Chapter 1 Chemical Foundations

1. Chemistry: An Overview
a. A main challenge of chemistry is to understand the connection between the
macroscopic world that we experience and the microscopic world of atoms and
molecules
b. Must learn to think at atomic level
c. Chemistry
i. Study of matter and its changes
ii. Study of chemical compounds and the reactions they undergo
d. Matter
i. Matter composed of individual atoms
ii. Occupy a defined space
iii. Complex
e. Atoms vs. Molecules
i. Matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms
ii. Atom: smallest part of an element that is still that element
iii. Molecule: Two or more atoms joined and acting as a unit
f. Oxygen and Hydrogen Molecules
i. Use subscripts when more than one atom is in the molecule
1. Oxygen molecule = O
2

2. Hydrogen molecule = H
2

g. A Chemical Reaction
i. One substance changes to another by reorganizing the way the atoms are
attached to each other
2. The Scientific Method
a. Science
i. Science is a framework for gaining and organizing knowledge
ii. Science is a plan of actiona procedure for processing and understanding
certain types of information
iii. Scientists are always challenging our current beliefs about science, asking
questions, and experimenting to gain new knowledge
1. Scientific method is needed
b. Fundamental Steps of the Scientific Method
i. Process that lies at the center of scientific theory
c. Scientific Model
i. Law
1. Summarizes what happens. Statement of Fact
ii. Hypothesis
1. A possible explanation for an observation
iii. Theory (Model)
1. At attempt to explain why it happens
2.
3. Units of Measurement
a. Nature of measurement
i. Measurement
1. Quantitative observation consisting of two parts
a. Number
b. Scale (unit)
2. Examples
a. 20 grams
b. The Fundamental SI Units
i. Physical Quantity
1. Mass
a. kilogram
i. kg
2. Length
a. meter
i. m
3. Time
a. second
i. s
4. Temperature
a. kelvin
i. K
5. Electric Current
a. ampere
i. A
6. Amount of substance
a. mole
i. mol
4. Uncertainty in Measurement
i. A digit that must be estimated is called uncertain
ii. A measurement always has some degree of uncertainty
iii. Record the certain digits and the first uncertain digit
b. Measurement of Volume Using a buret
i. The volume is read at the bottom of the liquid curve (meniscus)
ii. Meniscus of the liquid occurs at about 20.15 mL
1. Certain digits: 20.15
2. Uncertain digit: 20.15
c. Precision and Accuracy
i. Accuracy
1. Agreement of a particular value with the true value
ii. Precision
1. Degree of agree among several measurements of the same quantity
5. Significant Figures and Calculations
a. Rules for Counting Significant Figures
i. Nonzero integers
b. Rules for Counting Significant Figures
i. There are three zeros
ii.
iii.
iv. Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures.
1. 1inch = 2.54 cm, exactly
2. 9 pencils (obtained by counting).
c. Exponential Notation
i. Example
1. 300. Written as 3.00 10
2

2. Contain three significant figures
d. Significant Figures in Mathematical Operation
i. For multiplication or division, the number of significant figures is the
result is the same as the number in the least precise measrement used in
the calculation
1. 1.342 5.5 = 7.4
ii. For addition or subtraction, the result has the same number of decimal
places as the least precise measurement used in the calculation
6. Temperature
a. Three Systems for Measuring Temperature
i. Farenheit
ii. Celcius
iii. Kelvin
b. Converting Between Scales
i. T
k
= T
C
+ 273.15
7. Density
a. Mass of substance per unit volume of the substance
b. Common units are g/cm
3
or g/mL
c. Density = Mass/Volume
8. Classification of Matter
a. Matter
i. Anything that takes up space
b. Three Classes
i. Solid
ii. Liquid
iii. Gas
c. Solid
i. Definite Volume and shape
d. Liquid
i. Definite volume but no shape
e. Gas
i. No fixed volume or shape
ii. Takes shape of contain
f. Mixture
i. Have variable composition
1. Homogeneous Mixture
a. Having visibly indistinguishable parts; solution
2. Heterogeneous
a. Having visibly distinguishable parts
g. Physical Changes
i. Change in the form of substance, not in its chemical composition
1. Ex. boiling or freezing water
ii. Can be used to separate a mixture into pure compounds, but it will not
break compounds into elements
1. Distillation
2. Filtration
3. Chromatography
h. Chemical Change
1. A given substance becomes a new substance or substances with
different properties and different composition