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Electromechanical Energy Conversion

Lorentz Force Law


A force will be exerted on a positive charge (q) moving with a velocity ( V) in a
magnetic field ( B). The force is normal to the plane of V and B and its direction can
be determined by using the righthand screw rule. Try to rotate V towards B and see
what happens to a right hand screw.
!igure "# $harge moving in a constant magnetic field
) ( B X V q F =
%here&
m's in velocity the is V
T in wb'm density fulx the is
(
B
$ $oulomb in charge the is q
)ewtons in force the is F
*ince+
travelled distance l +
t
l
= = V
Then+
) ( B X l
t
q
F =
And since+
i
t
q
=
Then+
)ewtons ) ( B X l i F = ,otor equation
)ewtons sin ilB F =
%here+ is the angle between B l and .
--
!igure "( Vector diagram
.f B l i.e. = /0
)ewtons ilB F =
!igure "" !orce on a conductor currying current in a 1$ field
!igure "- $onductor ma2ing an angle with the 1$ magnetic field
.n general
-3
)ewtons ) ( B X l i F =
)ewtons sin ilB F =
Faradays Voltage Law
!araday4s law states that an emf is induced in a circuit placed in a magnetic field
if either&
a) The flux lin2ing the circuit is time varying function+ transformer voltage+ or
b) There is a relative motion between the circuit and the magnetic field such that
the conductors comprising the circuit cut the magnetic field lines of flux.
!or case (a)+
Volts
dt
(t) )d


= =
dt
t d
t e
) (
) (
This induced voltage is 2nown as transformer voltage.
!or case (b)+
Volts l B X V t e = ) ( ) (
%here +
B X V is the cross product of B V and and
l B X V ) (
is the dot product
of
) ( B X V
and l .
This induced voltage is 2nown as speed voltage.
!igure "3 $onductor sliding in a magnetic field
-5
V is the velocity vector of the sliding conductor in m's.
l V
The area swept by the sliding conductor in one second is&
s
Area
s
m
m Vl
# s
m

(
= =
The amount of flux swept by this area is&
s
wb

# #s
VBl
s
Area
B = = ) (

The )turns flux lin2age per unit time is&


s
turn wb

t
NVBl
t
N = =

.n this experiment )6#.
Therefore+
s
turn wb

t
VBl =

And since+
Volt
s
turn wb
=

=
t
t
t e
) (
) (

Then+
) (t e VBl =
.n general+
Volts l B X V t e = ) ( ) (
Volts ) cos )( sin ( ) ( l VB t e =
7enerator equation
%here
is the angle between the velocity (V ) and the flux density ( B ) and

is the
angle between B X V and l as shown in figure "5.
-8
!igure "5 $onductor moving in a magnetic field
The Torque Equation
-9
!igure "8 :ne turn of a coil in a magnetic field
!igure "8 shows one turn currying a current i
(
in a magnetic field B
#
.
)ewtons
# ( # (
lB i B X l i F
cond
= = ) (
.
sin
. .
r F T
cond cond
=
sin
. # (
( ( B rli T T
cond turn
= =
sin ) )( (
# ( ( (
(
(
rlB i N T N T
turn turns N
= =

sin ) (
# (
B i K T
a turns N
=

sin ) (
# (
B B K T
b turns N
=

sin ) (
# (
i i K T
c turns N
=

Assuming
constant is and i B
Three!hase "nduction #otor
$ac%ground
-/
#.
Volts l B X V t e
ind
= ) ( ) (
%here&
m in conductor the of length the l
T in density flux the B
m's in field magnetic the .r.t. inductor w the of velocity the V
in volts conductor a in voltage induced ) (
=
=
=
= t e
ind
(.
)ewtons ) (
S R ind
B X B K T =
)ewtons sin
S R ind
B KB T =
%here&
constant
B and B between angle torque the
T in density flux stator the B
T in density flux rotor the B
)ewtons in torque induced
; s
*
;
=
=
=
=
=
K
T
ind

".
T .
l
)
core

= = =
core
l
NI
H B
%here&
A in current .
m in length core mean
<'m in ty permeabili
turns of number
T in density flux B
=
=
=
=
=
l
N

&otating #agnetic Field


30
!igure "9 *tator windings of a threephase induction motor
The threephase currents supplied to the machine are&
= = 0
m a m a
I I t I i sin
= = #(0 #(0
m b m b
I I t I i ) sin(
= + = #(0 #(0
m c m c
I I t I i ) sin(
*ince B is proportional to i+ the corresponding magnetic flux densities will be&
= 0 t B B
m a
sin
= #(0 #(0 ) sin( t B B
m b

+ = #(0 #(0 ) sin( t B B
m c

The net magnetic field present in the airgap of the threephase induction motor
is&
c b a net
B B B B + + =
' ) sin( ) sin( (sin + + + = #(0 #(0 #(0 #(0 0 t t t B B
m net

' ) sin cos cos (sin
) sin cos cos (sin (sin
+ +
+ =
#(0 #(0 #(0
#(0 #(0 #(0 0
t t
t t t B B
m net


)' )( cos sin (
) )( cos sin ( (sin
(
"
(
#
(
"
(
#

(
"
(
#
(
"
(
#
0
j t t
j t t t B B
m net
+ +
+ + =


3#
' cos sin ( t j t B B
m net

(
"
(
"
=
' cos (sin t j t B B
m net
=
(
"
) (
=
/0
(
"
t j
m net
e B B

) ( = /0
(
"
t B B
m net

/0 by B lags B
Therefore+
a net
)ynchronous )!eed (n
s
)
Twopole machine has one winding per phase and they are arranged as follows&

ac4ba4cb4a
!or the magnetic field to complete one mechanical revolution+ it needs one
electrical cycle of current.
Therefore+
=lectrical degrees6mechanical degrees
:r
mech. elec.
=
!ourpole machine has two windings per phase and they are arranged as follows&
( ( ( ( # ( # # # # ( #
> > > > > > b c a b c a b c a b c a
!or the magnetic field to complete one mechanical revolution+ it needs two
electrical cycles of current. <ence+

mech. elec.
( =
!or a ?pole machine+
m e
(

P
=
t
P
t
m e
(
=
m e
(

P
=
50
(
(
(
s
n P
f

=
3(
P
f
n
s
#(0
= rpm
P
f
P
f
n
s s


-
#(0
50
(
50
(
= = = rad's
P
f
n
s
#(0
= in rpm is the synchronous speed and it is the speed of the
rotating magnet field. ()ot the rotor speed of the induction motor)+ f is the
frequency of the supply in <@+ and ? is the number of poles of the machine.
)teadystate *!eration
3"
!igure "/ %oundrotor induction motor
"nduced voltage in the rotor winding
a4 coilside
Volts sin ) (
+
VBl t e
a
=
with (a4) positive
a coilside

sin
) sin( ) (
VBl
VBl t e
a
=
=

Volts #90
with (a) negative
aa4 turn
Volts ( sin ) (
+
VBl t e
a a
=

V6 tangential velocity
r V =
where r is the radius of the rotor
Therefore+ for )turns
Volts ( t B rlN t e
ind
sin ) (
.
=
Volts t ABN t e
ind
sin ) (
.
=
3-
Volts ( t f N t e
pole ind
sin ) (
.
=
Volts t t e
ind
sin ) (
ma, .
=
Volts (
pole
fN =
ma,
Volts
(
(
pole rms
fN

=
Volts -- -
pole rms
fN . =
The stator rotating magnetic field induces voltages in the rotor windings. *hort
circuiting the rotor winding terminals produces threephase balanced currents that
will result in a rotating magnetic field as shown in figure "#0. The interaction
between the stator and rotor magnetic fields results in a unidirectional torque and
the rotor starts to rotate.
sin
r s
B B T
!igure "#0 %oundrotor .nduction ,otor
)li! s!eed
The rotor speed (n
r
) will never reach the speed of the magnetic field (n
s
). This
means that the rotor always runs at speed close but not equal to the synchronous
speed of the machine. The difference between the synchronous speed and the
rotor speed is 2nown as the slip speed.
*lip speed 6 n
s
n
r
33

%here+
n
s
is the synchronous speed (the speed of the rotating magnetic field) in rpm
n
r
is the speed of the rotor in rpm
The slip speed is the speed of the rotor conductors with respect to the rotating
magnetic field.
)li!
The slip (s) is the slip speed in per unit or percent of the synchronous speed.
unit per in
s
r s
n
n n
s

=
percent in #00
s
r s
n
n n
s

=
The noload slip ranges from # to (A while the fullload slip ranges from "3A.
&otor -requency

P
f
n
s
#(0
=
where+
frequency stator
frequency primary
frequency supply
#
=
=
= = f f
therefore+
#(0
#
s
Pn
f =
%hat determines the frequency in a conductor is the speed of the conductor w.r.t.
the rotating magnetic field. Therefore+ the frequency of the stator is determined by
the speed of the stator conductors w.r.t. the rotating magnetic field+ i.e n
s
+ and the
frequency of the rotor is determined by the speed of the rotor conductors w.r.t. the
rotating field which is n
s
n
r
.
s
s
r s rotor
n
n
n n
P
f f ) ( = =
#(0
(
#(0
(
s
s
r s
Pn
n
n n
f
) (
=
# (
sf f = rotor frequency in <@
&otor "nduced Voltage
35
#. The rotor at rest
n
r
6 0 + s 6#.0
and
# # (
f sf f = =
V'ph -- -
( # 0 ( m
N f .
.
=
where+
=
(+0
is the rotor induced voltage at standstill+
f
#
is the supply frequency+
)
(
is the rotor number of turns per phase+
m

is the maximum flux in the airgap per pole.


(. *tator induced voltage
V'ph -- -
# # # m
N f . =
)
#
is the rotor number of turns per phase
". Transformation ratio
#
(
#
0 (
N
N

a = =
.
or
# 0 (
a =
.
-. The rotor at any speed n
r
unit per in
s
r s
n
n n
s

=
and
V'ph -- -
( ( ( m
N f . =
# (
sf f =
V'ph -- -
( # ( m
N sf . =
V'ph
0 ( ( .
s =
V'ph
# (
sa =
&otor im!edance
'ph in resistance ;otor
(
= R
still stand at 'ph in reactance ;otor
(
= X
38
(s) slip any at 'ph in reactance ;otor
((
= X

( ((
sX X =

( ( (
jsX R ! !
rotor
+ = =

(
( # (
(
(
( (
R
sX
sX R !

+ = tan ) (
!igure "## .mpedance triangle of the rotor circuit
&otor Current at /ny )li! (s)

( (
0 (
(
(
(
jsX R
s
!

I
+
= =
.

;
sB
tan
(
( #
(
(
(
(
0 (
(

+
=
) (
.
sX R
s
I
(
(
(
(
(
( (
) (
cos
sX R
R
pf
+
= =
Equivalent Circuit o- a Three!hase "nduction #otor
0. )tator (1rimary) Equivalent Circuit
) (
+
# # # # #
( #
jX R I V
I I I
e"
+ + =
+ =
!igure "#( *tator equivalent circuit
39
2. &otor ()econdary) Equivalent Circuit
!igure "#" ;otor equivalent circuit

( (
(
(
jsX R

I
+
=
( (
0 (
(
jsX R
s
I
+
=
.
!igure "#- ,odified rotor equivalent circuit

(
(
0 (
(
jX
s
R

I
+
=
.

(
(
#
(
+
+
+
jX
s
R

I
+
=
3. E,act Equivalent Circuit
!igure "#3 =xact equivalent circuit of the motor
a

0 (
#
.
=
0 #
#
(
#
0 (
.
.
= =
N
N

a
3/
( (
I a I = +
(
(
(
a
R
R = +
(
(
(
a
X
X = +
e"
I I I + =
+
( #
m c
m c e"
jX

I I I
# #
+ = + =
+
) +
+
(
+
(
(
( #
jX
s
R
I + =
) (
# # # # #
jX R I V + + =
4. /!!ro,imate Circuit
)eglect core losses.
!igure "#5 =quivalent circuit with core loss neglected
1ower and Torque in a Three!hase "nduction #otor
1ower-low
50
!
igure "#8 =quivalent circuit for torque and power development
0. "n!ut 1ower
# # #
" pf I V P
in
=
2. )tator Co!!er Losses
#
(
#
" R I P
S#$
=
3. Core Losses
c
core
R

P
(
#
" =
4. /irga! 1ower
s
R
I
R

R I pf I V
P P P P
c
core S#$ in A%
(
(
(
(
#
#
(
# # # #
"
" " "
+
+
=
=
=
5. &otor Co!!er Losses
(
(
(
" + + R I P
R#$
=
6. Converted 1ower
5#
s ind #on&
s m
m ind #on&
a' #on&
#on&
#on&
R#$ a' #on&
T s P
s
T P
P s P
s
R
I s P
R I
s
R
I P
P P P

. .
. .
.
.
.
.
) (
) (
) (
+
+ ) (
+ +
+
+
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
#
Then+
#
*ince+
#
" #
" "
( (
(
(
(
(
( (
(
7. *ut!ut 1ower
m out out
Stra( mec) #on& out
T P
P P P P
=
=
. .
8. #echanical and )tray Losses
losses windage and !rection =
. mec)
P
power #Arated losses for ed Cnaccount = =
Stra(
P
9. "nduced Torque
s
a'
s
a'
m
#on&
ind
P
s
P s
P
T

=

= =
) (
) (
.
.
#
#
0:. *ut!ut Torque
m
out
out
P
T

.
=
E,am!le 30
A ((0V+ 50<@+ 5pole+ Dconnected+ #0hp induction motor has the following
parameters per phase&
= (/- . 0
#
R = 30" . 0
#
X = #-- . 0
(
R
= (08 . 0
(
X
= (3 . #"
m
X
0 . # = a
0 . 0 + -0"
.
= =
Stra( mec)
P * P
!or s6(A+ determine&
a) ;otor speed+
b) *upply current+
c) *upply power factor+
5(
d) :utput power+
e) :utput torque+
f) =fficiency.
Torques!eed Characteristics
%e need to find the relationship between the induced torque and the slip of the
motor.

= = =
s
R
I
P
P
T
s s
a'
m
#on&
ind
( (
(
"
# +
+
.
.

E (s). slip the of function a is >
(
I
To find the relation between
(
> I and the slip s+ we use Thevenin4s equivalent
circuit to replace the stator winding between points A and B.
!igure "#9 Thevenin4s equivalent circuit
) (
m
m
T)
X X j R
jX
V V
+ +
=
# #
#
T) T)
m
m
T)
jX R
X X j R
jX R jX
!
+ =
+ +
+
=

# #
# #
) (
) )( (
!igure "#/ Thevenin4s equivalent circuit
) + ( )
+
(
+
(
(
(
X X j
s
R
R
V
I
T) T)
T)
+ + +
=
5"
(
(
( (
(
) + ( )
+
(
+
X X
s
R
R
V
I
T) T)
T)
+ + +
=

=
s
R
I T
s
ind
( (
(
"
# +
+
.

+ + +
=
(
(
( (
(
(
"
) + ( )
+
(
+
.
X X
s
R
R
s
R
V
T
T) T) s
T)
ind

#. As n
r
approaches n
s
+ s approaches 0.0and

) + (
+
(
(
and X X R
s
R
T) T)
+
s
R
V
T
s
T)
ind
(
(
"
+
.

s (
and + > + R V
T)
are constants.
Therefore+ when the rotor speed is close to synchronous speed+ the induced
torque is directly proportional to the slip of the motor.
s T
ind

.
(. As n
r
approaches 0.0 ;?,+ s approaches #.0 and
) + (
( (
;> X X R
T) T)
+ +
(
(
(
(
"
) + (
+
.
T) s
T)
ind
X X
s
R
V
T
+

) (
) + (
+
.
s X X
R V
T
T) s
T)
ind
#
"
(
(
(
(
+

s Th ( (
and + TB + B> + > + R V
T)
are constants.
Therefore+ when the rotor speed is close to 0.0 ;?,+ the induced torque is
inversely proportional to the slip of the motor.
) (
.
s
T
ind
#

5-
!igure "(0 Torque Fspeed characteristics
)tarting Torque
At starting the rotor speed is @ero and the slip is #.0.
Therefore+

+ + +
=
(
(
( (
(
(
#
#
"
) + ( )
+
(
+
.
X X
R
R
R
V
T
T) T) s
T)
ind

)li! at #a,imum Torque


To find the slip at maximum torque ta2e the first derivative of the torque w.r.t. s and set it
equal to @ero and solve for s.
:r use the maximum power transfer principle.
53
!igure "(# ,aximum power transfer circuit
)
(
+ ( X X j R !
T) T) Source
+ + =
The maximum power transfer occurs when the variable load magnitude matches the
magnitude of the source impedance.
Therefore+
)
(
(
( (
+ (
+
ma,
X X R
s
R
T) T)
T
+ + =
and
(
(
(
(
) + (
+
ma,
X X R
R
s
T) T)
T
+ +
=
#a,imum Torque
*ubstitute for s by s
maxT
in the induced torque equation.
[ ]
(
(
(
(
(
"
) + (
ma,
X X R R
V
T
T) T) T) s
T)
+ + +
=

The E--ect o- /dding an E,ternal &esistance to the &otor ;inding


55
*ince
> and + + + +
(
X X R V
T) T) s T)

are all constants+ the maximum torque is constant.
<owever+ the slip at maximum torque is directly proportional to the rotor resistance ;
(
.
Therefore adding an external resistance in series with ;
(
shifts the maximum torque to the
left. The external resistance can be increases to a point where the maximum torque equals
the starting torque. At that point the slip at maximum torque equals the starting slip and
that is unity (#.0). Also+ the starting torque increases as we increase the external
resistance as shown in figure ".((. The external resistance can only be added to a wound
rotor motor through sliprings and brushes.

!igure "(( =ffect of external resisters on torquespeed torque
=xample "(
A (09V+ 50<@+ -pole+ Dconnected+ ##hp induction motor has the following
parameters per phase&
= (# . 0
#
R = --( . 0
#
X = #"8 . 0
(
R
= --( . 0
(
X
= ( . #"
m
X
0 . # = a
a) 1etermine the starting torque+
b) 1etermine the slip at maximum torque +
c) 1etermine the pullout torque+
d) 1etermine the external resistance in the rotor circuit that will ma2e the
starting torque the maximum torque.
e) 1etermine the starting code letter of the induction motor.
58

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