l l oc ut i onar y st r at egi es i nher ent i n
t hose l anguages. Pr ospect i ve t r ansl at or s shoul d al r eady possess t he
necessary l ocut i onar y ski l l s.
I n what f ol l ows , I pr opose t o out l i ne a shor t cat al ogue of
i l l ocut i onar y st r at egi es used by t r ansl at or s over t he past t wo
e n t u r i e s t o pr oj ect t hei r i mage of Cat ul l us' second poem f or t hei r
r u k u r e , or at l east f or cer t ai n r eader shi ps i n t hat c ul t ur e. To show
t hat t hese st r at egi es are f ai r l y const ant t h r o u g h t i me and can be
syst emat i zed wi t h r el at i ve ease, I shal l conduct t he di scussi on of t he
t r ansl at i ons not i n c hr onol ogi c al but i n al phabet i cal or der . I t
shoul d al so be not ed t hat many of t he t r ansl at i ons make use of t he
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5c; usat i ve, l i ne 2, and " c u i , dat i v e, l i ne 3, L a t i n al so al l ows f or an
i : p o s i t i o n t o an apposi t i on : a p p e t e n t i " i s an apposi t i on t o c u i " i n
e 4* I n Engl i s h, t he cases are n o r ma l l y r ender ed by pr eposi t i ons,
ao I he det r i ment of t he ur gency expr essed i n t he L a t i n .
Tr ans l at or s are f u r t h e r conf r ont ed wi t h t he pr obl em of conno-
t i n o n on t he semant i c l evel : del i ci ae i n l i ne 1 car r i ed t he
r r nnot at i on of l o v e ma k i n g " i n t he t r e n d y " j ar gon of Cat ul l us
4 4
[ S] oI i ac ul um" i n l i ne 8 i s a neol ogi sm, coi ned especi al l y f or
- 5 poem, not a wo r d i n c ur r ent usage, [ I ] p s a " i n l i ne 9 car r i es
r enones of " mi s t r e s s . " Ke n n e t h Qu i n n , t o whose c omment ar y T
heavi l y i ndebt ed, poi nt s out t hat sl aves used t o r ef er t o t hei r
a s t e r s as " i p s e " [ h i ms e l f ] ( 9 4 ) . " [ A ] r d o r " i n l i ne 7 means t he
- f or t he bel oved and i s pai r ed i n l i ne 8 wi t h ' dol or ( i n t he
- r i t i v e , d o l o r i s " ) , wh i c h suggest s t he pi ni ng f or t he absence of
bel oved, " [ C ] a r u m " i n l i ne 6, " d e a r , al so has over t ones of
- r eci ous, and " appet ent i " i n l i ne 3, her e sai d of t he s par r ow, i s
ti r mal l y r eser ved t o descr i be t he act i on of a man ki ssi ng a wo ma n ' s
n d .
N'one of t he t r ansl at or s t o be di scussed her e t r i ed t o r ender t he
a n n o t a t i o n s of " del i ci ae" and " appet ent i . Si mi l ar l y , no t r ansl at or s
t o move beyond t he i nt r a^ t ex t ual t o t he t ex t ual and c ont ex t ual
:t:. Qu i n n poi nt s out t hat t he or i gi nal i s a par ody of a f or mal
--rnn t o a god or goddess, wh i c h expl ai ns b o t h t he s t r i ng of
^ p o s i t i o n s ( t he epi t het s wi t h wh i c h t he g o d [ d e s s ] i s usual l y
i r es s ed) and t he concl udi ng p r a y e r " of t he l ast t wo l i nes. On
e c ont ex t ual l evel , Sappho r epr esent s Ap h r o d i t e as r i di ng a
r r ur i ot d r a wn by hor sest wh i c h may expl ai n wh y Cat ul l us gi ves
a s par r ow f or a pet , ot her wi s e an unl i k el y choi ce i ndeed,
m i n l at e Republ i can Rome.
I n c ont r as t , ma n y t r ansl at or s at t empt t o car r y over some of t he
7 - 3 no l ogi cal pr oper t i es of t he or i gi nal : t he r epet i t i on of sounds l i ke
" k s p e l l e d b o t h [ q ] and [ c ] ) , " d , " " o , " " a e " ( p r o n o u n c e d
) t and " i " k ni t s t he l i nes of t he poem t oget her i n such a wa y
i : enj ambement s appear s mo o t h and nat ur al , and an i mpr essi on of
^t e and ur genc y i s cr eat ed onl y t o be dashed i n t he l ast t wo
, l i s t as t he semant i c c omponent of t he or i gi nal i s r educed t o mer e
st r . ot at i onal wo r d - f o r - wo r d cor r espondence i n many t r ans l at i ons , so
gener i c component of t he or i gi nal i s, i n ma n y cases, r educed t o
r at t empt s t o r ecr eat e or appr ox i mat e i t s met er or t o r epl ace i t
" h a f or mal met er consi der ed equi val ent t o i t i n Engl i s h
ver si f i cat i on. I t i s har d t o f i nd mor e el oquent pr oof not onl y of t h
exi st ence but al so of t he t r emendous i nf l uence of t r an sl at i cn
poet i cs or what Gi deon T o u r y has been unt i r i ngl y cal l i ng
" t r ansl at i onal n o r ms " over t he past decade.
But now t o t he t r ansl at i ons. A r t h u r Symons' s t r ansl at i -
r epr i nt ed by W. A. Ai k e n ( 5 7 ) hel ps us under st and wh y man: :
t r ansl at i ons t hat pr of ess t o be " l i t e r a l di f f er among t hemsel vt ^
never t hel ess. T h e r eason i s not t o be sought i n t he di f f er en:
di ct i onar i es t r ansl at or s use, but i n what t hey i magi ne. No unl i ^ t
I si dor e of Sevi l l e t hey t r y t o r econci l e what t hey read i n t he t ext anc
t he di ct i onar y wi t h what t hey see i n t hei r envi r onment . M: i
Vanner em and Ma r y Snel l - Hor nby i nt r oduce Char l es F i l l mo r e
" scenes- and- f r ames" concept i nt o t r ansl at i on anal ysi s. Th e f r a me '
i s t he l i ngui st i c f o r m on t he paget he " s c e n e " t he reader -
( t r ans l at or ' s ) per sonal exper i ence t hat al l ows hi m or her t o rel ate
t o t he f r ame. Vanner em and Snel l - Hor nby poi nt out t hat i hr
t r ansl at or
does possi bl y not act i vat e t he same scenes a nat i ve speaker
of t he l anguage woul d act i vat e, or t he scenes t he aut hor
i nt endedbecause t he scenes act i vat ed by a frame are ver y closely
l i nked t o t he soci o- cul t ur al backgr ound of t he l anguage user i n
quest i on. ( 190
[ S] i n u , , i n l i ne 2 of t he or i gi nal , means l i t t l e mor e t han " a f ol d cr
cur ve i n t he body or i n one' s dr ess" ( 9 2 ) . Syr aons t r ansl at es i t
" b o s o m" obvi ousl y act i vat i ng a di f f er ent " scene, He cal l s L e s b n
"my b r i g h t / s h i n i n g l ady of del i ght i n an at t empt t o use t h-
st r at egy of compensat i on. He had t r ansl at ed " del i ci ae" i n Une 1 e-
t he much mor e neut r al " dar l i ng, and t r i es t o ma k e amends" b
sl i ppi ng i n t he cognat e l at er on i n hi s t r ansl at i on. He al so manage-
t o keep one par al l el i sm of t he or i gi nal , bot h on t he semant i c and t h-
phonol ogi cal l evel by r ender i ng t he opposi t i on " ar dor d o l o r " as
" Lov e, s f ul l ar dour s bei ng over / She may f i nd some af t er - st ayi ng O:
t he hear t - ache.

Copl ey consci ousl y uses anot her scene" t o recreat e t heat lea?"
i ni t i al l y pl ay f ul mood of t he or i gi nal . He r ender s l i nes 3 and 4 as:
o r st i cks out a f i nger oo, you l i t t l e r ascal / you peck, go on do : *
agai n, harder o o " ( 2 ) . He al so uses t he st r at egy of expl i ci t at i on
hi s r ender i ng of t he l ast t wo l i nes, of f er i ng t he reader bot h what :
t her e i n t he or i gi nal and hi s o wn i nt er pr et at i on of t hat or i gi nal : :
l i ke t o pl ay t he way she does/ and soot he wi t h i n my hear t t he ache c:
j ve. I t wi l l have become obvi ous t hat he does not at t empt a
met r i cal t r ans l at i on i n t he t r adi t i onal sense. I nst eadhi s del i ber at e
r ecast i ng of Cat ul l us i n t er ms of a mor e moder ni st poet i cs may wel l
seen as an at t empt t o appr ox i mat e t he f unc t i on Cat ul l us ' o wn
i nnovat i ve poems had i n t he poet r y of hi s day.
Lesbi a has become a n y mp h , r at her t han a gi r l i n El t o n ' s
- scene " as pr i nt ed i n Ke l l y ' s col l ect i on ( 1 7 0 ) . He goes a st ep
l e y o n d " s c e n e " o r , r at her , uses a scene t hat has pet r i f i ed i nt o a
: l i ch n t he c ul t ur al scr i pt of hi s t i me when he t r ans l at es " s i nu' ' as
t he sof t or bi ngs of her br east . " H e makes use of t he same cl i chs
: n t he l evel of di ct i on i n hi s t r ans l at i on of t he l ast t wo l i nes : I
vould t hat happy l ady be, / A n d so i n past i me spor t wi t h t h e e , / A n d
ghten l ove' s sof t agony i n wh i c h t he f i r s t l i ne has been di ct at ed
by t he st r at egy of ex pl i c i t at i on,
Gool d t r i es t o pr oj ect t he mor phos y nt ac t i c s t r uc t ur es of t he
: r i gi nal on t he En g l i s h l anguage O s par r ow t hat are my
sweet hear t ' s pet , / w i t h w h o m she l i kes t o pl ay , wh o m t o hol d i n
her l ap, / t o whose pecki ng t o of f er her f i nger - t i ps / and pr ov ok e y ou
i o bi t e s h a r p l y 33 ) . He al so makes use of t he ex pl i c i t at i on
st r at egy, ma k i n g Lesbi a " b r i g h t - e y e d w i t h l ongi ng f or me " t he
l ast t wo wo r d s are not st at ed i n t he or i gi nal .
Gr egor y sl i ps a l i t er ar y al l usi on t o a we l l - k n o wn wo r k i n Engl i s h
l i t er at ur e i nt o hi s t r ans l at i on of t he l ast l i ne of t he or i gi nal ei t her
i s a vei l ed at t empt at ex pl i c i t at i on, or possi bl y as an at t empt t o
compensat e f or t he l oss of t he l i t er ar y al l usi on cont ai ned i n t he
spar r ow " o f t he o r i g i n a l Hi s l ast l i ne reads " T h i s p a s t i me / wo u l d
rai se my hear t f r o m d a r k n e s s " ( 4 ) -
Wi l l i a m H u l l t r i es t o come up wi t h an equi val ent f or
Cat ul l us' " s o l i a c u l u m" and t r ansl at es l i ne 8 as: " s he f i nds a pai n i n
mi n i a t u r e / a n d def i ned a pr eci se r el i ef " ( 4 ) . T h e L a t i n d i mi n u t i v e i s
expr essed i n t er ms of a di f f er ent gr ammat i c al cat egor y ( a
pr eposi t i on f ol l owed by a n o u n ) , wh i c h i s appl i ed not t o t he
r el i ef but t o t he pai n, and si nce t he r el i ef i s pr obabl y commensur -
at e t o t he pai n i t , t oo, i s concei vabl y t h o u g h t of by t he r eader
as " i n mi ni at ur e. T h e st r at egy of s wi t c h i n g gr ammat i c al cat egor i es
I s a r el at i v el y c o mmo n one among t r ans l at or s . Of t e n , as her e,
f unc t i on mor phemes ( mo s t l y af f i xes ) are r epl aced by cont ent
mor phemes such as nouns and adj ect i ves. H u l l obv i ous l y
t r i es not t o t r ansl at e t he l ast t wo l i nes by any of t he cl i chs
t hat have become t he st apl e of We s t e r n l ove poet r y bet ween t he
t i me wh e n Cat ul l us wr o t e hi s or i gi nal and 1968. Hu l l ' s l ast l i nes
read c o u l d i nt r oduc e pr eci si on of l i g h t / i n t o my wei ght c :
n i g h t /
1
Ke l l y t r ansl at es Cat ul l us ' second poem i nt o pr ose, and f i nds i n
t hi s f act an addi t i onal i ncent i ve t o pr oj ect t he mo r p h o s y n t a c :
f eat ur es of L a t i n on En g l i s h . T h e r es ul t i s not unl i k e Go o l d
a t t e mp t i n ver se: " S p a r r o w, del i ght of my g i r l wh i c h she pl a>>
wi t h T wh i c h she keeps i n her bos om, t o whos e eager beak she
of f er s t he t i p of her f i n g e r 9 - 1 0 ) . Ke l l y al so expl i ci t t es.
Un l i k e ma n y ot her t r ans l at or s he i ndi cat es t h a t he does so bv
under l i ni ng t he ex pl i c i t at i on. " Do l o r " becomes " t h e gr i ef of abence'
i n hi s t r ans l at i on. T h e r eason he under l i nes hi s ex pl i c i t at on and
a t t e mp t s wh a t a mo u n t s t o a mor phos y nt ac t i c cai que mu s t mos :
l i k el y be s ought i n t he audi ence t o wh i c h t he Hohn Cl assi cal
L i b r a r y , i n wh i c h hi s v o l u me appear ed, addr essed i t sel f
s t udent s and anyone wi s h i n g t o s t udy t he cl assi cs i n l i t er al "
t r ansl at i ons*
L a mb wh o s e t r ans l at i on i s r epr i nt ed i n K e l l y ( 1 7 0 ) , t r i es t c
c ombi ne a pr oj ec t i on of L a t i n mo r p h o s y n t a c t i c s t r uc t ur es on Engl i s h
w i t h t he mai nt enance of a f ai r l y st r i ct r hy me- s c heme. T h e r es uh
r eads as f ol l ows
Dear s p a r r o w, l ong my f ai r ' s d e l i g h t ,
Wh i c h i n her br east t o l ay ,
To gi ve her f i nger t o whose bi t e,
Wh o s e p u n y anger t o exci t e
She of t i s wo n t i n pl ay .
T h e scene t he l ast t wo l i nes act i vat e i n L a mb i s obv i ous l y
s omewhat di f f er ent f r o m t he one i magi ned by Ca t u l l u s , I n t he
or i gi nal i t i s n o wh e r e st at ed t hat Lesbi a i s a wa y , but L a mb
def i ni t el y opt s f or t hi s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : " As s u a g e my pangs when
she' s a wa y t / A n d b r i n g r el i ef t o m e .
Jack Li nds ay changes gr ammat i c al cat egor i es i n hi s t r ans l at i on of
Cat ul l us ' f i r st l i ne: " Sp a r r o w, my g i r l del i ght s i n y o u " ( n o page) and
makes use of t he s t r at egy of c i r c u ml o c u t i o n t o expr ess hi s o wn
" s c ene" of l i ne 2"and i n her br east ' s deep nest of war mt h/ mot her l y
set y o u .
Th e o d o r e Ma r t i n publ i s hed t wo ver si ons of Ca t u l l u s ' second poem
i n hi s col l ect i on of t r ans l at i ons . I n hi s f i r st v er s i on he i s f or ced t c
use paddi ng i n or der t o f u l f i l l t he demands of b o t h met er and
r h y me . Ma n y of hi s f e l l o w t r ans l at or s are f or ced t o mak e use of t he
same s r t at egy , b u t I have not quot ed f r o m t h e m at any l engt h here
:nee Ma r t i n ' s t r ansl at i on i t sel f i s such an obvi ous exampl e of t he
process. Ma r i n ' s t r ansl at i on of Cat ul l us' l i nes 1- 3 reads " Sp a r r o w,
:r.at ar t my dar l i ng' s pet - / M y dar l i ng' s, wh o ' l l f r ol i c wi t h t hee and
- r i Thee nest l e i n her bosom, and wh e n / T h o u peck' st her
: ; r ef i nger wi l l gi ve i t a g a i n " ( 4 ) . Th e same demands al so f or ce h i m
: obl i ge wi t h ver bosi t y i n t r ansl at i ng l i nes 5 and 6 as; " Wh e n t hat
t . Dr i ous cr eat ur e wh o r ul es my hear t / Enc hant s i t al l t he mor e wi t h
pl ayf ul wi l es. H e al so t r i es t o compensat e wi t h i n t he t ot al i t y of
Jat ul l us
1
oeuvr e. I nst ead of r esor t i ng t o t he usual cl i ches t o r ender
: ne l ast t wo l i nes, he wr i t e s : An d l i ght en t he pangs t hat are
r endi ng me an obvi ous al l usi on t o t he ex c r uc i or " ( I am t or n
spar t ) i n what i s per haps Cat ul l us ' most f amous poem:
l <
Odi et
ai no
I n hi s second ver si on, Ma r t i n i magi nes a" scene" i n wh i c h Cat ul l us
somewhat cl oser t o t he Vi c t or i an sui t or wat c hi ng t he gi r l of hi s
r e a m s pl ay wi t h t he canar y she has j us t t ak en f r o m i t s cage. I n t hi s
^r cond ver si on l i nes 5 and 6 of t he or i gi nal become : Wh e n she i s
mmdedT t hat l ady wh o m 1 dot e on, / P r e t t y t r i cks t o pl ay, al l
maddeni ngl y charmi ng5). Ma r t i n ' s l ady wh o m I dot e o n " p o i n t s
: ut anot her st r at egy t r ansl at or s are of t en f or ced t o f al l back on by
demands of r hy me and me t e r : t hat of f l at t eni ng : t he
-l ocut i ori ary power of t he or i gi nal i s sacr i f i ced i n f avor of mer e
. .KTutionary c ommuni c at i on.
James Mi chi e makes use of pr ot r act ed enj ambement t o r ecapt ur e
: he speed and f l uency of t he or i gi nal , as wel l as t he l i ght ness of i t s
: : , ne. Li nes 2 t o 4 read i n hi s t r ansl at i on He r pl aymat e wh o m she
- j ves t o l et / Per c h i n her bosom and t hen t eas e/ Wi t h t ant al i si ng
: : nger t i ps / Pr ov ok i ng angr y l i t t l e n i p s " ( 1 9 ) .
Raphae] and Mc L e i s h change t he synt act i c pat t er n of t he
or i gi nal i n an at t empt t o convey i t s mood, T h e L a t i n addr ess i s
: ur ned i nt o an Engl i s h quest i on. Li nes 1 and 2 i n Cat ul l us , f or
. nst ance, become: " We l l , l i t t l e s par r ow, wh o ' s my dar l i ng, s dar l i ng
: hen?/ Does she l i ke t o pl ay wi t h i t and hol d i t i n her l ap?" ( 2 5 )
They al so r esor t t o mor phemi c r epet i t i on t o capt ur e t he l i ght h-
t ar t ed di ct i on of t he f i r st hal f of t he or i gi nal . Li nes 3 and 4 read i n
: hei r t r ansl at i on Does she get i t t o st r et ch i t s b e a k / T o t i p her
: : nger t i p pr ovoke t he l i t t l e pecker ' s peck?"
Car l Sesar r ender s t he L a t i n address whi c h i s expr essed by
neans of t he vocat i ve case i n t he or i gi nal , by means of t he obvi ous
Engl i sh wo r d : " He l l o , s p a r r o w" ( n o page) . He pads hi s f i f t h l i ne t o
bow t o t he demands of me t e r : A n d gl ows , l ovel y her eyes
f l ashi ng and he subj ect s hi s ei ght h l i ne t o t he same t r eat ment
" once t he heavy b u r n i n g need di es d o w n .
C. H. Si sson r esor t s t o et y mol ogy t o r ender l i nes 7 and 8 of t h t
or i gi nal i n a way t hat i s i nt el l i gi bl e t o t he Engl i s h- s peak i ng reader
wh i l e r emai ni ng cl ose t o t he L a t i n : I t h i n k , when her gr ave f i r -
acqui esces/ She f i nds i t a sol ace f or her p a i n ) " ( 1 1 ) .
R. A. Swanson i magi nes t he f o l l o wi n g scene t o r ender
" s i n u i n l i ne 2: per mi t s t o l i e / wi t h i n her l ap ( 3 ) . J. F
Symons- Jeune agai n i magi nes a di f f er ent scene f or si nu
" cl asps t hee t o her neck ( 5 ) . She al so c onf or ms t o t hr
c ul t ur al scr i pt of b o t h An t i q u i t y and t he 1920s by mak i ng
Lesbias f i nger t i p " r o s y , wher eas t he or i gi nal l eaves i t s col or
unspeci f i ed*
J, H. A. Tr emenheer e once agai n i magi nes a di f f er ent scene: hi s
s par r ow i s mor e vi ol ent i n i t s behavi or t h a n Ca t u l l u s ' . Hh
t r ansl at i on of l i ne 4 r e a d s : T o t e mp t t h y sal l i es and e x c i t e / Ma n y
c r uel , cr uel bi t e! Hi s scene r eadi ng" of Lesbi a, on t he ot her hand,
comes cl ose t o t hat pr ovi ded by Ma r t i n : " Si nce pet t y f ol l i es such
t h e s e / My sweet hear t exqui si t e can pl ease" ( 3 9 ) .
A. S. Wa y changes t he L a t i n vocat i ve i nt o a f ul l - f l edged Engl i sr .
sent ence: " S p a r r o w, I cr y you greeting 1 ) , Hi s " s c e n e " of
Lesbi a' s pl ayi ng wi t h t he bi r d i s di f f er ent once agai n " A n d ' t vvi xt
her pal ms enf ol ds y o u " ( 2 ) i s nowher e t o be f ound i n t he Lat i n
or i gi nal . T h e same scene makes h i m al so add t wo l i nes i n wh i c h
" she [ L e s b i a ] scol ds you [ b i r d ] / Wi t h l aughi ng l i p " ( 2 ) .
Pet er Wh i g h a m compensat es i n a way t hat i s di f f er ent f r o m any
we have di scussed u n t i l n o w. By ex pl i c i t l y cal l i ng t he spar r ow
Les bi a' s s p a r r o w, he hi st or i ci zes t he or i gi nal , f ol di ng t he many
cent ur i es of r ecept i on back i nt o t he poem i t sel f . He al so use5
et y mol ogy t o st ay cl ose t o t he L a t i n whi l e r ender i ng Cat ul l us"
neol ogi sm i n an accept abl e manner . Hi s t r ansl at i on of l i ne 8 reads
" a l i t t l e sol ace f or her s a t i e t y " ( 8 ) ,
F, A. Wr i g h t has per haps t he most dar i ngl y hi st or i ci zi ng
r eadi ng of t he openi ng of t he or i gi nal . Hi s f i r st l i ne squar el y
t r anspl ant s Lesbi a' s bi r d t o mi ddl e- cl ass En g l a n d . I t r eads: My
dar l i ng' s canary her pl ay t hi ng, her p e t " ( 9 4 ) . Hi s Lesbi a t akes
her pl ace wi t h Ma r t i n ' s and Tr emenheer e' s i n t he r anks of
et her eal y oung l adi es pl ayi ng absent - mi ndedl y wi t h t hei r canar -
ies " She l et s you f or wa r mt h i n her sof t bosom l i nger , / A n d
smi l es wh e n you peck at t he t i p of her f i n g e r " ( 9 5 ) . T h e w a r m t h ,
t h o u g h compat i bl e wi t h t he scene Wr i g h t cont ext ual i zes, may al so
^ i - e been r ender ed necessary by t he demands of met er . I n t he
t i o a l , Cat ul l us* Lesbi a cer t ai nl y never smi l es.
Th o u g h many t r ansl at or s t r y t o appr oxi mat e Cat ul l us' s
t r _: p, ol ogi cal ef f ect s, Cel i a and Loui s Zu k o f s k y are t he onl y ones
o expl i ci t l y pr i vi l ege t he phonol ogi cal l evel o f t he or i gi nal i n t hei r
i " e mp t s t o t r ansl at e i t . Th e i r unabashed at t empt t o r ender t he
r at her t han t he sense, f l ew i n t he f ace of t he t r ansl at i on
i cet i cs of t hei r t i me, and t hei r t r ansl at i on hasaccor di ngl y, never
lieved mor e t han cer t ai n not or i et y as a c ur i os um doomed not t o
t aken ser i ousl y. Li ne 7 of t he or i gi nal becomes " I t hi nk i t i s t he
: r csi of passi on qui et ed, t he second hal f of whi c h act ual l y mi mi cs
r.e sounds of t he L a t i n wi t h some degree of success, as do t he f i nal
nes"coul d I but l ose mysel f wi t h you as she does, br eat he wi t h a
ght hear t , be r i d of t hese c ar es " ( no page) .
Su mmi n g up, an anal ysi s of t he t r adi t i on shows t hat t he
Transl at ors of Cat ul l us 2 have pr ovi ded t he r eader wi t h somet i mes
A*idely di ver gi ng scenes act i vat ed by t he same f r ame. T h e y have
made use of t he f ol l owi ng st r at egi es t hat have r emai ned r emar k abl y
const ant phonol ogi cal appr ox i mat i on, compensat i onexpl i ci t at i on,
:he use of cl i ch b o t h on t he l evel of di ct i on and of c ul t ur al s c r i pt ,
mor phosynt act i c pr oj ect i on of t he or i gi nal l anguage on t he l anguage
: f t he t r ansl at i on, mor phosynt act i c s wi t c hi ng and s wi t c hi ng of
gr ammat i cal cat egor i est r hy me and met er , t he at t empt t o creat e
" eol ogi sms, c i r c uml oc ut i on, paddi ng and ver bosi t y f l at t eni ng
: hat i s, r educt i on of i l l oc ut i onar y ef f ect , mor phemi c r epet i t i on, and
: he use of et ymol ogi cal cognat es.
I t i s not my i nt ent i on here t o eval uat e t he di f f er ent t r ansl at i on.
Nor i s i t my t ask t o do so: eval uat i on wo u l d s i mpl y r eveal t he
hi dden pr escr i pt i ve assumpt i ons wi t h wh i c h I appr oach t he
t r ansl at i ons. Si nce I have t r i ed t o descr i be, not pr escr i be, t her e i s
no r eason wh y I shoul d eval uat e. Th a t t ask i s bet t er l ef t t o t he
r eader .
I mer el y hope t o have s hown i n t hi s chapt er t hat a descr i pt i ve
anal ysi s of t r ansl at i ons on t he l i ngui st i c l evel can be pr oduct i ve i n
t er ms of t r ansl at or t r ai ni ng, and i n t he pr evi ous chapt er s t hat a
descr i pt i ve anal ysi s of t r ansl at i ons on t he mer e l i ngui st i c l evel does
not even begi n t o do j ust i ce t o t he c ompl ex i t y of t he phenomenon.
I al so hope t o have s hown t hat f or readers wh o cannot check t he
t r ansl at i on agai nst t he or i gi nal , t he t r ansl at i on, qui t e s i mpl y , i s t he
or i gi nal . Rewr i t er s and r ewr i t i ngs pr oj ect i mages of t he or i gi nal
wo r k , aut hor , l i t er at ur e, or cul t ur e t hat of t en i mpact many mor e
110 Translation f Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame
r eader s t han t he or i gi nal does. Rewr i t i ngs of t he k i nd anal yzed i n
t he past f our chapt er s of t en concl usi vel y shape t he r ecept i on of a
wo r k , an aut hor , a l i t er at ur e, or a soci et y i n a cul t ur e di f f er ent
f r o m i t s cul t ur e of or i gi n. I n t he next f our chapt er s I t u r n t o
r ewr i t i ngs t hat shape t he i mage and r ecept i on of a wo r k , aut hor ,
l i t er at ur e, soci et y i n t hei r o wn cul t ur e.
Chapter 9
Historiography
From bestseller to non-person/ Willem
Godschalk van Focquenbroch
T h e Du t c h wr i t e r Wi l l e m Gods c hal k v an Foc quenbr oc h was b o r n
i n A ms t e r d a m i n 1640 and p r o b a b l y di ed i n 1670, on t he We s t
Af r i c a n Go l d Coast wher e he had become t r easur er of a s et t l ement
r u n by t he Du t c h East I ndi es Co mp a n y af t er a s omewhat l ess t h a n
successf ul car eer as a medi cal doct or i n Ams t e r d a m. He was a f ai r l y
pr ol i f i c poet and p l a y wr i g h t , as we l l as bei ng t he aut hor wh o
i nt r oduc ed t he bur l esque i nt o Du t c h l i t er at ur e, f o l l o wi n g t he
exampl e of t he Fr e n c h poet Sc ar r on.
Foc quenbr oc h was v er y popul ar f or about a cent ury af t er hi s
deat h, d u r i n g wh i c h t i me hi s wo r k s t he col l ect ed edi t i on, wh i c h
was by no means sol d cheapl y at t he t i me wer e r epr i nt ed ei ght
t i mes and hi s pl ays wer e pr oduced on a r egul ar basi s. A f t e r about a
c e n t u r y , b o t h he and hi s wo r k wer e mor e and mor e di scr edi t ed i n
hi st or i es of Du t c h l i t er at ur e, hi s books we n t out of p r i n t , hi s pl ays
wer e no l onger per f or med, and hi s name was al l b u t f o r g o t t e n , t o
be r edi scover ed o n l y i n t he r ecent past .
I n ot her wo r d s , gener at i ons of speci al i st s" i n Du t c h l i t er at ur e
e d i t e d o u t Foc quenbr oc h f r o m t hei r l i t er at ur e and c ul t ur e.
T h e y di d so because t hey had i nt er i or i z ed t he di scour se on
l i t er at ur e domi nant i n t hei r day, and Foc quenbr oc h di d not f i t , o r ,
i n t hei r opi ni on, coul d not be made t o f i t t h a t di scour se. I n wh a t
f o l l o ws , I shal l a t t e mp t a s ur v ey of t he ma i n st r at egi es used i n
t hi s k i n d of " c u l t u r a l edi t i ng,
J
wh i c h i s by no means r es t r i c t ed t o
Du t c h l i t er at ur e but can easi l y be seen at w o r k i n ot her l i t er at ur es
as we l l .
" I t i s har d t o under s t and, " wr i t e s Ber t Decor t e i n t he i n t r o d u c t i o n
t o hi s ant hol ogy of Foc quenbr oc h ' s p o e t r y , " h o w i t coul d have been
possi bl e t hat nobody ever devot ed hi ms el f t o a t h o r o u g h anal ysi s of
t he l i f e and wo r k of t hi s s ev ent eent h- c ent ur y a u t h o r , wh i c h are
b o t h ver y r emar kabl e, t o put i t mi l d l y " ( 5 ) . H. de Gooi j er , t h-
onl y ni net eent h- cent ur y cr i t i c t o ri se t o Focquenbr och ' s def ense
t ook t he mat t er phi l osophi cal l y: I nj ust i ce i s of t en done i n t he
hi s t or y of Du t c h l i t e r a t u r e " ( 3 5 3 ) .
T h e of t en mal i gn negl ect t o wh i c h Focquenbr och has been
subj ect ed over t he past t hr ee cent ur i es i s nei t her " uni nt el l i gi bl e" r. cr
due t o some k i nd of i mpar t i al because i mper sonal , abst r act j ust i ce
or i nj ust i ce. I ndeed, t he case of Wi l l e m Godschal k van
Focquenbr och i l l ust r at es t he ext ent t o wh i c h hi st or i es of l i t er at ur e
and t hei r spi n- of f s r ef er ence wo r k s ar e wr i t t e n subj ect t o bot r .
i deol ogi cal and poet ol ogi cal const r ai nt s.
Focquenbr och was i mmensel y popul ar i n t he sevent eent h
c ent ur y , but hi s popul ar i t y was obvi ousl y not of t he ki nd
demanded by t hose pr of essi onal s wh o shaped t he domi nant
di scour se on l i t er at ur e of hi s day, Focquenbr och, s popul ar i t y
was not of t he r i ght k i nd i n t he domai n of poet i cs because t he
bur l esque di d not c onf or m wi t h t he at t empt s of poet s ari d cr i t i c?
t o emul at e t he gr eat exampl es of cl assi cal An t i q u i t y , not l east
t o demonst r at e t hat t he Dut c h l anguage, t oo, had come of
age'
1
and coul d be a wo r t h y vehi cl e f or t he var i ous di scour ses
t o be used i n t he newl y i ndependent Republ i c of t he Uni t ed
Pr ovi nces.
No r was Focquenbr och' s popul ar i t y of t he r i ght k i nd i n t er ms of
i deol ogy, because nei t her hi s i mage as a wr i t er of bur l esque and
"sat i ri cal poems and pl ays nor t he l egend t hat had g r o wn up ar ound
hi s per son f i t t ed t he i deal i mage of sevent eent h- cent ur y Ams t e r d a m
as t he home of nat i on- bui l der s, di scover er s, ser i ous mer chant s, and
poet s wi t h a message i nspi r ed ei t her by t he Bible or t he i deal s of
An t i q u i t y , and gener al l y bot h.
Once a cul t ur e has ar r i ved at a canoni zed i mage of i t s past , i i
t ends t o edi t out t hose f i gur es and f eat ur es of t hat past t hat do n o i
f i t t hat i mage. An anal ysi s of t hi s pr ocess shows once agai n, t hat
t he " i n t r i n s i c " val ue of a wo r k of l i t er at ur e i s by no means suf f i ci ent
t o ensur e i t s sur vi val . Th a t sur vi val i s ensur ed at l east t o t he same
ext ent by r ewr i t i ngs . I f a wr i t e r i s no l onger r e wr i t t e n , hi s or her
wo r k wi l l be f or got t en.
T h e i deol ogi cal r eason f or Focquenbr och' s f al l f r o m popul ar i t y
has per haps been descr i bed most succi nct l y by Lode Baekel mans i n
t he i nt r oduc t i on t o hi s ant hol ogy of Focquenbr och' s poems The
unst eadf ast concept of decor um has made t he poet van
Focquenbr och al most f o r g o t t e n " ( 9 ) . J. C . Br andt Cor s t i us , on t he
Hi stori ography 113
ot her hand, poi nt s out t he poet ol ogi cal reason when he descri bes
Focquenbr och as one of t hose poets who" wer e unabl e or unwi l l i ng
i o adapt t o of f i ci al , poet i cs" ( 123) .
Or nee and Wi j ngaar ds add up t he t wo f act or s i n t he equat i on
when t hey st at e t hat hi s burl esque st yl e was obvi ousl y al so a
react i on agai nst some pur i t ani cal cur r ent s i n hi s t i me " ( 73 ) t a
poi nt f ur t her el abor at ed on by Schenkeve! d- van der Dussen :
Ever yt hi ng cur r ent opi ni on t ends t o val ue i s negat ed by hi m,
parodi ed or ut t er l y r i di cul ed ( 44-5 ). Focquenbr och di d not , i n
ot her wor ds, exact l y appreci at e t he decor um and t he soci al
ar r ogance ( van Heer i khui zen ) of hi s t i menor di d t he Ren-
aissance i deal s exci t e hi m t he way t hey exci t ed Ho o f t , Vondel ,
and Huy gens on t he contrary, Cal i s 26. Cal i s l i st s exact l y t he
t hr ee wr i t er s who t r i ed t o r ewr i t e Dut c h l i t er at ur e i n t er ms of t he
poet i cs of An t i q u i t y : Hoof t t he poet , pl ay wr i ght , and hi st or i an,
Vondel t he pl aywr i ght and poet , and Huygens t he poet and
pl aywr i ght . I t i s si gni f i cant t i n t hi s r espect , t hat Huygens onl y
comedy Trijntje Cornelis, cont ai ns bur l esque l anguage and
si t uat i ons t hat coul d have been t aken st r ai ght f r om Focquenbr och.
Wh y , t hen, was Focquenbr och ost raci zed and Huygens not ?
Because t he whol e of Focquenbr och, s oeuvr e was wr i t t en under t he
si gn of t he bur l esque, whereas Huygens, t he di pl omat , sci ent i st ,
wr i t er , and pat r i ci an, coul d af f or d t o "descendto t hat modeonce
as a pl aywr i ght mor e of t en i n hi s epi gr ams si nce he woul d
al ways saf el y " ascend" agai n t o t he di scourse of decor um demanded
by t he age.
Bef ore embar ki ng on a cl oser anal ysi s of t he st rat egi es used t o
edi t Focquenbr och out of Dut ch l i t er ar y hi st ory I must i n al l
f ai rness poi nt out t hat cont empor ar y hi st or i ogr aphy i s begi n-
ni ng t o redress t he bal ance, C. J. Ku i k , f or i nst ance, wr i t es i n t he
i nt r oduct i on t o hi s ant hol ogy of Focquenbr och' s poems Mi d-
way t hr ough t he sevent eent h cent ur y and next t o t he uni ver sal l y
recogni zed great aut hor s, t her e l i ved a poet among us who has
been f or got t en because of hi s l ack of seri ousness, but whose
ost ensi bl y ef f or t l ess par l ando was of t he ki nd our t i me seems t o
be wi l l i ng t o l i st en t o once mo r e " ( 11 ) . Si gni f i cant l y, i t i s not t he
i nt r i nsi c val ue of Focquenbr och s wo r k , whi ch woul d have had t o be
t i mel ess, i f anyt hi ng, t hat has been t he onl y f act or r esponsi bl e f or
hi s r edi scover y. The f act t hat t he domi nant poet i cs changed
over t he ages i n such a way as t o accommodat e Focquenbr och' s
poet r y once agai n i s at l east as i mpor t ant i n t hi s mat t er , combi ned
wi t h t he f ur t her f act t hat t he concept of " d e c o r u m" has al so beer.
si gni f i cant l y l i ber al i zed i n t he Net her l ands si nce t he end of Wo r k
Wa r T w o .
Ye t t he mor e t r adi t i onal posi t i on i s al so st i l l wi t h us. I n t he
i nt r oduc t i on t o hi s ant hol ogy of t he Du t c h sevent eent h- cent ur y
sonnet publ i shed i n t he same year as Ku i k ' s ant hol ogy r ef er r ed t :
above, Roose hast ens t o put t he r ecor d " s t r a i g h t " :
once t he r eader has become f ami l i ar wi t h Focquenbr och s
r i di c ul i ng of t he sonnet , he wo u l d be wel l advi sed t o l eaf agai n
t h r o u g h t hi s l i t t l e book , whi c h i s devot ed t o t he sonnet i n one 01
i t s gr eat per i ods, t o check whet her t he genr e t o whi c h t he best of
our poet s devot ed t hei r power s i s abl e t o wi t hs t and t hi s ki nd of
car i cat ur e. I n our opi ni on t he exper i ment wi l l yi el d posi t i ve
r esul t s. (
For quenbr oc h i s, i n ot her wor ds , el evat ed f r o m t he posi t i on of
" o u t c a s t " t o t hat of di ssi dent . I t i s di f f i c ul t t o deny h i m al l
l i t er ar y and cul t ur al r el evance, but he i s s t i l l j udged by compar i son
wi t h " t he best of our poets,whose poet i cs happen t o be cl oser t o
t he ant hol ogi st ' s t ast e t han t he poet i cs wh i c h gui ded
Focquenbr och' s composi t i on. Wi t h t he di e l oaded agai nst h i m i n
such a wa y , Focquenbr och cannot but l ose when i t i s cast .
Thos e at t empt i ng t o " edi t o u t Focquenbr och wer e f aced wi t h one
bi g p r o b l e mf i r s t st at ed by Wi t s e n Geysbeek, and r epeat edl y
since Readi ng a f ew pages of t hese so- cal l ed comi c poems
wo u l d make anyone bl essed wi t h a cer t ai n t ast e and f eel i ng of
decor um v o mi t ; never t hel ess we are now l ooki ng at t he t hi r d edi t i on
of t he excremental smel l s of Focquenbr och' s Thalia, wh i c h must
cer t ai nl y st i l l have been r ead i n 1 7 6 6 " ( 3 0 9 ) . Fi f t y - ni ne year s l at er ,
Wo r p i s f aced wi t h t he same pr obl em and he has managed t o t r ack
d o wm even mor e edi t i ons of Focquenbr och' s wo r k s : " A t l east ei ght
edi t i ons of t he compl et e wo r k s have t her ef or e been publ i shed wi t h i n
one c ent ur y , an honor wh i c h was gi ven l o onl y a f ew of t he opet s of
t hose days. I t h not easy t o expl ai n Focquenbr och, s success529)
Consequent l y, Ko b u s and de Ri v ec our t , wr i t i n g f i ve year s af t er
Wo r p , do not even t r y . T h e y s i mpl y st at e t hat " t h o u g h some wi t
may shi ne t h r o u g h here and t her e, i t i s mo s t l y c owar dl y and d i r t y ,
f u l l of bad t ast e, coar sel y bur l esque " ( 542 ) , meani ng t hat
Foc quenbr oc hi dea of decor um does, i ndeed, not cor r espond t o
t hei r s, T h e y t hen go on t o st at e wi t h o u t comment or even an
Hi st ori ography 115
pt at t r ansi t i on of any k i n d : a n d yet hi s poems wer e pr i nt ed a
m ~ b e r o f t i me s " ( 5 4 2 ) .
1 ke al l ot her s i n t hei r camp, t hey cannot af f or d even t o begi n
t hi nk t he obvi ous Focquer i br och' s poems wer e and r emai ned
m. opui ar , i n al l pr obabi l i t y, because t hey wer e what t he
: r i t y of peopl e l i vi ng i n Amst er dam' s Gol den Age deemed
r : yabl e i n t er ms of bot h i deol ogy and poet i cs, as i s al so evi dent
t he f or ays bot h Ho o f t and Huygens per i odi cal l y make i nt o
r
: c : ?j enbr oc h s o wn domai n. What has l at er been codi f i ed as t he
e r l o g y and poet i cs of t he gr eat poet s" of t he age mi nus t he
b^r . esque and t he scat ol ogi cal _ was i n al l l i kel i hood not
3rr^nant i n t hat age but pr oj ect ed on i t wi t h hi ndsi ght by
: T- r ar y hi st or i ans. Bot h t hat i deol ogy and t hat poet i cs wer e
3r : ; ec ed on t he age as par t of an at t empt t o const r uct a
j ndat i on my t h " wo r t h y of t he new Republ i c. I f Ams t er dam
t o be t he new Rome, i t coul d accommodat e a Vi r g i l , a
H: r ac e, a Seneca, a Tac i t us ; i t di d not need a Mar t i al or a Juvenal
t hen.
Those wh o want t o edi t o u t " Focquenbr och mus t , t her ef or e,
-evel op a doubl e st r at egy. On t he one hand, t he reader must be
-d, as convi nci ngl y as possi bl e, how bad , Focquenbr och
raself r eal l y was. On t he ot her hand, hi s cont empor ar i es must
absol ved of any real g u i l t " wher e hi s unf or t unat e, t hough
ppi l y shor t - l i ved popul ar i t y i s concer ned. They t her ef or e need
- be por t r ayed as pr obabl y somewhat less r ef i ned t han t he
i - i f aor s and readers of var i ous r ewr i t i ngs, whi ch woul d al so expl ai n
^ h y t he " gr eat poets, of t he Gol den ge somet i mes bowed t o t hei r
-bi ous t ast e. To sum up even t hough t he sevent eent h cent ur y
i s i ndeed t he Gol den Age of Dut ch cul t ur e, i t s deni zens wer e
- r one t o cer t ai n unf or t unat e l apses of t ast e whi ch have si nce been
r r medi ed.
The second st r at egy f i r st surf aces i n Wor p We are amazed,
- me and agai n, as we read, at what our f or ef at her s wer e wi l l i ng
i r A abl e t o l i st en t o, and at t he ki nd of puns t hey obvi ousl y
; : p r e d a t e d 5 0 3 ) * Wo r p goes on t o say, wi t h an under t one of
bi dden r egr et :
Our nat i onal char act er l oved t he coarse i n comedy and poem,
pai nt i ng and dr awi ng. The t one used at t he weddi ngs of our
pat r i ci an f ami l i es i s t oo wel l k nown, as are t he t hemes so
mas t er f ul l y t r eat ed by many of our pai nt er s; t her e i s no need
me t o go i nt o i t i n det ai l . ( 53. >
Ka l f f sympat hi zes, t went y - ei ght year s l at er t he ol d n a t i o m
char act er mai nt ai ns i t sel f i n i t s commonsensi cal h u mo r and i t s k e : -
wi t , but al so i n i t s coar seness t hat t ended t o mi st ake t he d i r t y anc
t he r epul si ve f or t he comi c 578 ) Bo t h aut hor s al s:
( s u s p i c i o u s l y ? ) echo each ot her i n t hei r eval uat i on : :
Focquenbr och' s f avor i t e mode: F o r t u n a t e l y , howev er , hi s way : :
wr i t i n g , t he bur l esque genr e, has now compl et el y gone out
f as hi on" ( Wo r p 5 3 0 ) Fo r t u n a t e l y f or t he devel opment of our
peopl et t he page was t ur ned soon a f t e r " ( K a l f f 5 8 0 ) .
As Baekel mans was t he f i r st t o poi nt o u t , bot h ar gument s can : t
used t o cut b o t h way s . I f t he sevent eent h- cent ur y pat r i ci ar ^
t ol er at ed coar seness i n pai nt i ngs and dr awi ngs and i f t hose pai nt i r . ^f
and dr awi ngs are i n mus eums nowaday s , wh y t hen shoul d x'r.t
coar se l i t er at ur e t hey obv i ous l y al so enj oyed be suppr essed
ant hol ogi es and hi st or i es of l i t er at ur e? T h e r eal l y r ough, i h -
coar sel y sensual f eat ur es of t he pai nt i ngs of hi s [ F o c q u e n b r o c h
cont empor ar i es and k i ndr ed s pi r i t s , such as Jan St eent van Ost aci t
Joost van Cr aesbeek, Ad r i a a n Br o u we r , have not pr event ed t h e n
f r o m bei ng unc ondi t i onal l y pr ai sed t h r o u g h t he cent ur i es 9
Baekel mans wr i t e s , and goes on t o say t hat t he bur l esque, whi c h :
so obvi ousl y di spl ayed i n Du t c h pai nt i ng coul d not but sur f ace
Du t c h l i t er at ur e as we l l , mai nl y because t he Du t c h n a t i o r i
char act er seems t o have an a f f i n i t y wi t h i t o r at l east a cer t ai n ki r. z
of Du t c h nat i onal char act er does, pr eci sel y t he k i nd deeme
" u n s e e ml y b y r ewr i t er s o f l i t er ar y hi s t or y , t h o u g h not b y r e w r h o
of ar t hi s t or y . Foc quenbr oc h, says Baekel mans, t her eby o f f e n d i r ^
t he pr of essi onal s of hi s t i me, was at t r act ed t o t he bur l esque becau>-
f o r a Du t c h ma n t her e was a deeper a f f i n i t y wi t h hi s o wn bei ng*
( 1 7 ) .
Baekel mans, whos e ant hol ogy was publ i shed t wo year s l at er t h^r
Ka l f f ' s hi st or y coul d be di smi ssed as mer el y a l one di ssent i ng voi
at t he t i me. But hi s poi nt was f undament al l y val i d. T h e deni zens
t he gl or i ous Du t c h Gol den Age wer e not as pur e as t hey wer e f t er
t h o u g h t , or r at her wi shed t o be. To di ver t at t ent i on f r o m the
f ai l i ngs of t he gr oup as such, c ul t ur al edi t i ng si ngl es oi:
Foc quenbr oc h as t he bl ack sheep, t he wr i t e r gi ven t o exagger at i on
wh o r evel s i n t he unf or t unat e vi ces of t he age r at her t han t r y i n g :
ennobl e hi s cont empor ar i es.
nee t he same accusat i on coul d be l evel ed agai nst canoni zed
of t he age, not onl y Hoof t and Huygens, but al so, and
- ^r ej i al l y, Bredero t he st r at egy of char act er assassi nat i on becomes
Tt r: and mor e unavoi dabl e. Bredero at l east can be said to have
* "t r ent ed i n r el i gi ous t er ms, even t hough t he poem usual l y
f r p r e t e d as
w
pr oof " of hi s repent ance t ur ns out t o have been a
*î n>l at i on f r om t he Fr ench, or t o have been ennobl ed by hi s
mzossi bl e l ove f or a woman wr i t er i n t he best t r adi t i on of medi eval
n u r t l y l ove.
xr quenbr och s wo r k i s devoi d of evi dence of ei t her . The st r -
i^t-zy of charact er assassi nat i on t her ef or e needs t o be appl i ed,
n ir.e most r ut hl ess manner possi bl e, t o bot h t he man and t he
Bef ore we anal yze i t i n mor e det ai l we must keep t wo f act or s
n mcL One i s t hat " i n spi t e of t he i ncr easi ng at t ent i on pai d t o
r : cquenbr och' s l i f e and wo r k af t er Wo r l d War T wo , not much i s
o n about hi s l i f e t o t hi s cl ay" ( van Bor k 206) . Since not much i s
Chi%vn, much can be i nf er r ed, or even i nvent ed wi t h r el at i ve
Tzj j j n i t y . The ot her i s t hat Focquenbr och owes t he r eput at i on of
i c ^ r t i n e he has enj oyed f or cent ur i es t o t he backbi t i ng of
c r nment at or s who have been copyi ng each ot her al l t oo g l i b l y "
1 3 ) . Ho w gl i bl y wi l l become obvi ous i n t he f ol l owi ng
paragraphs.
' -' an der A a wr i t es i n 1859 He [ Focquenbr och] met wi t h l i t t l e
because of hi s l oose l i vi ng, whi ch i s why he went t o make
ns f or t une on t he coast of Gui nea i n 1666 ( 1 4 2 ) . Wor p' s
i r i on on t hi s t heme i s publ i shed i n 1881: H e di d not meet
v i T i much success i n hi s pract i ce [ as a medi cal doct or ] t pr obabl y
I " rast i n par t because of hi s l oose l i vi ng. Hi s f unny poet r y
r e r t i i n l y di d hi m no good ei t her " ( 5 1 2 ) . Wor p t hen proceeds t o
tlider as f ol l ows : t he genre Focquenbr och wr ot e i n was not
~ : : i nspi re conf i dence i n pat i ent s, especi al l y f emal e pat i ent s
a n d he ends up wi t h t he st ock i mage of Focquenbr och
i^Lêd onl y on ext r apol at i on f r om t he wr i t t en wor k s . Wo r p , and
i d- r > af t er hi m, t ake t he persona Focquenbr och i nt r oduces i n
t i poems f or t he person Focquenbr och hi msel f . Mor eover ,
zstL-her he nor hi s successors make any al l owances f or t he
j i ds of genre cer t ai n ki nds of poet r y r equi r e t he persona t o
a stance t hat i s not exact l y si t uat ed near t he pi nnacl e of
a c r a l i t y .
Whet her or not Wo r p and hi s successors wi l l f ul l y i dent i f y
i r^t aut hor wi t h t he wo r k , Wor p' s summar y of Focquenbr och' s
118 Translation , Rewri ti ng, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame
l i f e was t o go d o wn i n Du t c h l i t er ar y hi st or i es Wi t h an empt y
pur se, a bad r eput at i on, and a desper at e l ove Focquenbr och l ef t
t he f at her l and i n search f or hi s f or t une el sewher e" ( 5 1 2 ) . I n 1888
Fr eder i ks and van den Br anden i nj ect a pr obabl y i nv ol unt ar y
not e of pr edest i nat i on by composi ng t he f ol l owi ng var i at i on on
Wo r p : " H i s r eader s pr obabl y never wonder ed about hi s depar t ur e t o
t he coast of Gui nea i n 1666, wher e he was t r easur er and di ed
qui c k l y , of cour se [ s i c ] 2 5 2 ) . I t i s har d t o avoi d t he i mpr essi on
t hat t he Cal vi ni st God per sonal l y puni shed Focquenbr och wi t h ear l y
deat h.
I n 1901 Ev er t s wr i t es about t he l oose- l i vi ng Wi l l e m
Foc quenbr oc h" ( 272>. I n 1920, Pr i nsen char act er i zes Focquenbr och
as a shady doc t or , wh o ended up wi t h a posi t i on on t he Gol d
Coas t 294) c ont r as t i ng hi m unf av or abl y wi t h Pi et er Ber nagi e,
a n o t h e r " doct or wh o managed t o mai nt ai n hi s di gni t y and l at er
became a pr of essor at t he At henaeum i n Ams t e r d a m ( 294 ) . The
i ssue i s not so muc h Focquenbr och, s l ack of f i nanci al success, but
most def i ni t el y hi s l ack of decor um, bot h i n l i f e and ar t , or r at her i n
t he l i f e ext r apol at ed f r o m hi s ar t . I n W, F. Her mans ' wo r d s : i t i s
obvi ous by n o w wh y Focquenbr och haunt s us as a hady doc t or , bi n
Vondel does not haunt us as a shady st ocki ng me r c h a n t " ( 1 5 ) even
t hough Vondel ' s f i nanci al success was def i ni t el y not muc h gr eat er
t han Focquenbor ch' s. T h e di f f er ence, of cour se, i s t hat Vondel
wr ot e t he " r i g h t l i t er at ur e, bot h f or hi s o wn and l at er ages, whi l e
Focquenbr och di d not . I n 1924, Te Wi n k e l wr i t es t hat
Focquenbr och had made hi msel f i mpossi bl e as a doct or i n
Ams t e r d a m ( h e had obt ai ned hi s degree i n 1662 ) because of hi s
l oose l i v i ng 278) , and Te r Laan gi ves us t he l ast unr edeemed'
Focquenbor ch as l at e as 1 9 5 2 : " He l i ved a l i f e of l oose mor al s whi l e
a st udent i n Lei den and di d not do muc h bet t er as a doct or i n
Ams t e r d a m" ( 1 5 8 ) ,
Ab o u t t went y - f i v e year s l at er we are i nt r oduced t o t he " n e w
Focquenbr och. Wh i l e st i l l not t ot al l y r edeemed he i s at l east
accept abl e i n t h e mo r e t han s l i ght l y hackneyedgui se of t he pot r
maudi t e Si nce ot her l i t er at ur es, t he ar gument seems t o go, do have
t h e m, wh y coul d not Du t c h l i t er at ur e af f or d at l east a f ew as l ong as
i t keeps t hem i n a r el at i vel y mar gi nal posi t i on. Rens st i l l wr i t es
about t h i s Ams t e r d a m man, wh o f ai l ed i n hi s medi cal pr act i ce
( 60) but adds i n a t one t hai r eveal s under st andi ng, t hough i t mos:
def i ni t el y does not condone:
r Focquenbr och suf f er s f r om l i f e, whi ch i s t oo much f or hi m.
Nr - body i s mor e convi nced of t he vani t y, sensel essness,
am cr uel t y of l i f e t han he i s. Wi t h gr i m mocker y and
zi z' er cyni ci sm, he demol i shes t he val ues, t he opi ni ons, t he
c l i n g s , and t he f or ms of hi s t i me, whi ch are hi s as wel l . Thi s
: -rs>: mi sm of t he pote maudit gi ves Focquenbr och moder n
s t ur es . ( 60)
t 7 same year, anot her l i t er ar y hi st or i an descri bes Doct or
_enbroch who kept hi msel f busy i n Ams t er dam mor e wi t h
dr i nki ng, and pl ayi ng t he f l ut e t han wi t h pr act i ci ng
rme as one of t he most advent ur esome and f asci nat i ng
t ypes of our l i t er at ur e
11
( Dangez 118) . I t i s si gni f i cant t i n
cont ext , t hat Baekel mans, hi msel f a wr i t er , who di d not
operat e wi t hi n t he domi nant i deol ogy/ poet i cs of hi s t i me,
: he f i r st to cal l Focquenbr och a pote maudit (9) si xt y- f our
bef ore t he domi nant i deol ogi cal and poet ol ogi cal par amet er s of
u : : me had shi f t ed f ar enough t o al l ow bot h Rens and Dangez t o
:htr same epi t het i n a di scourse pr i mar i l y ai med at a schol ar l y
as^ ence.
A compar i son of t he ent r i es on Focquenbr och i n t he f i r st and
set :i edi t i ons of t he Moderne Encyclopdie der Werelditeratuur
^-des perhaps t he most conci se evi dence of Focquer i br och' s
t r ansf or mat i on. Mi nder aa, who wr ot e t he ent r y f or t he f i r st ,
: edi t i on, st i l l says of Focquenbr och t hat " hi s pract i ce di d not
i^znsh, pr obabl y because ol hi s hobbi es: smoki ng, dr i nki ng,
- r r pi ng ar ound, pl ayi ng t he f l ut e and t he vi ol i n, conver si ng at
i r t ^ z l engt h, and wr i t i ng poet r y " ( 7 7 ) . Thi s sentence i s omi t t ed
ir t he ent r y i n the second, 1980 edi t i on, wr i t t en t hi s t i me by " P.
I t Ler aa and t he Edi t or s, whi ch si mpl y st at es t hat a l t h o u g h
r r nnoi sseur s i n t he sevent eent h and ei ght eent h cent ur i es wer e
j umbl e t o appreci at e hi s wo r k , numer ous r epr i nt s pr ove t hat t he
d i c e r s t hought di f f er ent l y. The wo r k i s appreci at ed agai n i n our
r - i t u r y " ( 2 5 2 ) .
Fr cquenbr och t he poet i s f i r st at t acked by Mi ch el de Swaen, i n
t - Sederduilsche Dichtkonde. De Swaen number s hi m among
T5f who humi l i at ed t he Muses down t o t he feet of t he scum
r ? : u g h t he use of f unny t hought s, and wo r d s " ( 2 8 1 ) . He goes on
t : t hat : One can observe f r o m t he j udgment of schol ars what
i f c " c of respect these wor k s of hi s deserve 281 ) . I f we r emi nd
: . r s t l v es t hat t he schol ars de Swaen i s r ef er r i ng t o are t he member s
of t he Ni l Vol ent i bus Ar d u u m soci et y, whose pr edi l ect i on f or
Fr ench neocl assi cal poet i cs made i t hi ghl y unl i kel y t hat t hey woul d
t r eat Focquenbr och, or hi s Fr ench mast er Scar r on, f or t hat mat t er ,
wi t h any respect , we can easi l y under st and wh y de Swaen' s r emar k?
wer e f at ed t o become a sel f - f ul f i l l i ng pr ophecy.
I n 1882, Wi l s en Geysbeek wr i t es: " Focquenbr och passed i n hi s
t i me f or a w i t t y and c omi c poet , i f one i s al l owed t o cal l rude
st r eet l anguage and i ndecent br ot hel mi r t h wi t and comedy. We do
not want t o def i l e our paper by quot i ng exampl es of hi s gr ubby
r hy mes 309) Thi r t y- seven years l at er , i n 1859, van der Aa
si mpl y copi es Wi l sen Geysbeek' s wor ds, def i ni ng Focquenbr och
poems as wr i t i ngs t hat wer e consi dered wi t t y and comi cal i n hi s
t i me, but whi ch no l onger deserve t o be read or shown on t he stage
i n our t i me because of t he rude st r eet l anguage and t he i ndecem
br ot hel mi r t h t hat i s f ound i n t hem ( 1 4 2 ) . The exact same wor ds
surf ace agai n i n Ho f d i j k , t hi r t een years l at er , i n 1872, as par t of hi?
char act er i zat i on of t he " gr ubby Wi l l em van Focquenbr och" ( 212) -
Thi r t y- seven years l at er , i n 1909, Ka l f f wr i t es t hat Focquenbr och
now bar el y k n o wn as " t he poet of ' Di ogenes t he wi se man/ l i ved i n
a vat
1
" ( 5 8 0 ) , a r emar k whi ch surf aces agai n i n al most exact l y t he
same f or m i n Ter La an f or t y- t hr ee years l at er , i n 1952: These day5
we onl y know t hat dr i nki ng song of his * Di ogenes t he wi se man
l i ved i n a v a t
T
" ( 1 5 8 ) .
Focquenbr och never had t oo many champi ons, especi al l y not af t er
hi s wor ks went out of pr i nt . I t was st i l l r el at i vel y easy f or hi s
edi t or , Abr aham Bogaer t , t o wr i t e: Wh o does not bur st ou:
l aughi ng when he put s hi s t ones/ To t he weddi ng feast and sing?
t he br i de t o bed/ Wh o , j oyous and awake/ Awai t s t he gr oom whc
mol l i f i es her wi t h st or i es/ An d woul d r at her have her moi st f i el d
Sown by him?3). I n 1721, Pi et er Langendi j k i s t he l ast aut hor
and cr i t i c who i s abl e t o wr i t e about Focquenbr och i n a t one t hat i s
nei t her vi t uper at i ve nor apol oget i c. I n hi s cont i nuat i on of
Focquenbr och' s bur l esque of t he Aeneid he pays t he f ol l owi ng
homage to hi s predecessor
Soon he al so saw t he Af r i c an shores
Wher e Mast er Fok i s bur i ed
He t ook a smal l pi pe bet ween hi s t eet h
An d smoked r espect f ul l y
I n honor of t he great poet
As I t oday f or t hat sai nt
Hi st or i ogr aphy 121
Th a t mi nd- r ef r esher , br i nger of j o y
L i g h t up a t ast y pi pe, ( 470)
These are t he l ast r emar ks on Focquenbr och i n Du t c h l i t er ar y
r ust or y t hat coul d be const r ued as f r i endl y even t ender . I n 1868,
i e Gooi j er i s al r eady on t he def ensi ve when he asks wh y " wh a t has
-een apol oget i cal l y paper ed over i n t he case of ot her s shoul d be
r ount ed a deadl y si n f or Foc quenbr oc h
n
( 355 ) , T h e ot her s he
ment i ons are Foot and, not s ur pr i s i ngl y t L a n g e n d i j k : " Di d Poot not
ake hi msel f gui l t y of h u r t i n g chast e ears? , and was Langendi j k
[ w a y s del i c at e?" ( 355) . One coul d al so add Br eder o t o de Gooi j er ' s
st, but t he f act t hat he hi msel f di d not t ends t o under scor e t he
st r engt h of t he t aboo s ur r oundi ng t he canoni zed wr i t er s of t he
Dut ch Gol den Ag e .
De Gooi j er al so paves t he way f or t he l at er i mage of Foc-
quenbr och as pote maudit but wi t h o u t goi ng as f ar as hi s f el l ow
: nl i es about a hundr ed year s l at er " T r u e , he r uns al ong t he wr o n g
r oad, but he does see t he si gnpost s t hat s how h i m a bet t er p a t h "
( 3 6 0 ) . We get Focquenbr och t he pot ent i al l y r epent ant si nner ,
" hos e si ns can be expl ai ned t h o u g h a g a i n n o t condoned by t he
f act t hat soci et y kept f r o m h i m what he needed ( 357 ) .
Un f o r t u n a t e l y f or Focquenbr och, t he Gol den Age al r eady had i t s
- i o n i z e d r epent ant si nner , Br eder o, and hi s i ncl usi on i n t he canon
i l s o al l owed t he s muggl i ng i n of a modi c um of t he " l o w and
' coarse but enough was obv i ous l y , enough f or mos t hi st or i ans
: i Dut c h l i t er at ur e- Focquenbr och f ound hi s pot ent i al ni che al r eady
: ccupi ed, and i t was i mpossi bl e f or h i m t o di sl odge Br eder o whose
r edempt i on coul d at l east be consi der ed an " est abl i shed f act ,
wher eas nobody k nows , or i s l i kel y t o k n o w h o w Focquenbr och
5pent hi s l ast year s. Br eder o can be r ecuper at ed pos t humous l y ,
Focquenbr och cannot .
By t he year 1980t he Gol den Age t aboo had weakened enough
: : r de Vooy s and St ui vel ng s i mpl y t o l i nk Focquenbr och, s wr i t i n g s
wi t h r el at ed wo r k by Br eder o or St ar t er , compar ed t o wh i c h some
: : Fo c q u e n b r o c h ' s poems c an hol d t hei r o wn t h r o u g h di r ect ness of
- i i guage and unador ned f r ankness ( 71. Va n Heer i k hui z en
r er ogni zes Focquenbr och as a poet whose wr i t i n g s wer e i nspi r ed by
i sense of pr ot est agai nst hi s t i me, but depl or es " t he di r ect i on i n
isrhich t hi s pr ot est t hr eat ened t o sl i de because i t di d not f i nd a usef ul
i d e a l i t coul d f ol l ow : t he di r ect i on of t ast el ess coarseness t hat
r oes muc h f ar t her i n some of t hi s poet ' s ot her ver ses" ( 83 ) . I t
seems t o have become acceptabl e not t o be i nspi r ed by t he i deal s of
t he Gol den Age as such, but bur l esqui ng t hem i s anot her ma t t e r -
one t hat rel egat es you t o t he mar gi nal posi t i on of t he pote maudit.
t hat conveni ent t opos of l i t er ar y hi st or y wher e Va n Heer i khui zen
meet s wi t h Rens and Dangez t o creat e a Focquenbr och mor e
acceptabl e t o t he l i t er ar y est abl i shment .
T wo years l at er , t hough, Lode wi c k , Coenen, and Smul der s t ake
a st ep beyond t hat t opos. Thei r descr i pt i on of Focquenbr och
cont ai ns t he f ol l owi ng l i nes :
For t unat el y, t he t went i et h cent ur y di spl ays a bet t er
under st andi ng of t hi s independent spirit, bot h f or t he si mpl i ci t y
and cl ar i t y of hi s l anguage and f or hi s poet r y t hat i s somet i mes
bi t t er , somet i mes bur l esque, but especi al l y f or hi s courage and
honest y i n seei ng l i f e and t he wor l d as t hey present t hemsel ves t c
hi m. ( 221
Thei r ver di ct echoes t hat of t wo of t hei r predecessors W. F.
Her mans, not ver y sur pr i si ngl y: " A n d hi s or i gi nal poet r y was f ul l of
f eel i ng, r i ch i n at mospher e, t echni cal l y ver y subt l e and per f ect ,
wi t hout r het or i c 10) but al so, sur pr i si ngl y, Wor p " Mor eov er .
our doct or ' s verses are not bad; he wr ot e easi l y and f l uent l y and
gave pr oof of great ar t i st i c t al ent i n many a composi t e l i ne" ( 5 8 0 ) ,
Wo r p i s pr epar ed t o compr omi se somewhat wher e poet i cs i s
concer ned, but Focquenbr och r emai ns damned because hi s i deol ogy
was at odds wi t h t he domi nant i deol ogy of hi s t i me.
Li t er ar y hi st or y, i t woul d seem, i s of t en wr i t t en not f r om a
t i mel ess vant age poi nt above t he f r a y " ; r at her , i t of t en proj ect s
t he " f r a y " of i t s o wn t i mes back i nt o t he past , enl i st i ng t he suppor t
of t hose wr i t er s i t canoni zes f or a cer t ai n i deol ogy, a cert ai n
poet i cs, or bot h. A cul t ur e mani pul at es i t s past i n t he servi ce of
what domi nant gr oups i n t hat cul t ur e woul d l i ke i t s present t o be.
The f act t hat our o wn present i s ki nder t o Focquenbr och t han the
present of a hundr ed years ago j ust proves t hat poet i cs and
i deol ogi es do not l ast f or ever . Ther e appears t o be some ki nd of
hi st or i cal moment " when t he i deol ogy and poet i cs of a t i me wii.
shi f t f ar enough i n a di r ect i on t hat wi l l al l ow t hem t o admi t agai n
t hose i t cast out bef or e.
Si gni f i cant l y, t he ant hol ogi es of Focquenbr och' s wor k s publ i shec
by Baekel mans and Her mans, bot h wr i t er s and t her ef or e not r eaP
pr of essi onal readers, wer e not abl e t o br i ng about t hat shi f t . The
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Chapter 10
Anthology
Anthologizing Africa
Publ i sher s i nvest i n ant hol ogi es, and publ i sher s decide the
number of pages t hey want t o i nvest i n. The l i mi t at i ons of si ze
or " s pac e" r i t ual l y l ament ed i n al most al l i nt r oduct i ons t o ah
ant hol ogi es are not a nat ur al gi ven. Rat her , t hey r ef l ect t he ami -
ci pat ed demands of t he mar ket pl ace. Ho wa r d Sergeant wr ot e
i n t he i nt r oduct i on to hi s ant hol ogy, African Voices : i n present -
i ng t hi s ant hol ogy, however , I do not cl ai m t o have i ncl uded the
wo r k of ever y poet of mer i t i ndeedf or such a r epr esent at i on t c
have been at al l possi bl e, i t woul d have been necessary t o doubl e
t he size of t he v o l u me x i i i ) . I si dor e Okpewho r at her bl unt l y
st at ed in t he i nt r oduct i on to hi s The Heritage of African Poetry
" once agai n, I r egr et t hat I do not have space enough t o represen:
as many poet s, communi t i es or pieces as mi ght sat i sf y al l and
sundr y" ( 3 4 ) , Reed and Wake say essent i al l y t he same t hi ng i n
t he i nt r oduct i on to t hei r New Book of African Verse, but in i
mor e el egant manner i n t he i nt er est s of space we have alsc
excl uded t he Mal agasy poet s we gave i n 1964 adopt i ng t he st r i ct er
i nt er pr et at i on of t he l i mi t s of Af r i c an l i t er at ur e whi ch i s now usual
( 1984: xi i ) .
Publ i sher s i nvest i n a number of pages because t hey publ i sh
f or a pot ent i al audi ence. Kgosi t si l e has st r ong vi ews on the
composi t i on of t hat audience who i s t he audi ence of the
cont empor ar y Af r i can wr i t er ? The bor ed Eur o- Amer i can l i ber al
l i t er at i searchi ng f or l i t er ar y exot i ca i n t he Af r i can quar t er s of t hei r
empi r e? The Af r i c an el i t e t r ai ned away f r om t hemsel ves i n
i nst i t ut i ons of Eur opean desi gn?" ( x v ) . Not one of t he ant hol ogi es
di scussed here has been publ i shed i n Af r i c a i t sel f . Ml t wel ve were
publ i shed i n London, Har monds wor t h, Bl oomi ngt on, or New
Yo r k .
Ant hol ogy 125
A l arge par t of t he audi ence f or Af r i can poet r y t oday i s Whi t e,
Ear l y at t empt s at canoni zi ng Af r i c an poet s and pr oj ect i ng an
i mage of Af r i can poet r y have not been under t aken by Af r i can
Sl acks but by Eur opean and Amer i can Whi t es. Si nce t he audi ence
f or Af r i can poet r y i s r el at i vel y smal l , publ i sher s wi l l t r y t o get as
many pot ent i al readers as possi bl e t o buy t he ant hol ogi es t hey
publ i sh. Th e r esul t i s compet i t i on, but al so di ver si t y of sel ect i on,
Et least si nce 1973when new publ i sher s t r y t o break i nt o t he
mar ket by of f er i ng sel ect i ons of new poet s t o t hei r pot ent i al
audi ence.
Publ i sher s wi l l be r el uct ant t o i nvest t oo many pages i n
ant hol ogi es of Af r i can poet r y, except perhaps i f t hose ant h-
ologies can al so be used as t ext books i n school s ( i n Af r i c a ) and
uni ver si t i es ( i n Af r i ca and el sewhere ) . I f an ant hol ogy i s t o
f onct i on as a t ext book, i t had bet t er not cont ai n t oo much mat er i al
t hat mi ght be consi dered of f ensi ve by pot ent i al users. I n 1964T
Reed and Wake wr ot e i n t he pref ace of t hei r ant hol ogy: ver y
l i t t l e, f or exampl ehas come f r om t he st r uggl e i n Sout her n and
Cent r al Af r i c a " ( 4 ) . Bot h Hughes and Moor e and Bei er , whose
ant hol ogi es appeared one year ear l i er , i ncl ude a f ai r number of ant i -
apart hei d poems.
I f publ i sher s want t o cat ch t he at t ent i on of t he pot ent i al Whi t e
l i ber al audience t hey shoul d be r eady wi t h an ant hol ogy at a
" hi st or i cal moment " when Af r i ca i s i n t he news out si de Af r i ca. I t
also hel ps t o have t he ant hol ogy ei t her compi l ed or i nt r oduced
by an est abl i shed Eur opean or Amer i can ( pr ef er abl y Bl ack )
wr i t er who can be shown t o have a cer t ai n af f i ni t y wi t h t hi ngs
Af r i can. Af r i c an l i t er at ur e wr i t t en i n Fr ench was accept abl e i n
Pari s l ong bef ore Af r i c an l i t er at ur e wr i t t en i n Engl i sh was deemed
acceptabl e i n London because An d r Br et on and Jean-Paul Sar t r e
announced t o t he Fr ench t he presence of t he ambassadors of
Ngr i t ude among t h e m ( Chevr i er 39 ) . Br et on had wr i t t en a
preface to Ai m Csai re' s Cahier d'un retour au pays natal in 1947
and Sar t r e had wr i t t en t he preface t o Lopol d Sedar Senghor ' s
Anthologie de la nouvelle posie ngre et malgache in 1948* When
I ndi ana Uni v er s i t y Press publ i shed i t s Poems from Black Africa,
t hat ant hol ogy was compl i ed and i nt r oduced by Lngst em Hughes.
Because t he poet r y of negr i t ude had been accepted i nt o t he
mai nst r eam of Fr ench l i t er at ur e at l east f i f t een years ear l i er ,
Hughes devot ed a f ai r number of pages t o i t , as di d hi s i mmedi at e
successors* Th e st or y of negr i t ude was t hen consi dered a success
126 Translation , Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Li terary Fame
s t or y , emi nent l y sui t abl e f or emul at i on by Af r i c a n poet s wr i t i n g :r.
Engl i s h.
T h e si mpl e avai l abi l i t y of t ext s al so const i t ut es a const r ai nt under
whi c h ant hol ogi st s of Af r i c an poet r y have t o oper at e. On l y f i ve 01
t he ant hol ogi es ment i oned here i ncl ude or al poet r y , anci ent or
moder n. Wi t h i n t he cor pus of or al poet r y made avai l abl e i n Engl i sh
by t hese f i ve ant hol ogi es, Yo r u b a cl ai ms t went y- seven poems, E w t
i s a di st ant second wi t h ei ght , f ol l owed cl osel y by A k a n wi t h seven.
Swahi l i f ol l ows wi t h si x poems, Amh a r a and Zul u each r each a t ot al
of f our , and no ot her Af r i c a n l anguage i s r epr esent ed wi t h mor e
t han t hr ee. T h i s st at e of af f ai r s does not r ef l ect t he ov er whel mi ng
super i or i t y of Yo r u b a or al poet r y but mer el y t he f act t hat i t ha>
been st udi ed and t r ansl at ed f or a l onger t i me, and by mor e peopl e-
Si mi l ar l y , t he r el at i ve domi nance of Ni ger i an poet s i n Mo o r e and
Bei er ' s 1984 edi t i on can be accur at el y expl ai ned by t he (act t hat
Ni ger i a does af t er al l cont ai n al most hal f t he cont i nent ' s bl ack
popul at i on" ( 2 2 ) .
Tr ans l at i ons f r o m Af r i c a n l i t er at ur e wr i i t e n i n Fr ench wer e
usual l y avai l abl e f or i ncl usi on i n ant hol ogi es of Af r i c a n poei r y
publ i shed i n Engl i s h, but t he same cannot be sai d f or t r ansl at i ons
f r o m t he Por t uguese. These began t o sur f ace on a l ar ger scal e onl y
when t he ant i - col oni al st r uggl e i n An g o l a and Moz ambi que began t
be ment i oned i n Wh i t e l i ber al newspaper s and on t he eveni ng new
wi t h some r egul ar i t y .
T h e poet i cs t he ant hol ogi st s subscr i be t o al so hel ps shape t he
ant hol ogy . I n 1963, f or i nst ance, Moor e and Bei er deci ded t o
i ncl ude onl y mo d e r n " poet r y f r o m Af r i c a i n t hei r ant hol ogy . They
def i ned mo d e r n " as a mat t er of t he poet s' awar eness of t he
moder n i di om i n Eur opean and Amer i c an poet r y . I t i s t hi s
awar eness t hat enabl es t hem t o use t hei r r espect i ve l anguages
wi t h o u t di st r act i ng ar chai sm and i n a way t hat appeal s i ns t ant l y t o
t he cont empor ar y ear " ( 30 ) . I n t he 1984 edi t i on moder n,has
s i mpl y come t o mean a maj or concer n wi t h c r a f t 2 3 ) , but i t i >
st i l l uphel d as a cr i t er i on f or sel ect i on, even t h o u g h t he 1984
sel ect i on i s mor e heavi l y wei ght ed t owar d t he pol i t i cal , as a
count er par t maybe al so t o Reed and Wak e who st at ed i n t he pref ace
t o t hei r 1984 edi t i on :
+t
our t ast e has l ed us mor e t owar ds poems of
exper i ence and obser vat i on t han t o t hose of phi l osophi cal
consi der at i on and pol i t i cal decl ar at i on, mor e t owar ds a poet r y of
di r ect ut t er ance t han of al l usi on and el abor at i on" ( x i i ) .
Once a cer t ai n degree of ear l y canoni zat i on has been at t ai ned i n
Ant hol ogy 127
Af r i can poet r y, r oughl y ar ound 1970, new ant hol ogi es can accept
: hat emer gi ng canon t r y t o subver t i t , or t r y t o enl arge i t . The
t hree ant hol ogi es publ i shed i n 1973 by Al l en, Kgosi t si l e, and
Sergeant engage i n consci ous canon bui l di ngas does Okpewho' s
ant hol ogy publ i shed i n 1985. Ant hol ogi es publ i shed af t er 1974, on
t he ot her hand, t end t o r ei nf or ce t he pr e- exi st i ng canon. Whi l e t hey
i nt r oduce new poet s, t hey do not si gni f i cant l y expand ei t her t he
t hemat i c or t he poet ol ogi cal range al r eady est abl i shed.
Okpewho' s t i t l e The Heritage of African Poetry suggest s t hat
he i s consci ousl y bui l di ng a her i t age whi ch wi l l embrace bot h
he present and t he past , and t hi s necessari l y i mpl i es a reval ori za-
t i on of or al poet r y. Accor di ngl y, Okpewho st al es t he need t o gi ve
t he or al t r adi t i onal poet r y of Af r i ca i t s deserved place bot h i n t he
t er ar y cur r i cul um and i n our gener al under st andi ng of what poet r y
t ri es t o do 3) . Kgosi t si l e and Ser geant , on t he ot her hand, bot h
def i ne t hemsel ves as ant i - canoni cal , or as t he bui l der s of t he r eal "
canon. Kgosi t si l e dedi cates hi s ant hol ogy t o t he memor y of
Langst on Hughes and Chr i s Oki gbo. among ot her s, l ayi ng cl ai m t o
t he mant l e of bot h t he f i r st ant hol ogi st of Af r i can poet r y i n Engl i sh
and t he man consi dered by many t o have been Af r i ca' s most
i mpor t ant poet . Ar med wi t h t hese cr edent i al s Kgosi t si l e states t hat
poet r y i f i t i s aut hent i c, as anyt hi ng else expressi ve of a peopl e' s
spi r i t , i t i s al ways soci al " ( x v ) , announci ng t he poet i cs under l yi ng
hi s ant hol ogy. Sergeant does not have a ^r eal " canon ready t o t ake
t he pl ace of t he exi st i ng one. He si mpl y bel i eves t hat canon
f or mat i on shoul d never come t o a cl osur e. He t her ef or e states I
have del i ber at el y gi ven mor e space t o new and l i t t l e- known poet s"
( x v ) .
A f i r st i mage of Af r i can poet r y i s pr oj ect ed i n t he t hr ee
ant hol ogi es publ i shed i n 1963 and 1964. A second, ant i - canoni cal
wave of t hr ee ant hol ogi es i s publ i shed i n 1973and t he si t uat i on
remai ns r el at i vel y st abl e f r om t hen on. Langst on Hughes' s
ant hol ogy Poems from Black Africa j ust i f i es i t s exi st ence by
st at i ng t hat i t i s t i me t o t r y t o under st and Af r i ca, not onl y because
i t s f ut ur e " i s comi ng mor e and mor e i nt o the cont r ol of t he peopl es
of Af r i ca t hemsel ves" ( 11 ) , but al so because " ar t and l i f e have not
yet par t ed company i n Af r i ca. Hughes obvi ousl y ref ers t o t he
i deal i zed Af r i ca t hen so much i n evi dence i n t he poet r y of negr i t ude
he dar i ngl y ext ends t o cover Engl i sh- speaki ng Af r i ca as wel l , al bei t
on t he f l i msi est of gr ounds: t h e best poet r y of bot h Fr ench and
Engl i sh expr essi on bears t he st amp of t he Af r i can per sonal i t y, and
most of i t s emot i onal aur a mi ght be i ncl uded wi t h t he t er m
ngritude ( 13) - T h i s i s not a st at ement of f act , but of st r at egy
si nce t he Af r i c a n poet s wr i t i n g i n Fr enc h have achi eved success i n
Fr ance wi t h negr i t ude, Af r i c an poet s wr i t i n g i n Engl i s h shoul d
emul at e t hem.
I n hi s sel ect i ons, Hughes t r i es t o bal ance a st r at egy of anal ogy
wi t h one of caut i ous exot i ci sm. Si nce he i s i nt r oduc i ng new poet>
and new t hemes, t he best way t o hel p r eader s " pl ace" t he new i s t
t el l t hem i t i s l i k e somet hi ng t hey al r eady k n o w. Hughes
t her ef or e ment i ons i n hi s i nt r oduc t i on t hat t h e Fr enc h Af r i c an
poet s, and par t i cul ar l y Ser i ghor , t end t o wa r d cr eat i ng
Whi t manes que cat al ogues" ( 1 2 ) . One of hi s sel ect i ons i s an Af r i c an
Na t i v i t y " : " Wi t h i n a nat i ve hut , ere st i r r ed t he d a wn / Un t o t he
Pur e One was an I nf ant b o r n / Wr a p p e d i n bl ue l appah t hat Hi s
mot her d y e d / L a i d on Hi s f at her ' s home- t anned deer ski n hi de
( 7 6 ) . Yet t he ant hol ogy al so i ncl udes Wo l e Soyi nka^s " A b i k u , a
poem about chi l dr en, but wi t h a Yor uba t wi s t . Hughes st at es i n hi s
headnot e t o t he poem t hat A b i k u " i s t he Yor uba my t h of i nf ant
mo r t a l i t y , meani ng l i t er al l y bor n t o di e, I t i s bel i eved t hat t he
dead chi l d r et ur ns t o pl ague t he mo t h e r 1 0 3 ) . He t hen proceeds
t o pr i nt t he poem i n f u l l , even t hough i t r epr esent s a f ar cr y f r om
t he Romant i c i deal i zat i on of chi l dhood. Hughes al so i ncl udes a
sel ect i on f r o m t he or al poet r y t hen avai l abl e t o h i m, but hi s
headnot es bet r ay a cer t ai n i gnor ance of Af r i c a n r eal i t y, l i st i ng bot h
Ba n t u " and J ohannes bur g" as " l anguages .
Hughes s ant hol ogy al r eady cont ai ns al l t he t hemes t hat wi l l
sur f ace agai n i n al l subsequent ant hol ogi es even i f t hey are not
al ways gi ven t he same space. Some t hemes are t r adi t i onal i n
Af r i c a n poet r y l ove, i ncl udi ng t he r el at i onshi p t o t he woman as
mo t h e r , l over , my t hi c al i ncar nat i on of a c ount r y , or even of t he
whol e c ont i nent ; death c ont i nui t y and change; t he r ol e of t he
poet descr i pt i ons of t he env i r onment . Ot her t hemes ar e mor e
t opi cal col oni al i sm, apar t hei d, t he Af r i c an bet ween t wo cul t ur es,
r ewr i t i ngs of Af r i c an hi s t or y . Hughes l i nks t he t r adi t i onal
and t he t opi cal by emphasi zi ng t hei r nat ur al meet i ng poi nt
negr i t ude.
Hughes ' s ant hol ogy al so al r eady cont ai ns a core of poet s wh o wi l l
f i nd t hei r way i nt o al l subsequent ant hol ogi es Davi d Rubadi r i ,
Kwe s i Br e w, Gabr i el Ok ar af J ohn Pepper Cl ar k , Chr i s t opher
Ok i g b o , Wol e Soyi nka, Chi caya U Ta m s i , Lopol d Sedar
Senghor , and Davi d Di op. He al so i ncl udes t he Mal agasy poet s
Ant hol ogy 129
Rabar i vel o and Ranai vo wh o wi l l be s ubt l y edged out of subsequent
mt hol ogi es " f o r l ack of space.
Ger al d Moor e and Ul l i Bei er do not i ncl ude or al poet r y i n t hei r
M o d e r n Poetry from Africa publ i shed i n t he same year
because t hei r sel ect i on i s pr i mar i l y based on poet i cs. Wh a t t hey
select mus t be moder n, i . e . i t mus t r epr esent a f r esh expl or at i on
: : l a n g u a g e ( 20 ) . For t hi s r eason, t hey excl ude t he so- cal l ed
pi oneer poet s" bel ongi ng t o t he ver y f i r st gener at i on of Af r i c ans t o
vr i t e i n Engl i s h wh o are af f l i ct ed " w i t h a t ot al l ack of s t y l e " ( 2 0 ) .
I n t he same year i n wh i c h Hughes decl ar es al l Af r i c a n poet r y t o be
wr i t t en under t he si gn of negr i t ude, Mo o r e and Bei er suggest t hat
~ t he wel l s pr i ng of Ngr i t ude i s r unni ng d r y " ( 2 3 ) . and t hat t he
: : i mat e of I badan, t he uni v er s i t y ci t y of Ni ger i a wher e many of t he
Ni ger i an poet s of t he f i r st gener at i on r ecei ved t hei r hi gher educat i on
f r o m Moor e and Bei er , among o t h e r s i s mor e conduci ve t o t he
devel opment of Af r i c an poet r y t han t hat of pr e- war Par i s, because
: he y oung poet s wh o st udi ed at I badan wer e abl e t o acqui r e a
i t er ar y cul t ur e wi t h o u t s uf f er i ng t he sense of al i enat i on and exi l e
vhi ch af f l i ct ed t he bl ack wr i t e r s gat her ed i n Par i s t went y and t hi r t y
years ago" ( 2 0 ) .
Themat i c al l y Moor e and Bei er s ant hol ogy i s not di f f er ent f r o m
Hughess, pr obabl y because t her e i s a har d core of t r adi t i onal
Af r i c an subj ect s f or poet r y t hat r uns t hr ough al l ant hol ogi es,
; Dssi bl y even unbek nowns t t o anl hol ogi zer s, unt i l i t sur f aces i n t he
: hemes t hat or chest r at e t he composi t i on of Soyi nka' s 1975
ant hol ogy and t hat are r eaf f i r med by Ok p e wh o s ant hol ogy t en
years l at er . Mo o r e and Bei er i nt r oduce one mor e t r adi t i onal Af r i c a n
: ype of poet r y : t he r ef l ect i ve, phi l osophi cal poem. T h e y al so
i nt r oduce t wo mor e t opi cal t hemes i ndi vi dual i sm and Af r i c an
l ol i t i c s . T h e l at t er i s al r eady begi nni ng t o be t r eat ed i n t he sat i r i cal
mode. Moor e and Bei er gi ve mor e space t o poems deal i ng wi t h t he
st r uggl e agai nst ( as opposed t o t he t r i u mp h o v e r ) col oni al i sm,
: ar t i cul ar l y i n t he t r ansl at i ons f r o m t he Por t uguese i ncl uded i n t hei r
sel ect i on. Si nce t hei r sel ect i on i s gui ded pr i mar i l y by poet i cs, i t
- t ands t o r eason t hat t hey al so gi ve mor e space t o poems
r mphasi zi ng t he r ol e of t he poet i n soci et y, j ust as t hey gi ve mor e
scope t o poet s mos t consci ous of t hei r cr af t : Senghor goes f r o m f i ve
l oems i n Hughes t o t hi r t een i n Moor e and Bei er , Ok i g b o f r o m one
seven, Soyi nka f r o m one t o ei ght T Cl ar k f r o m t wo t o ni ne. T h e
new poet s i nt r oduced by Moor e and Bei er j o i n t he cor e gr oup t hat
wi l l be f ound i n most subsequent ant hol ogi es. They are Lenri e Pet ers,
Kof i Awo o n o r , Mi chael Echer uo, Mazi si Kunene Agost i nho Net o,
and Bi r ago Di op.
James Reed and Cl i ve Wake publ i shed t hei r 119-page ant hol ogy,
A Book of African Verse
y
in 1964. They di d not i nt r oduce any
new t hemes, but dr opped t he t heme of apar t hei d. The onl y
Sout her n Af r i c an poem t hey i ncl ude i s an ext r act ( 19 pages
f r om a l ong nar r at i ve poem or i gi nal l y wr i t t en i n Xhosa on t he
l i f e of t he Xhosa mai den Thut hul a. I n t he second edi t i on,
publ i shed t went y years l at er , Reed and Wake i ncl ude names
bel ongi ng t o " t he r emar kabl e const el l at i on of poets whi ch ar ose
i n Sout h Af r i ca ( x i i ) , but not wi t hout addi ng t hat James
Jol obe
T
s l ong nar r at i ve poem Thuthula wi l l perhaps be
" par t i c ul ar l y " ( x i i ) mi ssed among t he 1964 sel ect i ons t hey had
t o omi t . Compar ed t o Hughes and t o Moor e and Bei er , Reed
and Wake si gni f i cant l y i ncreased t he number of poems by t wo
Mal agasy poet s, Rabar i vel o and Ranai vot onl y t o omi t t hem
al t oget her i n t he 1984 edi t i on. None of t he new poet s i nt r oduced
by Reed and Wake i n 1964 have sur vi ved i n subsequent
ant hol ogi es.
Toget her wi t h Moor e and Bei er ' s ant hol ogy ( enl ar ged i n 1968)
Reed and Wake' s was t he most wi del y di st r i but ed, and t her ef or e
pot ent i al l y most i nf l uent i al ant hol ogy of Af r i can poet r y. I t was
di st r i but ed i n i t s 1964 f o r m f or t went y year s, dur i ng whi ch i t
gr adual l y l ost t ouch wi t h devel opment s i n Af r i ca i t sel f . I t i s a
sober i ng t hought i ndeed t hat t he reader who t ur ns t o Reed and
Wake af t er t he 1976 Sowet o r i ot s t o f i nd out about Sout h Af r i can
poet r y wi l l be gi ven onl y Thuthula t o read. Ther e i s no si gni f i cant
t hemat i c di f f er ence bet ween t he 1963 Moor e and Bei er and i t s 1968
successor, but t he new Moor e and Bei er i nt r oduced t he t hi r d wave
of poet s who al so f ound t hei r way i nt o t he core gr oup : Mbel l a
Sonne Di poko, Denni s Br ut us, Keor apet se Kgosi t si l e, and Ok ot p
Bi t ek.
I n t er ms of poet i cs, t he ant hol ogi es publ i shed bet ween 1963
and 1968 span a wi de spect r um i ndeed. On t he one hand t her e are
t he " pi oneer poet s" who seem not onl y par ochi al , but st r angel y
archai c wi t h stanzas and di ct i on der i ved f r o m hymns or Vi ct or i an
bal l ads" ( Moor e and Bei er 1984: 2 3 ) . On t he ot her hand t her e
are t he I badan poet s of t he ear l y si xt i es whose poet r y " of t en suf f er s
f r om an overdose of Pound, Hopk i ns and El i ot ( Moor e and
Bei er 1984: 23) . I n bot h cases, t he poet s are obvi ousl y i nf l uenced
by t he mode t hat was domi nant i n Engl i sh- l anguage poet r y
Ant hol ogy 131
n n g t hei r f or mat i ve year s. Th e di f f er ence i s t hat one mode f i nds
i : r wi t h t he poet i cs espoused by Moor e and Bei er whi l e t he ot her
:<es not .
Reed and Wake poi nt out obvi ous i nf l uences on some of t hei r
- - l ect i ons Thuthula i s cl osel y model ed on t he nar r at i ve bl ank
r r ê o f A l f r e d , L o r d Tennyson
1
' ( 1 9 6 4 : 3 ) . Gabr i el Okar a
V r i tes i n a way whi c h suggest s he has been deepl y i nf l uenced by
I y l an Thomas " ( 3 ) , whi l e Davi d Rubadi r i ' s poem Stanley Meets
'-'utesa has been i nf l uenced by T . S, El i ot ' s The Journey of the
(3), Reed and Wak e' s poet i cs are mor e cat hol i c t han Moor e
-.j Bei er ' s, but what happened i n bot h gener at i ons i s obvi ousl y t he
me: t he buddi ng poet s wer e conf r ont ed wi t h model s t hat wer e
': at t hei r t i me and began t o i mi t at e t hem, as buddi ng poet s do
ever ywher e. One can ext end t he game and poi nt out t hat Rubadi r i ' s
* The Ti de t hat f r o m t he West washes Af r i c a t o t he Bone
:hologized i n Ser geant , i s t r i but ar y t o Dy l an Thomas ' s " T h e f or ce
- r at t hr ough t he gr een f use dr i ves t he f l ower , " whi l e El i ot and
yi an Thomas have bot h i nf l uenced A r t h u r Nortjes London
I mpr essi ons I I , ant hol ogi zed i n Wol e Soyi nka' s Poems of Black
A
r
rica. Fi nal l y, Hopk i ns i s a per vasi ve i nf l uence on Denni s
rutusTs sonnet " A t a Funer al , " ant hol ogi zed i n Moor e and Bei er ' s
-^>8 edi t i on. I f ant hol ogi st s sel ect on t he basi s of a poet i cs, t hey
vi H excl ude what cannot be r educed t o t hat poet i cs t hey wi l l not
excl ude t he same poet s or poems i f t hey sel ect on a basi s ot her t han
: : a poet i cs.
The year 1973 wi t nesses t he publ i cat i on of t hr ee mor e or less
ant i - canoni cal " ant hol ogi es of Af r i c an poet r y, Samuel Al l en' s 205-
: age Poems from Africa omi t s t r ansl at i ons f r o m t he Por t uguese
u t i ncl udes or al poet r y because t hat poet r y r ef l ect s a vi gor ous and
: j r p o s e f u l l i f e wi t h a f ul l measur e of sat i sf act i on, as wel l as
- or r ow, wi t h i n a f r amewor k of meani ng and f ul f i l l ment ^ ( 4 ) . Th e
i mage of Af r i c a cont ai ned i n or al poet r y i s expl i ci t l y desi gned t o
; ou n Ter act t he i mage t hat has f or so l ong been domi nat ed by t he
t j pul ar di st or t i ons of an Edgar Ri ce Bur r oughs , a Vachel Li ndsay
:r a mi ndl ess car t oon t el evi si on i n d u s t r y " ( 1 ) - Al l en' s ant hol ogy
*hus pr oj ect s i t s o wn i mage of Af r i c a i n an at t empt t o cor r ect
cur r ent cl i chs*
The t heme of Af r i c an pol i t i cs i s t r eat ed wi t h mor e sadness
md bi t t er ness t han bef or e and t he r esul t i ng di si l l usi onment wi t h
publ i c af f ai r s l eads t o i ncreased concent r at i on on t he sel f : t he
Ni ger i an poet s, par t i cul ar l y, t ur ned f r o m publ i c t hemes t o i ndi vi -
dual c onc er ns " ( 6) . Th e t heme of apar t hei d i s r epr esent ed i n Al l en t r
ant hol ogy , but t her e is a not i ceabl e di scr epancy bet ween '_
way he deal s wi t h i t i n hi s i nt r oduc t i on as opposed t o t he aci i _i
sel ect i ons he i ncl udes. Th e i nt r oduc t i on st at es: I n t he mode
poet r y of Sout h Af r i c a t h e r e i s one maj or t heme t he cont i m: :
s uf f er i ng of an oppr essed peopl e. T h e expr essi on of pai n aiLz
out r age i n t hi s poet r y i s si mi l ar t o t hat of t he ear l i er poet r y :
negr i t ude i n t he per i od bef or e Af r i c a n nat i ons began t o gam
f r eedom" ( 1 1 ) . T h e act ual sel ect i ons consi st of ext r act s f r o r
t hr ee nar r at i ve poems, set wel l i n t he past , one medi t at i on on i ht
oceananot her on par t i ng, and f our poems act ual l y deal i ng wi:
apar t hei d i t sel f one a Zul u poem, one by Kunene, and t wo t
Br ut us , No t t j e and Kgosi t si l e, wh o had al r eady emer ged by t hen.
are not i ncl uded.
Ho wa r d Ser geant does not i ncl ude Fr ench- speaki ng poet s i n hi5
137- page African Voices, an ant hol ogy t hat r epr esent s a dl i br ai t
at t empt t o " gi ve mor e space t o new and l i t t l e - k n o wn poet s" ( xi v
Yet of t he many poet s Ser geant i nt r oduces, onl y Jar ed An g i r s
A mi n Kassam, and J o h n / A t u k we i Ok ai wi l l f i nd t hei r way i m:
most subsequent ant hol ogi es. Ser geant gi ves l ess space t o t heby
t hen f a d i n g s t r u g g l e agai nst col oni al i sm t han t o Af r i c a n pol i t i c?
par t i c ul ar l y t he Bi af r an Wa r . T h e t heme of i ndi vi dual i sm gai ns
mor e gr ound and poems on t hemes not speci f i cal l y Af r i c a n buz
r el at ed t o wo r l d pol i t i cs, such as t he 1967 Ar ab- I sr ael i Wa r , are
i ncl uded. Mos t space i s devot ed t o poems descr i bi ng ma n
env i r onment , whet her nat ur e or t he c i t y . Th e t r eat ment of t he
t heme of apar t hei d goes qui t e consci ousl y agai nst t he gr ai n a^
evi denced by sel ect i ons such as Ri char d Ri ve s " Wh e r e t he Rai nbow
ends, one of t he mos t conci l i at or y poems on t he subj ect ever
wr i t t e n by a Bl ack poet .
In t he i nt r oduc t i on to hi s 173- page The Word is Here.
Keor apet se Kgosi t si l e states " Po e t r y , as any ot her ar t f o r m, as
soci al c omment , serves an educat i onal pur pose. I n our t i me, t hen,
t he Af r i c a n poet i s ei t her a t ool of oppr essi on or seeks t o be an ageni
of l i ber at i on ( x v i ) . By pol ar i zi ng t he si t uat i on f r o m t he ver y
begi nni ng, Kgosi t si l e t r i es t o j u s t i f y hi s at t empt t o l eave out one
pol e al t oget her - Th e poet s gat her ed i n hi s ant hol ogy are al l " ageni <
of l i ber at i on" but of al l t he poet s he i nt r oduces onl y one, Ama At a
Ai d o o , wh o has been r epr esent ed i n mor e t han one subsequent
ant hol ogy . Because of hi s pol i t i cal st ance Kgosi t si l e i ncl udes t he
mor e mi l i t ant negr i t ude poet s U' T a ms i and Davi d Di op, but noi
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mar ket . The publ i sher i nvest ed a generous number of pages, 375
by f ar t he l argest number i nvest ed i n any ant hol ogy under
di scussi on here. Soyi nka' s ant hol ogy t hen, i s one of consol i dat i on
Al l t he wel l - k nown names are her e, of t en wi t h t hei r si gnat ure
poems" t hat have become f ami l i ar f r om pr evi ous ant hol ogi es, anc
al l t he t hemes i ncl uded f r om Hughes onwar ds are represent ed-
i ncl udi ng t hose no l onger consi dered t opi cal i n some of the
ant hol ogi es publ i shed i n 1973.
The space Soyi nka devot es t o t he var i ous t hemes r ef l ect s t ht
changes i n t hei r r el at i ve i mpor t ance si nce Hughes f i r st i nt r oducec
t hem i n 1963. Soyi nka i nt r oduces t hi r t een poems t hat deal wi t h the
t heme of t he Af r i can t or n bet ween t wo cul t ur es; si xt een poems are
devot ed t o t he t heme of cont i nui t y; t hi r t y- t hr ee poems deal wi t h
descr i pt i ons of t he envi r onment t went y poems descri be the
st r uggl e agai nst col oni al i sm si xt een are devot ed t o apar t hei d
t hi r t y t o l ove and woman t en t o deat h and t wel ve t o t he rol e c:
t he poet a r emar kabl e homage t o t he t hemat i c cont i nui t y of
Af r i can poet r y. T wo ot her t hemes r epr esent ed i n Soy i nk a
ant hol ogy wer e not i nt r oduced by Hughes but by Moor e and Bei er
al so i n 1963. Soyi nka devot es t h i r t y poems t o Af r i c an p o l i t i c
especi al l y t he Bi af r an War , and ei ght poems t o t he devel opment anc
anal ysi s of t he sel f . I t i s not t oo di f f i cul t , of cour se, t o expl ai n t h-
cont i nui t y exhi bi t ed by Soyi nka' s ant hol ogy by r ef er r i ng t o t bt
cont i nui t y i nher ent i n post col oni al devel opment s al l over Af r i ca,
and by t he f act t hat most of t he t hemes are t hose of t r adi t i ona.
Af r i can poet r y anyway.
K . E . Senanu and T. Vi ncent ' s 224-page A Selection of African
Poetry i s desi gned f or use i n t he cl assr oom. Thei r i nt r oduct i on
manages t o over l ook t he exi st ence of Soyi nka' s ant hol ogy proba-
bl y i n t he i nt er est of mar ket abi l i t y. They depl or e t he absence " of an
ant hol ogy t hat cannot onl y be used as an i nt r oduct i on t :
poet r y i n Af r i ca but ai ms t o di spl ay t he var i ed beaut y of Af r i can
p o e t r y " ( l ) . whi ch i s exact l y what Soyi nka' s ant hol ogy had done
Because t he ant hol ogy i s i nt ended speci f i cal l y f or t he cl assroom,
poet s consi der ed t o o di f f i cul t , " l i ke Chr i st opher Ok i gbo, are l ef t
out .
Senanu and Vi ncent accept t he canon at face val ue: Begi nni ng
wi t h sampl es of t r adi t i onal poet r y f ol l owed by a sel ect i on f r om
ol der poet s l i ke Lopol d Senghor and Bi r ago Di op, we pr ovi de
hi st or i cal perspect i ve ( 2 ). The pi oneers of negr i t ude hav-r
become cl assi cs t o t he same ext ent as or al poet r y, but t hey ar .
Ant hol ogy 135
reated i n a di f f er ent way. Senghor ' s wor k i s subj ect ed t o a less
n ent husi ast i c reapprai sal : many of hi s poems " ar e emot i onal and
: ver sent i ment al , especi al l y t he nost al gi c remi ni scences ( 2 3 ) .
Seng ho r i s begi nni ng t o move t owar d t he same t wi l i ght zone t o
- h i c h Moor e and Bei er bani shed t he wo r k of t he Engl i sh- speaki ng
noneer poet s, and f or t he same r eason: hi s poet i cs no l onger
: : i nci de wi t h t he domi nant poet i cs of t he day. Or al poet r y, on t he
: her hand, i s st aunchl y def ended, mai nl y because Af r i ca i s now
-een to need a cl assi cal poet r y to back up i t s est abl i shed
moder ni t y. Fur t her mor e, or al poet r y, once di smi ssed by Whi t e
mi ssi onari es as
41
not l i t er at ur e, is now consi dered a const ant
remi nder of t he t r ue or i gi ns of a f or m gener al l y regarded as t he
î ghest t ype of ar t i st i c expr essi on" ( 9 ) . The Af r i can, i t woul d
i ppear , i s cl oser t o t he wel l spr i ngs of poet r y as such t han t he
vhi t e man who has l ost al l cont act wi t h or al poet r y as a l i vi ng
t r adi t i on.
By 1980t he st udy of Af r i can poet r y had become i nst i t ut i on-
i i t zed i n Af r i ca and, t o a cer t ai n ext ent , al so i n Eur ope and No r t h
Amer i ca. Once i nst i t ut i onal i zed, i t f ound i t sel f abl e t o command
i r el at i vel y st abl e mar k et and publ i sher s wer e ready t o i nvest
mor e paper i n updat i ng t he t wo most popul ar earl y ant hol ogi es.
Reed and Wake br ought out A New Book of African Verse in
1984, and i n t he same year Moor e and Bei er publ i shed t he t hi r d
- di t i on of t hei r ant hol ogy under a new t i t l e: Modern African
Poetry. Si nce t hey had not revi sed t hei r ant hol ogy si nce 1964,
Reed and Wake seized t hi s oppor t uni t y t o omi t t hi r t y- t hr ee poems
md t o add sevent y- ni ne. They cont i nued t he t r end t owar d
^ni ver sal i zat i on of Af r i can poet r y, f i r st ant hol ogi zed i n Sergeant
^nd st i l l apol ogi zed f or i n Senanu and Vi ncent . Reed and Wake
f i mpl y i ncl ude John Pepper Cl ar k' s I nci dent at t he Pol i ce St at i on,
War r i " wi t h i t s subt i t l e " Af t e r The Flagellation of Jesus by Pi er o
e l l a Fr ancesca" wi t hout any apol ogy. Admi t t edl y , War r i is a
Ni ger i an t o wn , but t he ref erence t o Renai ssance Eur ope
uni versal i zes t he poem' s subj ect mat t er . I n t he case of negr i t ude,
:he t r end t owar d r evi si oni sm cont i nues. Lenr i e Pet er s scat hi ngl y
reduces t he Af r i can s e l f ext ol l ed by Senghor t o " chocol at e i ci ng
and mascara
(
sel ves ( 74 ) Af r i can pol i t i cs are approached
wi t h a gr owi ng f eel i ng of r esi gnat i on, and apar t hei d, whi ch does
not seem t o have cr umbl ed under t he combi ned wei ght of al l t he
poems wr i t t en agai nst i t , now i nspi res somewhat of a mi l l enar i an
i t i t ude as i n Nor t j e s poem Nat i v e L e t t e r " t hat expresses t he
hope t hat t he cycl es of hi st or y wi l l out number t he guns :c
s upr emac y " ( 55) .
Moor e and Bei er revi se less ext ensi vel y t han Reed and Wake t
t hei r stance has become mor e avowedl y pol i t i cal , i f not abl y ier^
opt i mi st i c bet ween 1968 and 1984. Thei r i nt r oduct i on s t at es " " : :
of l i ber t y, of l i f e, of t he hopes and compani ons of one' s yout h, n_r_-
t hr ough t he poet r y of t hi s sel ect i on l i ke a f l ood 19) They appe^
t o be especi al l y t aken wi t h t he Angol an st r uggl e again5-
col oni al i sm, most pr obabl y because a si t uat i on i n whi ch " poet r y aai
resi st ance went hand i n hand, many poet s becomi ng f i ght er s an:
many f i ght er s t ur ni ng t o poet r y" ( 21) al l ows t hem si l ent l y t o Wi er -
t he sel ect i on cr i t er i a, based excl usi vel y on poetics t hat t hey used =
earl i er edi t i ons of t hei r ant hol ogy. Consequent l y, t he sect i on : :
Angol a i s much enl arged i n t he 1984 edi t i on and mor e t r ans l at i ez
f r o m t he Por t uguese are i ncl uded i n t he ant hol ogy as a who. e
Af r i can pol i t i cs i s t r eat ed wi t h r esi gnat i on, but new devel opment -
appear. Ther e i s t he desi re f or a new depar t ur e, away f r om t he :
t hemes and t he ol d cl i chs, especi al l y t he ol d cl i ches about Bl acks
t he my t hs t hat make of us nai vet " as Sepaml a put s i t i n hi s poei r
" On Judgment Day " ( 2 6 5 ) . Ther e i s al so, one i s t empt ed t o std
" f i nal l y , t he desi re t o change t he pr econdi t i ons of poet i c di scour s:
al t oget her , t o escape " Th e St r angl ehol d of Engl i sh L i t . / t o quc
t he t i t l e of an Mt s hal i poem ant hol ogi zed by Moor e and Bei er : :
t hei r 1984 edi t i on ( 1 3 9 ) .
Publ i shed in 1985I si dor e Okpewho, s The Heritage of Africa-
Poetry i s perhaps t he most consci ous ef f or t at canon bui l di ng : :
dat e. I t wor k s back f r o m t he ( est abl i shed) present t o t he pasi
t r y i ng t o l i nk bot h by means of a t hemat i c appr oach. L i k :
Senanu and Vi nc ent , whose ant hol ogy was al so publ i shed :.
Longman, Okpewho does not r ef er t o Soyi nks' s t hemat i c ant hol og
f i r st publ i shed by Seeker and War bur g and t hen rei ssued t .
Hei nemann. About hal f t he poems i ncl uded i n Okpewho' s Herita^-
bel ong t o t he or al t r adi t i on consi der abl y mor e t han ever before
The ot her hal f represent s t he f ami l i ar names as wel l as t he f ami ni r
t hemes most of whi ch di d, of cour se, bel ong t o t he or al t r adi i i c :
al l al ong.
Since Okpewho' s ant hol ogy represent s Af r i c an poet r y i
i nst i t ut i onal i zed f or use i n Af r i c an school s and Af r i can and nc r ,
Af r i c an uni ver si t i es al i ke, i t cont ai ns no t hemat i c or poet ol ogi cL
sur pr i ses and i t i nt r oduces no new names. The canon has not on.
been establ i shed i t has also been ext ended back i n t i me. Ther e w
Ant hol ogy 137
r o o m f or ot her s t o j o i n , but t he bat t l es over t he cr i t er i a f or
: : i u s i o n or exchasi on need not be f ought al l over agai n. By
s : nt r as t t he 1984 ant hol ogi es i nt r oduc ed such bi t t er new t al ent as
Cheney - Cok er , Si pho Sepaml a, Mor i gane Wa l l y Ser ot e, and
Mapenj e. T h e y al so i nt r oduc ed En g l i s h poems wr i t t e n i n b o t h
"he sur r eal i st and t he expr essi oni st vei n as we l l as Ser ot e s
Terf ormance p o e t r y wh i c h i n di f f er ent ci r cumst ances, l i nk s up
e h ot her k i nds o f l i v e r eadi ngs o f poet r y pr act i ced o n ot her
r : n t i n e n t s . T h e y even i nt r oduc e sel f - par ody si nce Af r i c a n poet r y
5 become est abl i shed, and si nce i t s or al ancest r y i s
i : k nowl edgedT i t has become admi ssi bl e t o par ody or al l i t er at ur e
md t o wr i t e
1 1
moc k o r a l s l i ke Ko f i An y i o d o h o ' s ( ant hol ogi z ed i n
,_oore and Bei er 1984: 103 ) i n wh i c h ancest r al gods speak of
: h: evi ng pol i t i ci ans i n a st r ange mi x t u r e of my t h o l o g i c a l r egi st er and
5: reet sl ang.
Ma y b e t he di st ance bet ween Hu g h e s and 1984 can best be
easur ed by means of a c ompar i s on bet ween Hughes ' s Af r i c a n
" Na t i v i t y " quot ed above wi t h i t s " c h a r mi n g " adapt at i on by one of
: he p i o n e e r " poet s of t he Ch r i s t ma s s t o r y t o " n a t i v e c ondi t i ons ,
i r d Mt s h a l i ' s use of t he East er s t or y as an al l egor y f or t he power s
: hat be i n So u t h Af r i c a i n Ri de upon t he Deat h Char i ot
m hol ogi z ed i n Mo o r e and Bei er . T h e f i r s t st anza of t hat poem
reads : T h e y r ode u p o n / t h e deat h c h a r i o t / t o t hei r Go l g o t h a / t h r e e
vag r a n t s / wh o s e paper s t o be i n Caesar ' s e mp i r e / wer e not i n o r d e r
272) . T h e Af r i c a n " Na t i v i t y i s wr i t t e n i n t he poet i cs of i mp o r t e d
i i s c our s e, Mt s h a l i ' s poem i s one of an i ncr easi ng n u mb e r of
at t empt s by Bl ack poet s t o mak e use of Wh i t e s y mb o l s , as t hey
make use of Wh i t e f o r ms i n a di scour se i ncr easi ngl y t hei r o wn .
Chapter 11
Criticism
Beyond her gender/ Madame de Stal
When Madame de St al di ed i n Par i s i n 1817, she was k n o wn ai l
over Eur ope as a gr eat wr i t e r , a br i l l i ant mi nd, an i mpor t an:
pol i t i cal f i gur e wh o had opposed Napol eon dur i ng muc h of hi^
r ul e, an exceedi ngl y weal t hy l ady, and a woman wh o had hsc
af f ai r s wi t h some of t he most i mpor t ant men of her t i me, anc
many of l esser i mpor t ance besi des. Af t e r her deat h her f ami l y
want ed her r emember ed on al l count s l i st ed above, except t he l as:
one. Si nce t he f ami l y had al so i nher i t ed bot h her weal t h and her
pr i vat e paper s, i t coul d make use of bot h t o f ur t her i t s pur poses-
I n t he wor ds of one of t he cr i t i cs consi der ed her e, Franoi se
cTEaubonne, t he f ami l y want ed t o " s ubs t i t ut e f or t he real person
a l egendar y f i gur e as l i kel y and as exact as t hose of t he sai ni 5
i n of f i ci al hagi ogr aphy" ( 260 ) , Si nce t he f ami l y was r i ch anc
power f ul enough t o act as i t s o wn pat r on, i t al most compl et el y
succeeded i n i t s ai m f or a number of year s. I t al so est abl i shed t ht
par amet er s of cr i t i cal di scour se on Madame de Stal d o wn t o t he
pr esent .
I n t hi s chapt er , I pr opose t o anal yze t he st r at egi es empl oyed by
cr i t i cs wr i t i n g on Madame de St al . I have del i ber at el y adopt ed t he
st ance of t he non- pr of essi onal reader of l i t er at ur e wh o mi ght
become i nt er est ed i n Madame de St al and mi g h t , t her ef or e, wan:
t o gat her some i nf or mat i on about her , I have made a choi ce f r oi r .
cr i t i cal wo r k s publ i shed i n Fr ance onl y , f or reasons t hat wi l l
become appar ent bel ow bet ween 1820 and 1987 si mpl y by
pi cki ng books publ i shed a suf f i ci ent number of years apar t t c
war r ant t he assumpt i on t hat t hey mi ght be r el at i vel y di f f er ent
f r o m each ot her . Li ke t he non-pf of essi onal reader, I have no:
necessarily focused on the " best " or " most accl ai med" wor ks on Madame
de Stal but on t he wor ks he or she i s l i kel y to discover i n l i brari es of ^
Cr i t i ci sm 139
i ^ i size, and read i n no par t i cul ar pr edet er mi ned or der .
^ ne year 1820 wi t nes s ed t he publ i c at i on of b o t h t he f i r s t
* / L i x : : g r a p h y of Ma d a me de St al , wr i t t e n by her cousi n,
A- : t r * i ne Nec k er de Saussur eas Request ed by t he c hi l dr en of
I L i me d e St al ( 1 ) a n d Vi c t o r Cous i n d ' Av a l o n ' s s omewhat
ent husi ast i c appr ai sal of t he r ec ent l y deceased. Nec k er de
ii makes her f i r s t st r at egi c mov e on page 2 of her book by
e g o f Ma d a me d e St al : No t h i n g t hat she has pr oduced i s
t o her s el f " ( 2 ) , By d o wn g r a d i n g t he publ i shed wo r k i n
Sa-îr of t he per s onal i t y of t he wr i t e r , Nec k er de Saussur e s hi f t s t he
n-- ur se t o a l evel wher e i t can be mo r e easi l y c ont r ol l ed by t hose
^zi hol d t he k ey t o t hat per s onal i t y : t he per sonal ar chi ves t hat gi ve
t he power t o r e wr i t e Ma d a me de St al s per sonal l i f e as t hey
To t hi s day mo s t cr i t i cal wo r k s publ i s hed on Ma d a me de
1 l ocus on her per s onal i t y r at her t h a n her wo r k - Ev e n wher e
somet i mes v ehement l y di sagr ee wi t h Nec k er de Saussur e,
do not a t t e mp t t o shi f t t he par amet er s of t he di scour se
:f l i shed by her .
^Lsdame de St al , s wr i t i n g s ar e downgr aded not once, but t wi c e.
zml y i s her w o r k r epr esent ed as i nf er i or t o her per s onal i t y , but
:Ker de Saussur e goes on t o suggest t hat Ma d a me de St al never
y i nt ended t o pr oduce a r t " as s uc h: I n wr i t i n g she al way s
- h t r at her t o expr ess wh a t passed i n her o wn mi n d t han t o
d u c e a wo r k of a r t " ( 7 ) . Ac c o r d i n g l y , her wo r k s houl d be r ead
as an i ndi cat or of t he t r aces of her char act er ( 6 ) t hat
: - I d be t he r eal obj ect of c r i t i c i s m. To t hi s day , w i t h t he
r^-i crpi i on of one or t wo st udi es publ i s hed i n t he v er y r ecent past , al l
:rism of Ma d a me de. St al has r emai ned sol i dl y bi ogr aphi cal .
cr i t i cs wh o l ament t hi s f ac t , such as Ma r i e - L o u i s e Pai l l er on,
v i r i ght l y r e ma r k s t h a t : i t r emai ns a f act t hat nei t her her
:sans nor her det r ac t or s have t ak en t he t r o u b l e of r eadi ng her
mu c h mo r e e x t r a o r d i n a r y , by t he wa y , t han her per s on"
: f ai l t o s hi f t t he par amet er s of cr i t i cal di scour se f i r st
b l i s h e d i n 1820.
- h e onl y r ef er ence Joseph T u r q u a n , f or i nst ance, makes t o t he
ual wr i t i n g s t o Ma d a me de St al i s t he f ol l owi ng " Ma d a me de
t r i ed t o consol e her s el f f or her pol i t i cal f ai l ur es by pr oduc i ng
- : r r &t u r e " ( 1 3 8 ) T h e t i t l ef T u r q u a n ' s book , w i t h i t s r ef er ence t o
Mi dame de St al ' s amor ous and wo r l d l y , as we l l as her
- c l i t i c a l , l i f e i s a good i ndi c at i on of t he excesses t o wh i c h t he
: ; g r a p h i c a l appr oac h c oul d, and di d, l ead, A f ai r n u mb e r of
r emar ks made i n a f ai r number of books on Madame de St al h.
ri se above t he l evel of mal i ci ous gossi p. Th e onl y way cr *
appear t o be abl e t o dr aw at t ent i on t o t he act ual wr i t i ng
Madame de St al wi t h i n t he est abl i shed par amet er s i s by quct ; r . x
f r o m t hem at some somet i mes i nor di nat e l engt h. To q -
An d r L a r g : " On e wo u l d have t o quot e everything54)* But
quot at i ons are mo s t l y ei t her l ef t t o st and on t hei r o wn , or ma:-
expl i ci t onl y t o shor e up some bi ogr aphi cal poi nt t he aut hor s wi sr . '
make.
Necker de Saussur e does r ef er t o Madame de St al *s ver r ^
a r t i s t r y , but onl y t o t hat par t of i t whi c h was never act ual l y w r i ,
d o wn , and can t her ef or e not be comment ed on except i n usua. '
gl owi ng gener al t er ms : her conver sat i on. We are l ol d t hat
successi on of t hought s i s t oo r api d and cont i nual i n Madame de St i -
t o al l ow or di nar y mi nds t o keep pace wi t h i t " ( Ne c k e r de Saus s i r :
2 0 0 ) . Mar i a Chi l d echoes Necker de Saussur e wh e n she wr i t es t ni "
" we cannot real i ze t he vi vi dness of her f ame, l i ke t hose wh o saw h -
geni us f l ashi ng and s par k l i ng i r i qui ck col l i si on wi t h k i ndr ed mi ne-
( 1 0 0 ) . Even t hose cr i t i cs whose at t i t ude t owar d Madame de S t a : -
r at her negat i ve have t o acknowl edge her conver sat i onal ski l l s -
i r oni cal l y on t he basi s of t he i nf or mat i on i mpar t ed i n r :
hagi ogr aphi es " wr i t t e n by some of t hei r pr edec es s or s but t h-
manage t o t wi s t i t t o t hei r pur pose. Joseph Tu r q u a n wr i t es : L :
al l wo me n Ma d a me de St al r ecei ved at b i r t h a gi f t of spet ' c:
super i or t o t hat al l ot t ed t o me n " ( 1 7 6 ) - T h e conver sat i onal i st a
chat t er box r esur f aces i n L a r g : I n t he mo n t h of June, bet ween t v . :
conver sat i ons, as i t wer e, Madame de St al gave b i r t h t o
daught er , Al b e r t i n e ( 2 2 6 ) , and i n d' Eaubonne, squar el y . r
t he levelof gossi p: Was she even si l ent whi l e mak i ng lovv
Pos t er i t y di d not l eave us any t hi ng concer ni ng t hi s i nt erest i r. ^:
det ai l , , ( 4 5 ) .
Once she has f i r ml y est abl i shed t he par amet er s of c r i t i c i
di scour se about Madame de St al , Al ber t i ne Necker de Saussur :
has made of her t he pr ot ot y pe of geni us, t al ent and vi r t ue
( Cous i n d, Av al on 2 ) . Necker de Saussur e under st andabl y use^
di f f er ent l evel of di ct i on. For her Madame de St al " s t i l l ani mat es
[ t h e Fr ench n a t i o n ] wi t h hope, and poi nt s out t o i t , wi t h her
cel est i al pal m- br anchT t he pat h of t r ue gl or y and sage l i ber t y " ( 16 .
Ye t , t hough she may be canoni zed as a sai nt i n t he t r adi t i ons
f ashi on Madame de St al , wh o coul d be por t r ayed as a " ma r t y r
under Napol eon, cer t ai nl y coul d never be por t r ayed as a " v i r g i n " .r.
Cr i t i ci sm 141
t he canoni cal sense. He r af f ai r s wer e t oo numer ous and t oo wel l
k n o wn f or t hat . She was, i n Tu r q u a n ' s wo r d s : n o t a wo ma n t o be
shocked by her o wn i mmo r a l i t y " ( 1 6 ) , Necker de Saussur e count er s
wi t h t he st r at egy of sel ect i ve me mo r y . She does not admi t t o any
af f ai r s, even t o t he poi nt of r ef er r i ng t o Benj ami n Cons t ant ,
Madame de St at s l over f or f our t een year s, as " a wr i t e r n o w hi ghl y
cel ebr at ed, Mr . Benj ami n Co n s t a n t ( 1 1 4 ) and t her e an end.
Necker de Saussur e br i ngs sel ect i ve me mo r y t o pl ay i n t he
descr i pt i on of Madame de St al ' s unhappy f i r s t mar r i age t o t he
Bar on de Stal Swedi sh ambassador t o t he cour t of Loui s X V I :
" A t pr esent , wh e n I t ax my me mo r y , I wo u l d endeavour t o
r ecol l ect par t i cul ar s of Bar on de St al , but I scar cel y k n e w him
( 2 3 6 ) .
T h e st r at egy of sel ect i ve me mo r y i s suppl ement ed by t hat of
apol ogy. Madame de St al was, af t er al l , onl y h u ma n , and may
t her ef or e have er r ed somewhat i n t hat mos t human of emot i ons :
l ove. Wi t h o u t a d mi t t i n g t o any of Madame de St aFs af f ai r s,
Necker de Saussur e apol ogi zes f or her second mar r i age, t o a
per son L a r g descr i bes as: " a y oung pht hi si c i nv al i d, wi t h o u t r eason
or cul t ur e obsessed by a f i x ed i dea an absur d uni on wi t h
di sast r ous consequences " ( 1 6 6 ) . Nec k er de Saussur e does not
di scuss t he act ual mer i t s or demer i t s of t he g r o o m, but ber at es
Madame de St al f or havi ng kept t he mar r i age a secr et , whi l e
at t he same t i me mar s hal i ng at t enuat i ng ci r cumst ances i n her
defense
She wo u l d have done bet t er , no d o u b t , had she avowed t hi s
mar r i age ; but a degr ee of t i mi d i t y , f r o m wh i c h t he sor t of
cour age she possessed di d not emanci pat e her , and her
at t achment t o t he name she had r ender ed i l l us t r i ous . . .
r est r ai ned her . ( 2 7 0 )
A s i mi l ar not e of apol ogy cr eeps i nt o Ma r i a Chi l d s descr i pt i on
of Madame de St al , s f r i endshi ps : T h e i mpet uos i t y of an
unsat i sf i ed spi r i t gave a si ngul ar degr ee of vehemence t o al l her
at t ac hment s ; her gr at i t ude and f r i endshi p t ook t he c ol or i ng of
ar dent l ove" ( 2 9 ) but onl y t o t he out si de obser ver wh o di d not
r e a l l y " k n o w t he " r e a l " Madame de St al .
T h e st r at egy of apol ogy makes avi d use of ar gument s of a
psychol ogi cal nat ur e t hat r ange f r o m pr e^ Fr eudi an pr ej udi ces
l i nked wi t h a cer t ai n i dea of wo ma n over t r i vi al i zat i ons of Fr eudi an
142 Translation , Rewri ti ng, and the Mani pul ati on of Li terary Fame
concept s t o Lacani an r ei nt er pr et at i ons of t hose concept s.
F r e u d , Ma u r i c e Sour i au wr i t es Wi t h Ma d a me de St al , wh t z
y ou d o n ' t under s t and, l ook f or a ma n ( 81 ) . D' Ea u bonne
Fr eudi an cl i ch t o ex pl ai n Ma d a me de St al ' s t ast e f or af f ai r s:
" Ge r ma i n e wi l l f or ever s uf f er f r o m wh a t she, t oget her vv-
t hose wh o j udge her , t akes f or ugl i ness i t i s i n t hi s angui sh : :
h u mi l i a t i o n t hat she wi l l f i n d t he need f or amor ous a d v e n t u r e r
di ver se, f r equent and r epeat ed, mu c h mor e s o t han i n t he ar dor : :
her n a t u r e " ( 4 8 ) , I n ot her wo r d s : i f Ma d a me de St al had be^::
p r e t t i e r , she wo u l d not have had any af f ai r s , or c er t ai nl y not y
ma n y . L o n g af t er F r e u d , Di esbach wr i t e s t hat Ma d a me de Sta4
" does not hi de her need t o have a s t r o n g ma n she can domi nat e *
( 1 0 2 ) a n d si nce she never f ound one she had no aher nat i - r t
but t o c ont i nue her quest . T u r q u a n i s of t he opposi t e per suasi on
" A ma n of i r o n wo u l d have been needed t o mak e l ove spri r^g
f o r t h i n h e r " ( 4 4 ) - He even has t he r i g h t candi dat e i n mir
Mi r a b e a u wo u l d have been t he mal e f or t hi s f e ma l e ( 4 4 ) . L ^ r z
poi nt s out t he f e mi n i n i t y i n t he char act er of t hr ee of Madanj r
de St al ' s l over s ( Na r b o n n e , Co n s t a n t , Rocca ) and st at es
unequi v oc al l y I t was t hi s f e mi n i n i t y wh i c h b r o u g h t t he
t oget her i n t he f i r s t i n s t a n c e 1 3 3 ) . Val l oi s has r ecour se t :
anot her cl i ch Ma d a me de St al s uf f er ed f r o m a f undameni i _
l ac k , t hat of a l over i dent i cal t o her f at her ( 9 ) . T h e f at her
hi ms el f i s gi ven a l i t t l e Lac ani an t wi s t wh e n t he r eader ' s a t t e m: : :
i s d r a wn t o t he i nt i mat e r el at i ons hi p wh i c h l i n k s t he patern=_
f i gur e wi t h t r agi c l a w" ( Va l l o i s 1 1 8 ) . I t i s r emar k abl e t hat each
of t he cr i t i cs me n t i o n e d her e cl ai ms t o have f o u n d t he k ey : :
Ma d a me de St al ' s per s onal i t y , t h a t each t h i n k s t her e can onl y -:
one k e y , and t hat each opt s f or a di f f er ent k e y , p r o b a b l y al >:
because t he r eper t oi r e of cl i ch ps y c hol ogy t ends t o be s omewh^ :
l i mi t e d .
But t hat r eper t oi r e i s easi l y s uppl ement ed by anot her r eper t oi r e : :
cl i chs t hat i s mu c h ol der and does not c l ai m any sci ent i f i c st at us. I '
s houl d n o t be f o r g o t t e n , af t er al l , t hat Ma d a me de st al was i
wo ma n , and t hat wo me n have been car i cat ur ed by me n over xht
cent ur i es, Pai l l er on r esor t s t o a j udi c i ous mi x t u r e of ps y c hoi ogi c i
and wo ma n cl i chs wh e n she expl ai ns Ma d a me de Stal "?
adver sar i al r el at i ons hi p w i t h Napol eon Bonapar t e as f o l l o ws t hi s
ant i pat hy was t he r ever se of a gr eat er l ov e; t hat l ove repube
changed i nt o a hat r ed mo r e appar ent t h a n r eal : a wo ma n ' s hear t
f u l l of weakness" ( 1 1 5 ) ,
Cr i t i ci sm 143
Sour i au sounds t he f ami l i ar pat r oni zi ng not e i n hi s anal ysi s of
Madame de St al ' s et hi cal concept s :
u
She cont r adi ct s her sel f , and
pr et ends f o r t he r est t hat she does n o t wh i c h i s v er y f emi ni ne, and
even r at her h u ma n " ( 2 3 ) , t hus f i r ml y est abl i shi ng Madame de St al
as a member of a subspeci es of t he h u ma n r a c e wo me n and as
someone wh o was out of her dept h i n a wo r l d t hat was not her o wn
and s houl d never have v ent ur ed out si de t he wo r l d T u r q u a n del i mi t s
f or her . He depl or es t he f act t hat Madame de St al , l i ke ma n y ot her
wo me n
gr eedy f or g l o r y , pl easur e and vi ol ent sensat i ons, onl y t h i n k of
t hei r success. T h e y wo u l d not dei gn t o l ower t hemsel ves t o t he
sweet r ol e of a spouse wh o makes t he happi ness of her husband
of a mot her wh o gui des her chi l dr en' s educat i on i n t he r i ght
di r ec t i on; of a homemak er wh o makes her home a pl easant pl ace
because of her ami abi i i t y . A n d yet t hat i s t he r eal r ol e of ever y
wo ma n wh o has a mi n d and a heart t her e l i es her g l o r y , and onl y
i f she pl ays t hat r ol e wi l l she gi ve and f i nd happi ness. ( 3 1 5 )
No wonder t hat T u r q u a n ri ses t o t he def ense of poor Bar on de
St al , Madame de St al ' s f i r s t husband :
u
Wh o wo u l d not gr ant
mi t i g a t i n g ci r cumst ances t o t hat poor manbecause of hi s wi f e' s
i nf er nal i ndependence?" ( 1 9 5 ) .
Ev en t h o u g h Madame de St al mi g h t appear s t r ong, L a r g
suggest s as soon as t he t hr eat becomes pr eci se, pr essi ng,
t he t heor et i ci an of per f ec t abi l i t y abdi cat es and we see i n her
st ead a poor wo ma n , f al l en t o pieces gr i ppi ng t he soi l and
f i ght i ng t he act i ve r use of t he hunt er by means of t he wounded
ani mal
1
s d u l l i n e r t i a " ( 2 8 ) . Ap p a r e n t l y unper t ur bed by t wo decades
of f emi ni s t wr i t i n g , Di esbach st at es t hat of wo ma n she has
above al l t he obst i nacy, si nce she i s l acki ng i n f eel i ng and
t act f ul ness, and al so t he ar t of mobi l i z i ng al l her good qual i t i es
i n t he ser vi ce of a char act er f l aw ( 2 3 1 ) . One cannot ent i r el y
escape t he i mpr essi on t hat cr i t i cs b o t h mal e and f emal e
expl oi t t hei r ambi guous posi t i on t o t he h i l t . Si nce t he " w o ma n
st r at egy i s desi gned t o apol ogi ze f or some aspect s of Madame de
St aTs char act er and behavi or , t he apol ogy wi l l be t he s t r onger t he
mor e Madame de St al can be s h o wn t o have been a wo ma n .
Consequent l y, cr i t i cs f eel f ree t o i dent i f y her wi t h t hei r pet
pr ej udi ces about wo me n . On l y t he mos t r ecent books t r y t o put
mat t er s i n per spect i ve. Si mone Bal ay wr i t e s : I n her t i me wo ma n
has no f unc t i on out si de of t he f a mi l y , pl ays no pol i t i cal r ol e, has
power at al l i t i s t her ef or e deemed hi ghl y unaccept abl e l or her :
mani f est or publ i s h any opi ni on what s oev er " ( 9 6 ) .
Th e r e mu s l , accor di ngl y, be s omet hi ng wr o n g wi t h wo me n wr
do. Cousi n d . Av a l o n quot es a cer t ai n Jesui t , Ce r u t t i , as sayi ng
Ma d a me de St al has a pl an i t becomes cl ear ; she want s t o s
beyond her gender " ( 5 6 ) , I n t he same book Madame de Genl i s g c : )
as f ar as t o suggest t hat Madame de St al r eal l y has no o t h - r
opt i on, si nce she has man- l i k e f eat ur es and a man- l i k e bui l c
( 4 0 ) . T h e r eason wh y she does not behave l i ke a wo ma n i s not j w
t hat she want s t o behave l i ke a man, but t hat she was meant t o be i
man. Pai l l er on wr i t es about her " v i r i l e br ai n ( 147 ) and L a r r
descr i bes her as a v i r i l e i nt el l i gence i n a body t hat i s al as b u t l i t : . :
f emi ni ne" ( 8 0 ) .
T h e t h i r d st r at egy of apol ogy t her ef or e concent r at es on t h-
educat i on Madame de St al was gi v en. Sai nt e- Beuve gi ves i
s omewhat i nnocuous descr i pt i on of t he pr ocess:
I can al most see her i n t he s t udy under her mo t h e r ' s ver y eye>.
wa l k i n g up and d o wn t he r o o m, a v ol ume i n her hand, r eadi ng
t he book she was obl i ged t o read as she appr oached her mo t h e r s
chai r and t hen, as she s l owl y wal k ed away agai n, r epl aci ng i t b>
a sent i ment al r omance. ( 52
Si nce Madame de St al , s mot her was i n char ge of her educat i on,
t he w o m a n st r at egy admi r abl y c ompl ement s t he
u
educat i on
s t r at egy . No wonder t hi ngs we n t wr o n g . As a chi l d Madame de
St al had t o l eave Par i s t o r egai n her heal t h, t hus p r o v i n g t hr
b a n k r u p t c y of Madame Necker , s [ h e r mo t h e r ' s ] s y s t em; she was t
bear her daught er a gr udge over t hi s , si nce she consi der ed her
g u i l t y of havi ng bet r ayed her hopes ( Di esbach 3 6 ) , T h t
" educ at i on" s t r at egy , i n t u r n , t i es i n wel l wi t h t he p s y c h o l o g y
s t r at egy . Once Madame Nec k er no l onger super vi ses t he educat i on
of her daught er , t hat daught er i s d r a wn muc h mor e t o wa r d her
f at her and Madame Necker " not i ces al so, not wi t h o u t pai n, t hat her
daught er usur ps by Nec k er ' s si de t he pl ace and t he i nf l uence t hat
are r i g h t f u l l y her s" ( Di esbach 41 ) . Ag a i n , what hol ds t r ue f or t h^
w o ma n " st r at egy al so hol ds t r ue her e: t he wor s e educat ed Madame
de St al can be s h o wn t o be, t he s t r onger t he apol ogy* Cr i t i cs
t her ef or e f eel f r ee t o vent t hei r vi ews on educ at i on: " Spoi l ed beyonc
measur e by her f at her wh o f or bade her n o t h i n g and f or gave her a::
Cr i t i ci sm 145
her wh i ms , by her mot her wh o had r enounced t he i mpos i t i on of any
di sci pl i ne, t he l i t t l e one onl y di d what she di d not di sl i ke. She was
t o st ay l i ke t hat al l her l i f e" ( T u r q u a n 4 ) . Ag a i n , t he w o ma n and
" educ at i on st r at egy combi ne i n Pai l l er on s r at her cheap r emar k on
Madame Necker wh o ' no doubt wo u l d have had her [ Ma d a me de
St al ] t r ansl at e t he Apocal ypse whi l e she was c u t t i n g her f i r s t
t eet h" ( 6 ) . Educ at i on can al so be made t o t ake t he bl ame f or t he
af f ai r s Madame de St al got embr oi l ed i n, or even f or t he f act t hat
peopl e suspect t hat she mi g h t have had af f ai r s i f t he cr i t i c i s not
wi l l i n g t o acknowl edge t hat she act ual l y had t h e m. Because t he
y oung Madame de St al was exposed t o so ma n y i nt el l ect ual s of t he
t i me and t o so mu c h i nt el l ect ual conver sat i on i n her mo t h e r ' s sal onr
she became capabl e of devel opi ng i nt el l ect ual f r i ends hi ps " wi t h
many men. Ye t t h e i nt el l ect ual f r i endshi p, wh i c h pr oduced s o
many del i ght f ul f r i endshi ps bet ween her sel f and di st i ngui shed men
of al i c ount r i es , was nat ur al l y a t t r i b u t e d , by l adi es of i nf er i or gi f t s ,
t o a sour ce l ess i nnoc ent " ( Ch i l d 7 5 ) .
Ma n y of t he Fr enc h cr i t i cs di scussed her e al so t end t o hol d
Madame de St ael ' s educat i on r esponsi bl e f or t he f act t hat she i s
ei t her not r e a l l y Fr enc h, or not
a
Fr enc h enough, Sour i au
r egr et s t hat s h e no l onger bel i eves i n t he i dea of a f a t h e r l a n d "
( 8 ) , onl y t o cont r adi ct hi msel f i t wi l l be r emember ed t hat he i s
t he cr i t i c wh o accused Madame de St al of c ont r adi c t i ng her sel f ,
excusi ng her af t er war ds on t he gr ounds t hat she was a wo ma n at
t he end of hi s book wh e n he pr ai ses Madame de St al f or
r al l y i ng t o Napol eon d u r i n g t he Hu n d r e d Days f aced wi t h
st r anger s, f aced wi t h enemi es, one does not not i ce wh i c h
hands hol d t he f l ag; one r uns t o t he f l ag because t hat i s wher e
Fr ance i s " ( 1 1 0 ) , Pai Uer on, on t he ot her hand, does not f or gi ve
Madame de St al her ear l i er oppos i t i on t o Napol eon: " T o desi r e
t he humi l i at i on of Fr ance, i t s mi s f or t une, t he sacr i f i ce of i t s
ar my i s not wh a t a Fr enc h wo ma n does. Ger mai ne Necker was not
one, ( 4 8 ) . Wher eas t hese sent i ment s ma y be under st andabl e i n t he
cont ext of t hei r t i me ( Sour i au publ i shed hi s book i n 1910, Pai l l er on
her s i n 1 9 3 1 ) , t hey s t i l l r esur f ace i n Di esbach as l at e as 1984,
t h o u g h n o w ai med at Const ant r at her t han at Madame de St al
hersel f I t i s r at her unpl easant t o see t he gr eed wi t h wh i c h
Cons t ant , a subj ect of t he cant on of Wal l i s , i n Swi t z er l and,
sizes up Fr ance as a c o u n t r y conquer ed and cyni cal l y cal cul at es al l
he wi l l be abl e t o get out of i t i n t he f i el d of r i ches and even
honor s ( 1 7 3 ) .
Bet ween 1870 and 1960t o be ant i - Fr ench i mpl i ed of neces?::
t hat one was pr o- Ger man, T h e Fr ench cr i t i cs of t hat pen: c
caval i er l y al l ow t hei r ant i - Ger man sent i ment t o i nt r ude i n l
di scussi ons of Madame de St al ' s undi sput ed mast er pi ece D-
IAllemagneone of t he semi nal wr i t i n g s of Eur opean Ro ma n : -
ci sm. Sour i au c u r t l y states T h i s book shoul d be read i n t
l i ght of 1870 by a Fr enc hman wh o want s t o f i nd a t opi cal use i : r
even ol d books. Ar e we not r i ght i n sayi ng t hat Mme de St al w
wr o n g and t hat she has mi sl ed us?" ( 9 5 ) , I n 1820 A l b e r t i r :
Necker de Saussur e coul d s t i l l wr i t e t he f ol l owi ng about Madam-
de St aPs t r avel s i n Ge r ma n y : Me n of geni us and of geni us
anal ogous t o her ownr ec ei v ed her wi t h t r ans por t ; sover ei gn-
cont ended f or her and a f r i endl y soci et y appl auded her t al ent s, h t -
pol i t i cal conduct , and her ent husi ast i c r egar d f or her father(112
I n 1893 Sor el al r eady st at es: " T h o s e Ger mans wer e l i t t l e c o n c e r m
wi t h t he f oundat i on of a f r ee st at e and t he pr omul gat i ons of l aw-
desl i ned t o shape v i r t uous ci t i zens" ( 1 0 7 ) * L a r g on t he ot hkr
hand, gi ves Madame de St al some cr edi t : s he seems t o sense : r
advance t he danger s of t he i mper at i ves of Ger man my s t i c i s m th?.'
wei gh d o wn Fichtes Lectures, Schel l i ng' s Inquiries i nt o f r eedor
and Schl egeFs Course On Dramatic Poetry ( 1 5 8 ). In 1981
Di esbach has r ecour se t o euphemi sms t o vei l hi s eval uat i on :
Madame de Sl al ' s
u
r ac i al " or i gi ns when he descr i bes her r eact i on
I t al y and t he I t al i ans " Wi t h r egar d t o t he popul at i on Madame c.
St al keeps t hat at avi st i c di sdai n peopl e of t he No r t h have f or
peopl e of t he So u t h " ( 3 2 7 ) . Sour i au i s mor e bl unt i n 1910
de St al i s not t ot al l y Fr enc h; she i s a l i t t l e Swi ss, ver y Genevan
wi t h a l i t t l e bi t of t he Ger mani c wh i c h comes t o her t hr ough her
ancest or s" ( 4 ) .
Ther e are some voi ces r edr essi ng t he bal ance. Fr anoi <t
d' Eaubonne wr i t es t hat Na p o l e o n cer t ai nl y di d muc h mor e :
pr epar e f ut ur e at t empt s at r evenge, f i r st by humi l i at i ng the
Ger mans and t hen by er ect i ng t he f oundat i ons of a nat i ons,
uni t y , t han di d Ger mai ne' s nai vet concer ni ng t hose ' nob, t
savages of Eu r o p e " ( 1 9 5 ) . Yet t he vi scer al ant i - Ger man bi as : :
Fr enc h cr i t i ci sm i n t he per i od, combi ned wi t h t he t r adi t i ons-
et hnocent r i c or i ent at i on of Fr ench cr i t i ci sm i s par t i al l y responsib.-
f or t he negl ect i n cr i t i cal and hi st or i cal wr i t i n g of t he rol e
pl ayed by t he " Coppet gr oup, " t he gr oup of cosmopol i t an
i nt el l ect ual s gat her i ng at Madame de St a l s mansi on at Cop pel ir,
Swi t zer l and, whi c h i ncl uded Cons t ant , By r o n , and A. W
Cr i t i ci sm 147
Schl egel . T h e y wer e devel opi ng and di scussi ng b o t h t he concept
and t he r eal i t y of a " Eu r o p e a n ^ l i t er at ur e avant La lettre. Smal l
wo n d e r , t hen, t hat Pai l l er on, wh o publ i shed her book i n 1931
f eel s she has t o count er act t he f addi st i mage of Ma d a me de St al
r ef ur bi s hed by t he League of Nat i ons : t h e y wa n t t o di scover
i n her t he p r o mo t o r of t hat Eur opean s pi r i t t ast e r equi r es
i nt el l ect ual s and snobs t o dr ess i n t hese days ( 42 ) . T h e f act
r emai ns t hat f o r a l ong t i me t her e have not been any st udi es
wr i t t e n about t he Coppet g r o u p , t hat has n o t been r egar ded
as a l i t er ar y mo v e me n t by Fr e n c h hi s t or i ans . Wh y t hi s gap?
Pr o b a b l y mai nl y because t he g r o u p i s not excl usi vel y Fr e n c h
( Bal ay 1 1 0 ) .
A f i nal s t r at egy f o r apol ogy i s t h a t of t he t r adi t i onal
hagi ogr aphi es. Ma n y a sai nt t u r n s out t o have been a s i nner and
not of t he meanes t ear l y i n hi s or her ear t hl y exi st ence, onl y t o
conver t t o t he t r ue f ai t h t o wa r d t he end of i t . Si nce al l i s we l l t hat
ends wel l t he si nner i s f or gi v en and pr oc l ai med not j u s t a sai nt , b u t
al so an ex ampl e f or ot her si nner s t o emul at e. He r e agai n Al b e r t i n e
Nec k er de Saussur e t akes an ear l y l ead wher e she wr i t e s about t he
mi ddl e- aged Ma d a me de St al t hat her i ndependent mi n d h e r
i nt el l ec t , f r i endl y t o l i ght and ac qui r i ng i t i n al l di r ec t i ons , was
ever y day mor e and mor e convi nced of t he s ubl i me t r u t h s of
Ch r i s t i a n i t y " ( 1 0 ) . Sai nt e- Beuve echoes " We shal l see at l ast , at
t he end of t hi s t r i u mp h a l p a t h ss at t he end of t he mo s t h u mb l y
pi ous, we shal l see a c r os s " ( 9 4 ) . By l i n k i n g Ma d a me de St al ' s
pat h w i t h t hat of t he h u mb l e Sai nt e- Beuve manages t o r edeem her
f r o m t he o p p r o b r i u m di r ect ed at t he we a l t h y , t he bet t er t o enr ol l
her i n hi s cr usade f or a r enewed Ch r i s t i a n i t y wh i c h wi l l save Fr ance
and Eu r o p e , obv i ous l y i n t h a t o r d e r , even t h o u g h t he wa y i n
wh i c h Ch r i s t i a n i t y wi l l set t o wo r k t o r egai n i t s h o l d upon t he
soci et y of t he f u t u r e r emai ns yet vei l ed" ( 7 6 ) .
Si nce t he sai nt ' s conver si on i s t he mor e l audabl e t he mo r e
f or mi dabl e t he obst acl es t hat st and i n i t s wa y , Sor el o b l i g i n g l y
p r i n t s a cat al ogue of t empt at i ons and evi l i nf l uences Ma d a me de
St al was exposed t o, yet managed al mos t mi r ac ul ous l y t o
ov er c ome :
A n d t her e she st ands, i n t hat mal i ci ous and host i l e soci et y,
exposed t o al l sur pr i ses and t o al l sophi sms of t he passi ons.
No t h i n g def ends her agai nst t hem* A vague dei s m, t he dus t of a
r el i gi on r ui ned by t he sar casms of t he phi l os opher s a r omanesque
mo r a l i t y i ncl i ned t o wa r d s al l casui st r y of sent i ment a m a r r
col d and unat t r act i ve weak def enses agai nst t he ons l aught c: i
Ob v i o u s l y t he hi ghest pr ai se i s due f or a wo ma n wh o i n spi t e of i
of t h i s , concl udes t hat t her e i s no ot her phi l os ophy t han t r -
Ch r i s t i a n r el i gi on ( Sor el 1 3 6 ) , T h e onl y r emai ni ng blem:
appear s t o be t hat she r emai ns , af t er al l , a wo ma n , and t her ef c r -
ipso facto l ess amenabl e t o l ogi c : " I f l ogi c had s t i l l gui ded her , s:.-
wo u l d have gone as f ar as Pascal ; but Pascal wo u l d have car r i ed h-_r
l oo hi gh ( Sor el 136 ) he was a ma n , af t er al l , and
mat hemat i c i an. Lat er cr i t i cs deny t hat Madame de St al was
by r el i gi on Sh e f i nds l ess hel p t h a n ever i n t hi s d i r e c t i o n "
2 1 3 ) . Pr obabl y because s he f ound t he s ol ut i on l o her pr obl ems -
her s el f " ( Di es bac h 4 4 9 ) .
Si nce Sl al i en c r i t i c i s m r emai ns so f i r ml y anchor ed i n t h
bi ogr aphi cal d o ma i n , i t happens not i nf r equent l y t hat f eat ur es tak
f r o m novel i st i c di scour se ent er t he di scour se of c r i t i c i s m, Sa i n u -
Beuve, f or i nst ance, c ont r i but es t he f o l l o wi n g " i d y l l i c d e s c r i p t i : ^
of Co p p e t : I t i s t he secl usi on, t he i nt er change of t h o u g h t s an
i deas a mo n g t hese guest s beneat h t he l eaf y shades, and t he noor. -
day t al k s by t he b r i n k of t hese l ov el y wat er s c l ot hed w i t h ver dur e
( 118 ) . Fr anoi se d' Eaubonne obl i ges wi t h t he f o l l o wi n g t ot al . }
i magi nar y c onv er s at i on bet ween t wo Par i si ans, obv i ous l y include
i n her book o n l y t o gi ve t he r eader a f l av or of wh a t sue
conver sat i ons " mi g h t have been l i k e " :
I s i t t r ue t hat M. de Mo n t r o n d i s goi ng t o f i ght a duel ?
H o w coul d i t be ot her wi s e w i t h hi s not or i et y ? I s he not xh-
dar l i ng of al l l oose women?
* I n t he me a n t i me he devour s hi s wi f e' s f or t une at t he gambl i ng
t abl e. T h a t poor Ai m e d e Coi gny . . ,
W h a t a t eam: " T h e Y o u n g Ca p t i v e " and t he " Ch r i s t chi l d i r.
Mo s t Fr e n c h St al i en cr i t i cs ar e, f i n a l l y , not undul y t r oubl ed by
consi der at i ons of accur acy, especi al l y not wher e Ge r ma n l i t er at ur e
i s concer ned- L a r g wr i t e s : Mme de St al di d n o t , l i ke Goet he
have t he f el i ci t ous g i f t of ma k i n g l i t t l e songs out of her gr ea:
s uf f er i ngs " ( 2 8 ) . Un f o r t u n a t e l y , t he di sgui sed quot e s houl d not bt
a t t r i b u t e d t o Goet he, but t o He i n e t h e same Hei ne wh o n o wh e r t
sai d t hat Sc hl egel was a- sexual ( 7 9 ) as t he same L a r g makes hi rr.
c o r r u p t wo r l d (30
He l l (34
Cri ti ci sm 149
n hi s o wn De I 'Alleryiagne, wr i t t en as an answer to Madame de
Spi el ' s book of t he same t i t l e. Si mi l ar l y, t her e can har dl y be said t o
^ i ve been a f al l i ng of f , a decadence ( Sai nt e-Beuve 125 ) i n
-r-rrman poet r y af t er t he deat h of Goet he.
I : i s, i n concl usi on, not easy t o escape t he i mpr essi on t hat
l l i d a me de St al has not been exceedi ngl y wel l served by her
Fr ench r ewr i t er s. The i mage of her t hey have pr oj ect ed r emai ns
Tri but ary t o t hat f i r st i mage pr oj ect ed by Al ber t i ne Necker de
5 . 1 s u r e , whet her subsequent cr i t i cs agree wi t h t hat i mage or not .
E t not t r y i ng t o t r anscend i t , t hey condemn Madame de St al ' s
r eput at i on t o t he vagari es oi bi ogr aphi cal specul at i on and gr at ui t ous
zossi p.
Chapter 12
Editing
Salvation through mutilation/ Bchner's
Danton's Death
On t he r un f r om t he ki nd of j ust i ce he spent hi s shor t l i f e t r yi ng
t o ov er t hr ow, Geor g Bchner sent t he manuscr i pt of hi s pl ay
Dan tons Tod ( Dantori
f
s Death ) to t he t hen f amous Ger man
novel i st and essayi st Ka r l Gut z k ow, Gut zkow was k nown f or hi s
l i ber al pol i t i cal l eani ngs and t her ef or e was t he obvi ous choi ce t o
eval uat e t he manuscr i pt . Gut zkow l i ked t he pl ay and t r i ed t o
publ i sh i t . Consi der i ng t he pl ay' s cont ent , t hi s was not l i kel y t o
pr ove an easy t ask i n t he repressi ve Ger many of t he 1830s. A pl ay
depi ct i ng at l east some of t he mai n charact ers of t he Fr ench
Revol ut i on i n a posi t i ve manner coul d not count on much
of f i ci al sympat hy i n a Ger many ( and Aus t r i a- Hungar y ) fash-
i oned by Met t er ni ch af t er t he 1815 Vi enna Congr ess wi t h t he
express i nt ent of count er act i ng t he perni ci ous i nf l uence of t he
Revol ut i on.
Me t t e r n i c h s " Just i ce" had al l ki nds of l egal means at i t s di sposal
t o pr event t he publ i cat i on of sedi t i ous mat er i al . The Ger man
st at es wer e l egal l y ent i t l ed t o have recourse t o pr event i ve
censorshi p as wel l as censor shi p af t er publ i cat i on, hol di ng edi t or s
r esponsi bl e f or what t hey publ i shed, f or bi ddi ng publ i cat i on,
depor t at i on" ( Hauschi l d 165) . Faced wi t h al l t hi sGut zkow deci ded
t o expl oi t hi s posi t i on as co- edi t or of t he Fr ank f ur t l i t er ar y j our nal
Phnix* He t ook advant age of t he f act t hat t he edi t or - i n- chi ef was
on honeymoon t o publ i sh ext r act s f r om Bchner ' s pl ay i n t he
j our nal .
Nex t , encouraged by posi t i ve react i ons t o t he publ i cat i on of
these ext r act s, Gut zkow of f er ed t he pl ay i n i t s ent i r et y t o a
publ i sher , j , D. Sauer l nder . Bot h Gut zkow and Sauerl nder
real i zed t hey woul d heve t o r esor t t o pr event i ve censorshi p t o get
t he pl ay publ i shed at al l . I n Gu t z k o wo wn wo r d s : I n or der not t o
Edi t i ng 151
"ae censor t he pl easure of st r i ki ng passages, I per f or med t he
f i t =y ? e i r , ( 6 4 ) . The j ob was nei t her an easy nor a pl easant one t o
p c L o o k i n g back on i t i n hi s obi t uar y on Bchner . Gut z k ow
c n b e d what he had t o do
L r n g ambi guous di al ogues i n t he popul ar scenes, t hat
^ m i l l a t e d wi t h wi t and mi nd games had t o be l ef t behi nd. The
^ rites of t he puns had t o be bl unt ed or bent by auxi l i ar y st upi d
I r usses t hat had t o be added. Bchners real Dant on was never
z - bl i shed. What was publ i shed of i t are poor l ef t over s, t he r ui ns
oi a devast at i on. ( 64- 5)
I V : these r ui ns, act ual l y publ i shed i n 1835, wer e t o be t he
5: dat i on of Bchner , s f ame, such as i t was, f or qui t e some t i me
m r ome. Hebbel , hi s mor e f or t unat e and f amous cont empor ar y,
j ^t ct i t he Sauerl nder edi t i on ver y much, and comment ed f avor abl y.
Sauerl nder edi t i on was r epubl i shed some years l at er , and i t
s i ^ - r i but ed gr eat l y t o keepi ng Bchner ' s name cur r ent i n t he
J t r ar v wor l d bet ween 1835, t he publ i cat i on of a reasonabl y
^ j zi ut i l at ed ver si on of t he Collected Works i n 1870, and t he f i r st
successful st agi ng of one of hi s pl ays i n 1916.
Ot her edi t i ons wer e t o f ol l ow Sauer l nder ' s, among t hem one put
: et her by Geor g Bchner ' s br ot her , L u d wi g , i n 1850. Thi s
i : t : on announced as t he edi t i on of t he compl et e wor k s , " d i d
ti do much to r e- est abl i sh t he or i gi nal t ext of Danton 's Death.
H uschi l d j udges i t as f ol l ows Th e mi spr i nt s have been t aken
f or t he most par t and t he t ext of t he manuscr i pt has been
i n about t went y i nst ances. But dozens of ot her i nst ances
c exhi bi t t he same or si mi l ar st upi d nonsense as t hey di d in
I : was not unt i l t he Franzos edi t i on of 1870 t hat t he " r eal t ext of
c o u l d be said t o have been publ i shed, even t hough
r r anzos had r est or ed t hi r t een passages t hat had been st r i cken f r om
manuscr i pt by Bchner hi msel f . But t he f act t hat t he t ext was
avai l abl e al most as Bchner had wr i t t en i t st i l l di d not mean
TZ.1Z i t was per f or med on t he st age as wel l . I n f act , l i ke t he ot her
l i ^ y s of Bchner , Danton 's Death r emai ned a cl oset dr ama f or a
t i me. I t was st aged f or t he f i r st t i me i n Ber l i n, by t he t wo
neat er compani es l i nked t o t he pol i t i cal l ef t i n 1902, but wi t hout
r:ess. Per f or mances i n Ha mb u r g i n 1910 and 1911 met wi t h a
^ n i l a r f at e. Onl y t he Ma x Rei nhar dt pr oduct i on of 1916 i n t he
Deut sches Theat er i n Ber l i n became t he b i g i nt er nat i onal success
t hat est abl i shed Bchner as a cl assi c of t he t heat er ov er ni ght "
( Gol t schni gg 2 7 ) . Bet ween 1911 and 1916, i n 1913 t o be
preci se, Rudol f Fr anz had publ i shed an " act i ng ver si on" of Danton's
Death i n an at t empt t o persuade mor e t heat er compani es t o stage
t he pl ay.
I n t hi s chapt er we shal l l ook at t wo edi t i ons of Danton's Death-
t he one made ready f or publ i cat i on by Gut zkow and t he one
made ready f or t he press by Fr anz, What we shal l be l ooki ng at , i n
f act , are t wo r ewr i t i ngst one ( Gut zkow' s ) under t aken mai nl y
f or i deol ogi cal reasons, t he ot her ( Fr anz' s ) mai nl y f or poeto-
l ogi cal reasons. I have checked bot h r ewr i t i ngs/ edi t i ons agai nst
t he most wi del y avai l abl e cur r ent ( Recl am ) edi t i on, because
t hat i s l i kel y t o be t he one t hat reaches t he most cont empor ar y
readers,
A f i r st gl ance at Gut z k owedi t i on reveal s i t s baste under l yi ng
st r at egy. Gut zkow has added a l engt hy subt i t l e
11
Dr amat i sche
Bi l der aus Fr ankr ei chs Schr eckensher r schaf t , wher e Bchner had
si mpl y cal l ed t he pl ay: Ei n Dr a ma . " The subt i t l e, Dr amat i c
Scenes f r om Fr ance' s Rei gn of T e r r o r , advert i zes t he pl ay as
" sensat i onal " i n an obvi ous at t empt t o def use i t s pol i t i cal i mpact .
Bchner ' s pl ay becomes a war ni ng descr i pt i on of what mi ght
happen i n Ger many i f Ger mans wer e t o f ol l ow t he Fr ench exampl e,
whi l e at t he same t i me gi vi ng t he Ger man reader a vi car i ous t hr i l l or
t wo. Gut z k ow sums i t al l up ver y neat l y i ndeed i n hi s i nt r oduct i on
t o t he f r agment s of t he pl ay as publ i shed i n Phnix: Ou r young
peopl e st udy t he Revol ut i on because t hey l ove f r eedom and yet t hey
want t o avoi d t he mi st akes t hat may be commi t t ed i n i t s ser vi ce"
( 6 5 ) . Thi s at t i t ude, whi ch al so makes t he f i gur e of Dant on
somewhat less ambi guous t han t he Dant on Bchner had cr eat ed,
meshes r el at i vel y wel l wi t h t he of f i ci al at t i t ude of t he censors
t hemsel ves as descri bed by Hauschi l d : A mut ed, hal f - hear t ed
l i ber al i sm was t ol er at ed af t er al l , one t hat pl eaded f or measured
pr ogr es s " ( 165) .
Yet r el at i vel y f ew changes have been made i n t he t ext f or pol i t i cal
reasons. Th e vast maj or i t y of changes are i nt ended t o t one down or
st r i ke sexual al l usi ons. Amo n g t he changes mot i vat ed by pol i t i cal
consi der at i ons one mi ght l i st t he f ol l owi ng. Wher e Bchner wr i t es
gek r nt e Ve r b r e c h e r [ c r o wn e d c r i mi nal s ] ( 4 2 ) G u t z k o w
changes t he noun t hat ref ers t o t he person of a r ul er i nt o t he mor e
abst r act , neut er noun " gekr nt es Ver br echen" [ c r owned c r i me]
Edi t i ng 153
W h e r e Bcht i er wr i t es t hat Dant on i s accused of havi ng
- i wi ed,
4<
gekr ochen ( 53 ) , at t he f eet of mi ser abl e despot s,
_- _: 2kow, wh o was v er y awar e of t he power of t he pol i ce of t he
: r > : o t s of hi s Ger many , wr ot e " gesessen" [ s a t ] ( 1 0 4 ) ,
'*Vhen gener al Di l l on says i n Bchner : ^ Ma n f t t e r t das Vo l k ni cht
Lei chen" [ y o u do not f eed t he peopl e cor pses] ( 5 5 ) , Gu t z k o w
; : l v omi t s t he sent ence al t oget her . He al so omi t s dni gr a t or y
- - f t r ences t o r el i gi on- I n Bc hner , H r a u l t , one of Dant on, s
f r - : nds , t el l s Chaumet t e, a f el l ow pr i soner , t hat he can " i n Madame
::moro das Mei s t er s t c k der Na t u r anbet en, weni gst ens hat si e di r
: ^ Rosenkr nze dazu i n den Lei st en gel assen" [ wo r s h i p Nat ur e' s
_2?terpiece i n Madame Mo mo r o at l east nat ur e has l ef t you t he
*^>ari es t o do so i n y our l oi ns ] ( 4 8 ) . Gu t z k o w omi t s t he sent ence
i l t oget her .
Si mi l ar l yT when Ma r i o n , one of t he pr ost i t ut es Dant on f r e-
says t hat i t does not make muc h di f f er ence whet her peopl e
' t h e i r pl easur e i n bodi es ( " L e i b e r n " ) , i mages o f Chr i s t
" Chr i s t us bi l der n ) , f l ower s or chi l dr en' s t oys ( Bchner 20 ).
- ^ t z k ow ( 3 5 ) repl aces b o d i e s " wi t h r el i cs" ( " Re l i q u i e n " ) and
mages o f Ch r i s t " wi t h l i v i n g t h i n g s " ( L e b e n d i g e n " ) .
Gu t z k o w al so del et es what may be t aken t o be of f ensi ve t o t he
' i sxe of t he mi ddl e- and upper - cl ass r eader , Bi i chner ' s one
' ef er ence to cancer ( Kr e b s ) ( 57 ) i s l ef t out t as are hi s t hr ee
ref erences t o body odor , or t he st ench emanat i ng f r o m peopl e
^ s t i n k e n " ) ( 6 7 f 7 2 ) . Si mi l ar l y , t he gr aphi c det ai l s of t he t r eat -
ment Barrre one of t he pol i t i ci ans wh o si de wi t h Robespi er r e
gai nst Dant on, has t o under go f or syphi l i s ( Bchner 59 ) are
mi t t ed. Wh e n Bar r e r e asks hi s col l eagues not t o t el l Robesp-
r r r e about hi s pr edi cament , t hey r epl y t hat Robespi er r e i s
m i mpot ent Fr eemason" ( 59 ) , t hus r eveal i ng t he br i t t l eness of
Robespi er r e' s suppor t and l endi ng credence t o Dant on, s pr edi ct i on
: hat Robespi er r e wi l l nor l ong out l ast h i m. Leavi ng out t hi s l i ne, as
Gut zkow does, r emoves an i mpor t ant el ement f r o m t he s t r uc t ur e of
t he pl ay.
Del et i on i s al so t he maj or st r at egy Gu t z k o w uses f or deal i ng wi t h
sexual r ef er ences i n Buchner ' s t ex t . Hur e wh o r e ) i s l ef t out
t o g e t h e r i n Gu t z k o w' s ver si on of t he exchanges bet ween Dant on
= 7id Lac r oi x ( 7 1 ) . " Z u r Hu r e machen" [ ma k e i nt o a wh o r e ] ( 7 1 ) i s
Mr ned i nt o t he less of f ensi ve ( because Lat i nat e )
t l
pr os t i t ui r t
140) . Si mi l ar l y , ot her i nst ances of t he use of Hurei n Bchner
154 Translation , Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Li terary Fame
( 1 3 30) are t ur ned i nt o t he l ess of f ensi ve ( because mor e ar chai c
w
Mez e" i n Gu t z k o w ( 2 2 , 5 6 ) .
Bchner ' s cyni cal r ef er ences t o sex are consi st ent l y l ef t out by
Gu t z k o w. Wh e n Dant on says i n Bc hner , wi t h r ef er ence t o t he
at mospher e i n t he par t of Par i s f r equent ed by pr ost i t ut es : Mc ht e
man ni cht dr unt er spr i ngen, si ch di e Hos en v o m Lei be r ei en und
si ch ber den Hi n t e r n begat t en wi e di e Hu n d e auf der Gasse?" [ Do
you not get t he desi r e t o j u mp i n among t h e m t ear of f y our pant s
and have anal sex l i ke dogs i n t he st r eet ?] ( 3 3 ) , he says absol ut el y
not hi ng of t he k i nd i n Gu t z k o w.
Si mi l ar l y , wh e n a ci t i zen t el l s t he mi l i t i amen wh o come t o ar r est
Dant on t hat t he t i me of ni ght i s t he t i me wh e n " per pendi cul ar s are
s t i c k i ng out f r o m under t he bedcl ot hes" ( Bc hner 4 0 ) , Gu t z k o w
omi t s t he sent ence. Ye t Gu t z k o w al so t r i es t o " b l u n t " or " b e n d " t he
pointes of many a l i ne wr i t t e n by Bchner , Wh e n Bchner ' s Dant on
says he want s t o sneak out of l i f e as " o u t of t he bed of a mer ci f ul
nur se and adds t hat l i f e " i s t ei ne Hu r e , es t r ei bt mi t der ganzen
We l t Un z u c h t " [ i s a wh o r e , i t f or ni cat es wi t h t he whol e wor l d_
( 6 8 ) , Gu t z k o w' s Dant on mer el y want s t o s neak out of a gi r l ' s
r o o m" ( 1 3 6 ) ,
Wh e n one of t he wo me n wh o have come out t o wat c h t he excut i on
of Da n t o n and hi s f r i ends shout s at H r a u l t t hat she wi l l have a wi g
made out of hi s beaut i f ul hai r , Bchners H r a u l t repl i es " I c h habe
ni cht genug Wa l d u n g f r ei nen so abgehol t zt en Venus ber g" [ I don' t
have enough t r ees f or such a def or est ed mo u n t of Ve n u s ] ( 74 ) ,
Gu t z k o w' s H r a u l t omi t s t he " Ve n u s " ( 1 4 7 ) t h e r e b y r ender i ng t he
whol e exchange mor e t han a l i t t l e puzzl i ng, not t o say nonsensi cal *
Ye t Gu t z k o w l eaves i n t hose el ement s of Bchner ' s t ext t hat may
be t hought t oo wi t t y f or t he censor t o cat ch. Rosal i e, one of t he
pr ost i t ut es i n t he pl ay, has t he f o l l o wi n g conver sat i on wi t h a
sol di er
Sol dat : Du bi st sehr spi t z.
Rosal i e U n d du sehr s t u mp f .
Sol dat So wi l l i ch mi c h an di r wet zen
[ Sol di er : Yo u are ver y shar p.
Rosal i e: A n d you are ver y b l u n t .
Sol di er T h e n I want t o whet mysel f on you. ] ( 3 3 )
Gu t z k o w l eaves t he di al ogue unchanged. He al so expl oi t s ever y
i nst ance i n wh i c h L a t i n wo r d s are used i n Bchner ' s t ex t t o connot e
Edi t i ng 155
xual i nnuendo, r easoni ng, as t he censor woul d no doubt al so have
t hat t hey are uni nt el l i gi bl e t o t he maj or i t y of t he readers
When Bchner has Lacr oi x war n Dant on t hat " der Mns
% eneri s wi r d dei n Tar pej i scher Fel s " [ t h e Mns Vener i s wi l l be
:j r Tar pei an Ro c k ] ( 2 3 ) Gut z k ow does not change anyt hi ng,
.savi ng i n on hi s page 43 t he Lat i n equi val ent of what he t ook out i n
Ger man on hi s page 147.
Fi nal l y, Gut zkow al so r ewr i t es some of t he al l usi ons i n such a
ay t hat t hey st i l l make some sense, even t hough t hey l ose much
: : t h e bi t e Bchner had gi ven t hem. Bchner ' s Lacr oi x cal l s t he
pr ost i t ut es:
u
Quecksi l ber gr uben [ quar r i es of me r c u r y ] ( 2 1 )
r unni ng on t he Ger man Silber grbe whi ch can mean si l ver
mi ne" and Quecksilber, meani ng mer cur y, t hen t he onl y
i n o wn t r eat ment f or syphi l i s. The pr ost i t ut es, i t i s hi nt ed, are
rr.mes i n whi ch men can f i nd t hi ngs t hat wi l l make t hem quar r y
mer cur y. Gut zkow si mpl y cal l s t he pr ost i t ut es Si l ber gr uben
M
(38merely emphasi zi ng t he mer cenar y aspect of t hei r prof es-
si on.
As opposed t o Gut z k ow, Rudol f Fr anz t hi nks t hat Danton's
Death i s har d t o stage not because i t s t heme coul d st i l l be sai d t o be
"danger ous t o t he st at e" ( 1 ) , but because t he audi ence no l onger
knows t he hi st or y of t he Fr ench Revol ut i on and wi l l t her ef or e lose
: he t hr ead of t he act i on. As a r esul t , he has st r uck " ever y al l usi on
md every scene t hat i s expendabl e because i t i s mer el y descr i pt i ve
md presupposes a mor e preci se f ami l i ar i t y wi t h t he subj ect mat t er "
1) . Whenever he f ound i t har d t o deci de, Fr anz used square
bracket s i n t he t ext . Encl osed bet ween t hem are " such par t s of t he
di al ogue t hat can be omi t t ed at wi l l " ( 2 ) . Fr anz consi ders hi msel f al l
:he mor e ent i t l ed t o f ol l ow t hi s course of act i on because, i n hi s
^ o x d ^ \ BcUi vet \ ust t hr ew hi s wo r k on t he page i n hast e and made
use of such r esul t s of hi s r eadi ng as he woul d no doubt Ki msel i Viave
r emoved agai n as
4
anorgani c ' when checki ng t he t ext mor e
rigorously" (1-2).
To make Bchner ' s pl ay "stageafal e " on the German stage of his
day, Fr anz has t ur ned i t i nt o a " hi st or i cal dr ama he si mpl y cal l s
t he pl ay a " dr ama" ) i n t he Schi l l er i an t r adi t i on. Si nce t hat ki nd of
drama i s much cl oser t o t he t hr ee uni t i es of t i me, pl ace, and
act i on t han Bchner ' s epi sodi c pl ay, i t sel f i nspi r ed by t he wr i t i ngs
of t he member s of t he St or m and St r ess" gr oup, Fr anz has
distilled t he f al l of t he Dant oni st s as br i ef l y and as shar pl y as
possi bl e by r educi ng t he 32 scenes [ i n Bchner ] t o 15. I n doi ng so, I
have gi ven i t t he necessar y f o r m t hat wi l l al l ow ever y seri
t heat er company t o st age t t and ever y ser i ous audi ence t o r espond :
i t ( 2 ) .
T r u e t o t he Schi l l er i an t r a d i t i o n Fr a n z ' s pl ay adds mar
char act er s, pai nf ul l y expl i ci t at i ng t he " et c . " i n Bchner ' s i ni t i al 1-'
of char act er s. Yet Fr anz al so omi t s one char act er al t oget her t ^ r
of ( Thomas ) Payne. Fr anz st r i kes t he whol e f i r s t scene of B-
chner ' s t h i r d act , i n wh i c h Payne demonst r at es t he nonexi st ence :
God t o hi s f el l ow pr i soner s. T h e scene, wh i c h Fr anz no dont *
i nt er pr et ed as " me r e l y descr i pt i ve" goes a l ong way t o expl ai n ir.z
cyni cal under cur r ent i n Bchner , s pl ay. Si nce t he scene r uns :
mor e t han t hr ee pages i n t he Recl am edi t i on, Fr anz mus t al so ha% -
t hought t hat i t wo u l d di st r act t he audi ence' s at t ent i on f r o m the
devel opment of t he pl ot .
Si mi l ar l y Fr anz omi t s t he f i f t h scene of Bchner ' s t h i r d act .
whi c h i s absol ut el y pi v ot al f or t he pl ot of t he whol e pl ay. I n t hi
scene, set i n t he pr i son wher e t he pr i soner s of t he T e r r o r aw a.*
t hei r f at e, Di l l o n , a gener al , hat ches t he pl an t o br eak out anc
gat her enough sol di er s t o f r ee Dant on. He al so suggest s t ha:
Dant on' s and Cami l l e Desmoul i ns' s wi ves t h r o w money t o i h t
cr owds t o bol st er t hei r ent husi asm f or Dant on' s cause. Di l l on >
denounced by t he f el l ow pr i soner he made pr i v y t o hi s pl an, and i t ^
t hi s pl an t hat i s used as evi dence by t he publ i c pr osecut or t o accuse
Dant on and hi s f r i ends of hi gh t r easont t o convi ct t h e m, and r :
sent ence t hem t o deat h. T h e whol e scene di sappear s f r o m F r a n z -
ver si on of t he pl ay, but t he evi dence sur f aces never t hel ess, on page
56, cor r espondi ng exact l y t o Bchner ' s page 63. T h e reader or
spect at or of Bchner , s t ex t wi l l k n o w wher e t he evi dence comes
f r o m. T h e r eader or spect at or of t he Fr anz ver si on i s l i t er al l y
pr esent ed wi t h a coup de thtre r at her t han wi t h Bchner ' s l ogi cal
bui l d- up of t he act i on. Mor eov er , t he cyni cal bet r ayal of t he gnr ai
by a f el l ow pr i soner , one mor e act of cyni cal bet r ayal af t er many.
made possi bl e ( and necessar y?) by t he t ur bul ent t i mes, i s al so l ef i
out of Fr anz' s ver si on*
I n keepi ng wi t h t he uni t i es, t he execut i on of Dant on and hi>
f r i ends i s not s hown on Fr anz' s st age, t hough i t i s on Bchner ' s
( act I V , scene 7>. Al s o mor e or l ess i n keepi ng wi t h t he uni t i es,
each of Fr anz s t hr ee act s t akes pl ace i n t he same l ocat i on,
wher eas Bchner ' s l ess t i g h t l y connect ed scenes j u mp f r o m one
l ocat i on t o anot her over f our act s. To achi eve hi s u n i t y , Fr anz
has t o r ear r ange scenes and t o r ewr i t e st age di r ect i ons. I n t he
Edi t i ng 157
second act , f o r i nst ance, Bc hner ' s scenes 1 t o 6 ar e al l i nc or por -
ated i nt o one bi g scene. I n t he t h i r d act Bi i c hner ' s scene 2 i s put
: e h i n d hi s scene 3. I n t he same act t he " u n i t y " o f l oc at i on, bei ng
: be Re v o l u t i o n a r y T r i b u n a l , necessi t at es an al mos t comi cal l y
r epeat ed ent er i ng and l eavi ng t he st age on t he par t of t he maj or
char act er s. T h u s T h e me mb e r s of t he j u r y and t he accused
eat er " on Fr anzi s page 48, t he " j u d g e s l eave on page 50 and t he
accused ar e l ed a wa y on page 5 2 o n l y t o r eappear a f ew pages
l at er .
T h e whol e of Fr anz s second act t akes pl ace i n t he " s t r e e t of t he
second s c e n e " ( 3 0 ) , Bc hner ' s second act opens i n
u
a r oom29) ,
i n wh i c h Da n t o n " i s dr es s i ng" ( 2 9 ) . I n Fr anz he has t o l e a v e hi s
housefor t he audi ence t o see h i m i n t he s t r eet . Bc hner ' s second
scene i n t he same act t akes pl ace on a pr omenade wh e r e
_
pas s er s - by wa l k about . Fr anz keeps t h i s , but has hi s scene r u n
: n . T h e r o o m wh e r e Cami l l e and hi s wi f e , L u c i l l e , meet w i t h
Dant on i n t he t h i r d scene of Bc hner ' s second act i s al so t u r n e d
i nt o " a n o t h e r par t of t he s t r eet . Dan t on' s medi t at i on on l i f e and
deat h, wh i c h t akes pl ace i n " a n e mp t y f i el d i n t he f o u r t h scene of
Bc hner ' s second act , t akes pl ace s omewhat l ess c onv i nc i ngl y on
i he st r eet i n Fr anz . T h e same, ubi qui t ous st r eet i s al so t he
l ocus of t he c onv er s at i on bet ween Da n t o n and Jul i e, hi s wi f e
wh i c h t akes pl ace i n a r o o m i n t he f i f t h scene of Bc hner ' s second
act . Si nce Bc hner ' s Da n t o n i s i n a r o o m i n t hat scene he c a n
qui t e l ogi c al l y , st and by t he wi ndow38) . Fr anz has t o get
Da n t o n f r o m Bc hner ' s f o u r t h scene i n t he second act t o Bc hner , s
f i f t h scene by means of t he r at her c l ums y use of a not ex ac t l y
pl ausi bl e st age di r ec t i on. Fr anz s Dant on f al l s asl eep [ i n t he
s t r eet , s i c ] . Ni g h t has come. Suddenl y he awakes w i t h a s t a r t "
( 3 8 ) .
I n keepi ng wi t h t he Schi l l er i an hi st or cal dr ama Fr anz ' s st age
di r ect i ons are al so mor e expl i ci t t han Bc hner ' s . Wh e r e Bc hner
wr i t es ei ne Gasse [ a n a l l e y ] ( 1 1 ) , Fr anz has ei ne St r asse,
Hus er , Bume, ei ne B a n k " [ a s t r eet , houses, t r ees, a b e n c h ]
I I ) . Bc hner ' s l aconi c e i n Z i mme r " [ a r o o m] ( 5 , 1 9 1 2 4 ) i s t u r n e d
i nt o " e i n el egant es Z i mme r " [ a n el egant r o o m] ( 7 ) e i n ander es
Z i mme r " [ a n o t h e r r o o m] ( 1 9 ) , and e i n sehr ei nf aches Z i mme r " [ a
ver y si mpl e r o o m] ( 25. Fi nal l y t o j u s t i f y not s h o wi n g t he
execut i on on t he st age, Fr anz has t o add t he f o l l o wi n g el abor at e
st age di r ec t i on, wh i c h i s nowher e t o be f ound i n Bchner O n e
hear s t he noi se made by t he peopl e wh o wa l k past s i ngi ng t he
Car magnol e. A s hr i l l wo ma n ' s voi ce shout s
A
Ro o m, make r o o m
My c hi l dr en are c r y i ng, t hey are h u n g r y . I have t o mak e t hem
wa t c h so t hey are qui et . Ro o m! " 65) ,
I n keepi ng wi t h hi s suspi ci ons about t he audi ence' s knowl edge
of t he hi s t or y of t he Re v o l u t i o n , Fr anz suggest s cut s i n Robes*
p i e r r e f i r s t bi g speech ( 1 6 ) , i n Col i ot dHerboi s s speech ( 14 ) .
i n Lac r oi x s speech ( 2 4 ) , i n Robespi er r e' s sel f - j ust i f i cat i on ( 42,
4 3 ) f and i n t he l i nes Dant on says i n hi s o wn def ense ( 5 4 )
F u r t h e r mo r e , Fr anz per si st s i n ma k i n g cut s on hi st or i cal
gr ounds t hat make i t mu c h har der f or t he r eader / s pec t at or t c
under st and t he p l o t . Bchner ' s H r a u l t , f or i nst ance, says on
page 6 : " T h e y want t o t u r n us i nt o ant edi l uvi ans. Sa i n t - j u s t woul d
not mi n d seei ng us c r a wl on al l f our s agai n, so t hat t he l awyer
f r o m Ar r a s [ Ro b e s p i e r r e ] coul d i nvent l i t t l e hats school benches
and a God f or us accor di ng t o t he mec hani s m of t he wat c hmak er
f r o m Geneva [ Ro u s s e a u ] .
n
I n doi ng so, he i dent i f i es at once t he
t wo camps t hat wi l l pl ay a par t i n t he dr ama. T h e one camp
consi st s of Robespi er r e and Sa i n t - j u s t wi t h t hei r desi r e t o t ake t he
r ev ol ut i on f u r t h e r , t he ot her of Da n t o n and hi s f r i ends wh o t h i n k
t he r ev ol ut i on has gone f ar enough, and t hat i t i s t i me t o s t op. I n
H r a u l t ' s wor dsT agai n: T h e r ev ol ut i on mu s t st op and t he
r epubl i c mu s t begi n 7) . Fr anz l eaves i n H r a u l t f i r s t sent ence
on page 6, but del et es t he second T t her eby ma k i n g t he r eader
spect at or ' s t ask mor e d i f f i c u l t . Consci ousl y or unconsci ousl y, by
suppr essi ng hi st or i cal det ai l s and whol e scenes, Fr anz al so
r ef ashi ons Da n t o n i n t he mo l d of t he Schi l l er i an t r agi c her o a>
compar ed t o t he l i ber t i ne, c y ni c , and pol i t i ci an he i s i n Bchner >
pl ay .
Bchner ' s t ex t cont ai ns a n u mb e r of r ef er ences t o t he hi s t or y o
Republ i can Rome. I t does so because t he Fr enc h Rev ol ut i on saw.
or r at her , cr eat ed i t s ancest or i n Republ i can Ro me . Co mmo n
par l ance of t he r ev ol ut i onar y per i od was t her ef or e l ar ded wi t h
r ef er ences l i ke t he f o l l o wi n g i n Lac r oi x speech: Sh o u t about t he
t y r a n n y of t he dec emv i r i , speak of dagger s, i nv ok e Br u t u s 2 9 ) .
Fr anz pl aces t hese r ef er ences bet ween squar e br acket s, i ndi cat i ng
t hat t hey may be l ef t out at t he di r ect or ' s c onv eni enc eand
des t r oy i ng mu c h of t he l ocal col or Bc hner had seen f i t t o i ncl ude ir.
hi s pl ay. Bar r r e' s r ef er ences t o Cat i l i na and hi s conspi r acy suf f er
t he same f at e on page 54.
Fr anz not onl y changes t he or der of t he scenes i n t he pl ay, not
i nf r equent l y ma k i n g t hi ngs mor e compl i cat ed as he does so; he alsc
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publ i c at i on i n 1913t he year of t he cent enar y of Bc hner ' s b i r t h .
T h e s y mb o l i s m of t he dat e was no doubt i nt ended as an added
i ncent i ve f o r t heat er compani es f i nal l y t o put Bchner on t he st age
and t o keep h i m t her e. Needl ess t o say Fr anz ' s r e wr i t i n g was onl y
one among ma n y t hat hel ped br i ng about successf ul pr oduc t i ons of
Bc hner ' s t heat r i cal oeuvr e. Re wr i t i n g s of anot her nat ur e, such as
cr i t i cal ar t i cl es by Ger har t Ha u p t ma n n , t he l eadi ng p l a y wr i g h t of
t he day, and ma n y ot her l i t er ar y f i gur es connect ed w i t h t he t heat er
al so c ont r i but ed t o r each t he desi r ed goal .
T h e f at e of Bchner ' s wo r k s i s per haps one of t he mo s t obvi ous
exampl es of t he power of r e wr i t i n g and r ewr i t er s . I f Gu t z k o w and
Fr anz had not done wh a t t hey di d, we wo u l d n o w pr obabl y have a
ver y di f f er ent Bc hner , or even no Bc hner at al l . An anal ysi s of
t hei r r e wr i t i n g s , such as t he one gi v en her e, al so ser ves t o i l l ust r at e
i n t he mos t obvi ous manner possi bl e t he nat ur e of " c ons t r ai nt s " and
t hei r i nf l uence on t he wo r k of r ewr i t er s * T h e power of r e wr i t e r s , i t
wo u l d seemi s al ways ci r cumscr i bed by power of anot her , mor e
obvi ous k i n d .
Chapter 2
The system : patronage
Poet r i as i nedi t as
scr i bam t i bi , si me di t as.
( Ar chi poet a 376)
The concept of syst em was i nt r oduced i nt o moder n l i t er ar y t heor y
by t he Russi an For mal i st s. They vi ewed a cul t ur e as
a compl ex syst em of syst ems composed of var i ous sub-
syst ems suchas l i t er at ur e, sci ence, and t echnol ogy. Wi t h i n t hi s
general syst em, ext r al i t er ar y phenomena rel at e t o l i t er at ur e
not i n a pi ecemeal f ashi on but as an i nt er pl ay among sub-
syst ems det er mi ned by t he l ogi c of t he cul t ur e t o whi ch t hey
bel ong.
( St ei ner 112)
Some var i ant s of soci ol ogi cal cr i t i ci sm, some cr i t i ci sm based on
communi cat i ons t heor y, and var i ous st r ands of reader-response
cr i t i ci sm have done much t o creat e a cl i mat e i n whi ch i t i s once agai n
possi bl e t o t hi nk about l i t er at ur e i n t er ms of syst em. Recent
at t empt s at el abor at i ng a syst ems approach wi t hi n l i t er ar y st udi es
have been under t aken by Cl audi o Gui l l en, I t amar Even- Zohar Fel i x
Vodi ka, and Si egf r i ed J. Schmi dt . Out si de of l i t er ar y st udi es t he
syst ems appr oach has mai nl y been champi oned i n recent years by
Ni kl as Luhmann, whi l e Lyot ar d' s The Postmodern Condition t akes
i t s beari ngs f r om" Par son s concept i on of soci et y as a sel f - r egul at i ng
s y s t e m" ( l l ) .
Unf or t unat el y , as Di et er Schwani t z poi nt s out : A great
obst acl e t o t he r ecept i on of syst ems t heor y by l i t er ar y schol ar s,
however , i s i t s f or bi ddi ng l evel of abst r act i on ( 290 )* Thi s i s
cer t ai nl y bor ne out i n t he case of bot h Luhmann and Schmi dt .

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