DECLARATION

I ROBERT SSEKAJJUGO declare that the work presented in this special project report is my
own original piece of work, and to the best of my knowledge, it has never been submitted to any
university or any other institution for the award of a degree or any other award.
Signature. Date.
This work has been supervised and approved for submission by,
Dr. Sylvia alubwama !uwanga
"ssistant lecturer
Department of #ildlife and animal resource management
$aculty of veterinary medicine, !akerere %niversity.
Signature.date
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my beloved parents !r. &eorge #illiam '. !utebi and !rs. (osemary
!utebi for their love and sacrifice for my dreams and hopes. &od bless the works of their hands
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This far the )ord *as brought me. I wish to glorify *im, the &od of nature for enabling me
complete this academic program and produce this piece of work. To him be all the honor and
eternal dominion.
I am e+ceedingly grateful ,I choose to use -grateful. for lack of the very word/ to my family0 my
dear 'arents !r. and !rs &eorge #illiam and (osemary !utebi, 1osephine, &erald, (ichard,
'rossy, !aria, (ose, ankya, 2livia, 'atrick , Dennis, (eagan and my lovely daughter 3evin for
their noble sacrifices for my education and other forms of support. !ay the good )ord grant you
your hearts. desires4
&reat thanks go to the %gandan people, my sponsors for this degree program. I owe this peace of
work and training to your sacrifices and honest ta+i paying. &od bless you abundantly and &od
bless %ganda.
!y sincere appreciation goes to my supervisor, Dr Sylivia alubwama !uwanga, for her efforts
and wise counsel and guidance in this research project and preparation of this piece of work.
" big thank5you goes to Dr. )awrence !ayega, the D.6.2 5 !asaka district, !s. 7ve )uwumu,
the ).D.2 8 3imaanya53yabaku9a Division, !rs. Sarah Sserwadda, the ".*.2 5 nyendo5
Ssennyange division and Dr. 'atricia akatudde 8 6.2, 3atwe5:utego division for their
assistance in this research
I also wish to recogni9e the kindness and assistance of my classmates icholas, "nnet, !ugabi
and the rest of the :.6.! 6 class of ;<=<.
ACRONYMS
%:2S.%ganda :ureau of Statistics
#*2. #orld *ealth 2rgani9ation
2I7.................... #orld 2rgani9ation for "nimal *ealth
D. ewcastle disease
D" Deo+yribonucleic acid
7)IS" 7n9yme linked immunosorbent assay
'>('olymerase chain reaction
$"2 $ood and agricultural organi9ation of the united nations
""DS ational agricultural advisory services
!""I$ !inistry of agriculture, animal industry and fisheries
D.6.2 District 6eterinary officer
).D.2 )ivestock development officer
".*.2 "nimal husbandry officer
6.2 6eterinary officer
:S .. ational bureau of standards
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
'oultry refers to a number of domesticated or tamed avian species such chicken ,the domestic
fowl, &alas domestica/, turkey, ducks, among others/. 'oultry is the most abundant livestock in
rural areas, especially in Sub5Saharan "frica. 7ighty per cent of households in Sub5Saharan
"frica keep some form of poultry ,Sonaiya, ;<<?/.
Development agencies and scholars in the last two decades have recogni9ed the importance of
family poultry production in the national economies of developing countries and its role in
improving household food security, nutritional status and incomes of many small farmers and
marginali9ed groups ,Tadelle et al, ;<<@0 Sonaiya, ;<<?/. Therefore, if improved, poultry
production has the potential to increase the entitlements to food security to many marginali9ed
groups. $urther more, poultry production constitutes an appropriate means of promoting gender
eAuality and empowerment since its suitable for women and the youth to successfully venture
into ,samba et al, =BBB/. samba e+plained that this is because it reAuires less capital
investment and little strength is needed to handle the chicken. To put it otherwise, therefore,
poultry production holds within itself the magnificent power to breaking vicious circle of poverty
and enhancing the attainment of !illennium development goal of halving poverty by ;<=C as
well as that one of empowerment of women.
In %ganda, although there are various types of poultry kept, the most common is chicken. The
national chicken flock is estimated at @?.D million birds ,%:2S, ;<<B/. !ajority of households,
especially in rural areas, keep local breeds in a free5range system. *owever, the productivity of
these chickens is lower compared to e+otic chickens whose production is more intensive in terms
of labor and other inputs. *ence promoting intensive production systems through research that
sustainably addresses constraints to it is one way of increasing their productivity as well as
farmersE incomes thereby enhancing their livelihoods.
%nfortunately, this gold mine had in most developing countries including %ganda been so sadly
neglected in the past, in areas of both investment and research ,&ueye, ;<<</. " study into the
factors influencing commercial poultry production in a setting typical of the peri8urban and semi
urban environment ,such as !asaka !unicipality/, will be significant contribution to improved
livelihoods.
1.1 Backgro!"
!asaka municipality is an area of a semi 8 urban and peri5urban setting. It is densely populated,
with low levels of education. The majority of the locals are involved in small business ventures
such as retail shops, market vending, as well as peri5urban agriculture, among others. The
majority of the locals lack the financial strength to afford decent shelter, access basic medical
care and offer their children good education opportunities.
#omen and the youth constitute the majority of the population. "lthough women contribute
significantly to "griculture and livestock production in the area, their noble intentions of
providing for their offspring through these activities has for long been chained by the manacles
of limited access and control over resources especially land. Intensive poultry production,
therefore, if given adeAuate attention through sustainable research, would provide the long
awaited break through, since it reAuires less land.
1.# Pro$%&' ()a)&'&!)
!any households in !asaka municipality keep poultry but mostly on a less commercial basis,
with low inputs and husbandry standards and correspondingly low levels of poultry production.
!any farmers are Auitting business and others are losing hope despite the steadily increasing
demand and a highly promising potential market for poultry products which is provided locally,
in 3ampala and in the neighboring countries like (wanda and D( >ongo ,""DS >oordinator,
!asaka district, personal communication/
It has also been reported that, in "frica poultry production has for long been crippled by a
number of factors including diseases, notably ewcastle disease among others. This occurrence
is not different in !asaka municipality, therefore it was imperative to carry out research to get an
understanding of the particular factors that affect poultry production in this locality.
1.* J()+,+ca)+o! o, )-& ()".
The rapid population growth in !asaka, and the urban setting of the area, with increased
scarcity of land and land fragmentation leaves intensive livestock production systems as one
of the most feasible alternatives in ensuring animal protein supply to the people.
'oultry production is a viable enterprise in areas where the population is increasing and land
being a limiting factor. This is because there is a possibility of carrying out production under
intensive management system. *owever, factors limiting this type of production at commercial
level in !asaka municipality are not well established. This therefore justifies a research into
these factors so that recommendations are made to farmers, technical advisors, support
organi9ations and other stakeholders in order to devise appropriate interventions to these factors.
1./ O$0&c)+1&(
1./.1 Ma+! o$0&c)+1&F
To establish the factors that affect commercial intensive poultry production in !asaka
!unicipality.
1./.# S2&c+,+c o$0&c)+1&(3
i/ To establish the socioeconomic factors that affect commercial intensive poultry
production in !asaka !unicipality.
ii/ To establish the technical factors that affect commercial intensive poultry productivity in
!asaka !unicipality
1.4 R&(&arc- 5&()+o!(
i/ #hat is the productivity of commercial poultry in the study areaG
ii/ #hat are the key socioeconomic factors that affect intensive commercial poultry
production in the study areaG
iii/ #hat are the key technical factors that affect intensive commercial poultry production in
the study areaG
CHAPTER TWO
#.0 LITERATURE RE6IEW
#.1 Br&&"( o, 2o%)r.
"thieno et al ,;<<H/ reported that although there are various types of poultry in %ganda, the
common is chicken. They added that three breeds of poultry e+ist in %gandaF the indigenous I
local, the e+otic and the cross bred.
samba et al ,=BBB/ reported the most common strain of layer chicken kept at the commercial
poultry farms around 3ampala to be the &oldline, #hite leghorn and era
#.# H($a!"r. 2rac)+c&(
#.#.1 Ho(+!g
" poultry house should provide adeAuate shelter, a healthy and comfortable environment and
reduce labour reAuirements to a minimum ,#illiamson and 'ayne, =BHD/. !alden and (ichard
,=B?B/ observed that chicken that is comfortable and free from stress is most likely to perform at
its ma+imum potential.
>alnek et al ,=BB?/ recommended that all surfaces inside the poultry house should be made of
impervious material ,such as concrete/ to permit thorough washing and disinfection. They
e+plained that it is impossible to sterili9e a dirt floor. !alden and (ichard ,=B?B/ suggested that
the roof should be draft and moisture proof and easy to apply.
'oultry housing may be0 open shed, semi5enclosed or enclosed with light and temperature
control. #illiamson and 'ayne ,=BHD/ suggested that walls of poultry houses in the tropics
should be open. Semi5enclosed houses give more protection to birds and provide more
environmental control as desired in the tropics ,7nsminger, =BB=/. >alnek et al ,=BB?/
emphasi9ed that e+clusion of free5flying wild birds is a major rule in poultry housing
construction, since they carry mites and could act as carriers of some common viral and bacterial
diseases of poultry.
$ig. =F Typical layer houses ,adopted from " manual of farm structures and housing
Technologies by 3atunguka5(wakishaya, 7. and dikwera, 1. ,ed./ ,;<<H//
$ig. ;F Typical features of poultry housing in the Tropics ,adopted from livestock technical
manual of Department of 6eterinary Services and "nimal industry, !""I$/
The livestock technical manual ,Department of veterinary services and "nimal industry,
!""I$/ stipulated ?CJ wood shaving and ;CJ saw dust to be a good combination for litter, but
ground nut shells or chopped straw or crushed mai9e cobs, can be used. "nd that coffee husks
provide the best source of litter.
"iello et al ,=BBH/ recommended the following space reAuirements for meat5strain birds kept on
litter or slats.
"ge $loor space
$rom day = *eated area CsA. ft of brooder I =<< chicks
$rom week = = sA. ft I bird
$rom week H ; sA. ft I bird
$raser et al ,=BB=/ recommended the following floor area reAuirements for egg5strain birds on
litter only or combined with slats
"ge in weeks
SAuare feet I bird :irds I sAuare meter
<5K <.C ;<
?5=@ = =<
=B onward =5=.C ?5=<
#.#.# E5+2'&!)
" poultry house is not complete without accessory eAuipment that makes it suitable for the
particular kind of production for which it is intended. 'ieces of eAuipment that are built into, as
part of the house should be simple, few in number, adeAuate in si9e and removable for cleaning
and they include0 nesting bo+es for layers, feeders and drinkers.
#.#.#.1 7&&"&r(
Since food is a major item in poultry production, it is necessary that a feeder is adeAuate in si9e
and good ,7nsminger, =BB=/. 7nsminger further suggested that feeders should be built to avoid
waste, arranged so that birds do not roost on them, and so constructed that as long as they contain
any food, the birds can reach it.
Sonaiya and Swan ,;<<D/ recommended that feeders can be made of wood, sheet metal or
bamboo and are best suspended from the roof to keep rats out. 1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/
recommended the following measurements ,feeder space/ as optimum for chicken
"ge $eeder length
=day 8 D weeks ;.C cmIbird
D5H weeks C.C cmIbird ,?.C if broilers/
H5=; weeks ?.C cmIbird ,B.< if broilers/
=;5=H weeks ==.< cmIbird
"dult =D.C cmIbird

#.#.#.# Wa)&r )rog-(
"ccording to )ynn ,=BH?/, a perfect watering device should keep the water clean and cool in
warm weather conditions and be of such construction that can be easily be cleaned. *e added
that the watering eAuipment should be high enough so that litter will not be scratched into it and
so located that birds cannot contaminate it with their feacal droppings. 7nsminger ,=BB=/
reported that a watering device should prevent spillage of water around the vessel or container.
*e added that water troughs should be distributed throughout the poultry house so that a hen
does not have to travel for more than =Cft for a drink and that a water space is less important than
good distribution of water troughs.
#.#.#.* N&()(
!alden and (ichard ,=B?B/ noted that the desirable Aualities of a nest are that it should be
roomy, easily cleaned and splayed, dark, cool and well ventilated, and conveniently located.
Dark nests are preferred because the hen likes seclusions for laying and darkness also reduces the
likelihood of egg eating ,#illiamson and 'ayne, =BHD/. 1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/
recommended a nest bo+ of dimensions @<L@<L@H cm for @5D birds and K<L=H< cm that is
communal for C< birds.
orth ,=B?;/ recommended that in the nests, appropriate nesting material should be availed and
that any good, dust free, dry material will suffice. *e added that the material should be
replenished as needed to keep the floor of the nest covered and the nesting material clean.
#.#.* Po%)r. &!1+ro!'&!)
The environment in a poultry house as in any livestock building should be such that the stock is
maintained in good health and kept in highly productive state. They looked at the environment in
four different aspects0 temperature, humidity, ventilation and litter condition.
#.#.*.1 6&!)+%a)+o!
'attison ,=BB@/ reported that high stocking densities put a great burden to ventilation and have
increasing incidences to respiratory diseases related to insufficient ventilation especially with
broilers. The prime function of ventilation according to !acko and :ell ,=BB</ is the removal of
>arbon dio+ide. They added that proper ventilation lowers humidity and keeps the litter dry.
>alnek et al ,=BB?/ noted that "mmonia fumes develop in damp litter and droppings. "nd that if
ventilation is poor and fumes accumulate, they may reach high enough concentration to inhibit
growth and performance, cause keratoconjuctivitis, and e+acerbate respiratory infection. The
condition of litter and amount of "mmonia fumes are good indicators of adeAuacy of ventilation
,7nsminger, =BB=/. 7nsminger further reported that ventilation can be naturally provided, relying
on convectional currents which are set up in the poultry building or can be mechanically
provided by e+haust systems and input systems.
In the tropics, a building with open sides is ideal ,Sonaiya and Swan, ;<<D/. Sonaiya and Swan,
,;<<D/ added that the sides should be open in a direction to allow the prevailing wind to blow
across the width of the building ,cross5flow ventilation/. They further recommended that
buildings relying on natural air5flow for ventilation should not e+ceed Hm in width, basing on the
following arguments. They observed that an air mass between the side walls of a poultry house
resists being moved, even across an open5sided building. "nd that the wider the building, the
more the resistant it is to air movement and thus building over Hm ,;Kft/ wide have a
significantly greater problem because of the inherent property of air to resist movement.
#.#.*.# T&'2&ra)r&
>alnek et al ,=BB?/ observed that in addition to starvation and dehydration, chilling and
overheating are serious stress producer in the brooder that can precipitate active disease from
latest infections that might otherwise be overcome without detectable symptoms. They
suggested that the temperature should be started at @C
<
> and gradually reduced as the birds
mature. They however argued that while thermometers are helpful, strict adherence to
thermometer temperature without regard to obvious discomfort of chicks or poults is poor
practice. That an uncomfortable bird will let the care taker know about it, and the cause of the
discomfort should be corrected, regardless of the thermometer reading.
1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/ suggested that for pullets, temperature should be reduced gradually to
=H
<
>, i.e. by about @
<
> per week, and for broilers, temperature should be reduced gradually to
;=
<
> by @ weeks of age. $or the laying flock, they stated that optimal temperature range is
between ;=
<
> and ;D
<
> and that below this temperature, the egg production is reduced by half
an egg per hen housed per year for each <.C
<
> decrease. "nd that above this temperature range,
the number, si9e and Auality of the eggs will be reduced.
Sonaiya and Swan ,;<<D/ warned that heat stress is a significant constraint to successful
production and can lead to death. They stipulated it that birds will not tolerate temperatures over
D<
<
> ,depending on the prevailing relative humidity/ and lethal temperatures for most chickens
are DK
<
> upwards. In the tropics, they recommended an 7ast5#est orientation of the length of
the building to minimi9e e+posure to direct sunlight. They however advised that the ventilation
concerns in building alignment may be left to prevail over the solar heat control in this aspect.
#.#.*.* H'+"+).
"ccording to 'attison ,=BB@/, in practical terms the aim of a good construction is to keep the
relative humidity of the poultry house below C<J but humidity lower than @<J may aggregate
respiratory infections since aerosols are suspended and viable for longer periods in dusty and dry
air. If it was not for making the litter wet, a relative humidity of ?CJ to H<J would probably be
the healthiest for poultry ,!acko and :ell, =BB</, as it increases the rate of sedimentation of dirt
particles from the atmosphere of the poultry house. !arko and :ell added that these act as
transporters of microorganisms. Sonaiya and Swan ,;<<D/ noted that since poultry do not possess
sweat glands and must cool themselves by panting out water in their breath ,which is evaporative
cooling/, when the humidity is too high, this cooling mechanism does not work very well.
#.#./ L+))&r 'a!ag&'&!)
"t least @ in. ,?.C cm/ of suitable litter, spread to an even depth should be provided at the start
,"iello et al, =BBH/. They added that litter must be free of mold0 it should absorb moisture
without caking, be non5to+ic, be of large enough particle to discourage consumption and should
be of uniform consistency ,i.e. the surface not markedly different to the sub surface/
The term -wet litter. may refer to only surface wetness, stickiness or greasiness, whilst the litter
below may be dry, often called -capped., -sticky. or -greasy. litter. 1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/
e+plained this, that the surface may dry out forming a hard crust on top of the dry -new. litter
beneath, i.e. the litter is not uniform and friable as it should be. >alnek et al ,=BB?/ warns that
wet litter provides optimal conditions for increased multiplication or maturation of coccidian,
bacteria and molds on the litter and should be avoided or promptly dealt with if it is seen to
occur. 1ordan et al ,=BB=/ suggested that areas of wet or sticky litter must be promptly turned
over by hand ,e.g. using a spade run along beneath the litter/ so that -new. dry litter from beneath
the cap is left on top. "nd that alternatively, fresh litter should be added on top by hand after
turning in order to encourage the birds to use the area. They added that attention should also be
given to drinkers, which should be at correct height for the age of the birds ,top of the neck/ and
with correct ,not too deep/ water level in them ,not more than =;.C mm/ in order to avoid
spillage. "nd that balance of correct house temperature for age, heat input and air flow 8 is
essential in producing good litter.
1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/ noted that as a conseAuence of wet or poor litter, e+cess "mmonia
accumulates in the house because of fermentation of the urea ,urates in feces/ by urate5splitting
bacteria in warm moist conditions. "nd that the "mmonia reduces appetite and damages the
respiratory system, thereby predisposing to infection 8 >olibacillosis 8 and, hence, to poor
performance. They added that wet litter predisposes to greater >occidiosis infection and, hence,
to poor performance.
>alnek et al ,=BB?/ noted that e+cessive ventilation may cause e+cessively dry litter and since
coccidial oocysts reAuire moisture to develop to infective stage, this inhibits their development
and may so limit the number of infective oocysts that infection is too light for a good immune
reaction.
#.#.4 L+g-) a!" %+g-)+!g
1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/ suggested ;D hours of light ,=< lu+/ for the first C 8 =D days in
broilers to encourage feeding and then ;@ hrs light ,= 8 ; lu+/ and = hr dark ,<.; lu+/each day.
They added that alternatively, an intermittent program may be practiced of @ hrs light
,=< 8 ;< lu+/ and = hr dark ,<.; lu+/.
orth ,=B?;/ postulated that for layers, the combination of growing8laying light programs is
built around two important features0
a. The length of light day should never increase for growing pullets i.e. should be non5
stimulatory.
b. The length of light day should never decrease for laying pullets.
*e argued that the e+posure to non5stimulatory ,short/ day length allows the brain to become
properly sensiti9ed while disrupting the photo refractory condition. 'hoto refractoriness is the
condition in which the bird is not capable of responding to the long day lengths. "nd that it had
been demonstrated that e+posure to non5stimulatory day length for a minimum of eight weeks
prior to stimulatory lighting is necessary to properly attain se+ual maturity and optimal
production.
"iello et al ,=BBH/ suggested that day length should be increased gradually as pullets come into
egg production and should reach a =D 8 =K hour light period I day at peak production. They
added that an intensity of at least one foot5candle of light ,=< lu+/ at feed trough should be
provided0 this is about eAual to one K< 8 #att light bulb to each =<< sA. ft ,MB m
;
/, hanging ?ft
,;.= m/ above the birds. "nd that production may decrease if day length or light intensity is
decreased during the laying period.
#.#.8 B+o(&cr+). a!" -.g+&!&
1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/ stipulated the need to prevent as far as possible the introduction of
infections onto the premises. They mentioned that significant mobile threat comes from
personnel and vehicles, and that feed ,notably Salmonella infections/ and water are additional
areas for consideration. They suggested wheel dips and foot dips filled with disinfectants to be
availed and hand washing with suitable antiseptic soap, by all persons entering the livestock
houses. They advised that visitors to sites should be restricted and where their visit is really
essential, they should be provided with full protective clothing. They also suggested saniti9ing of
the drinking water.
>alnek et al ,=BB?/ mentioned backyard I range birds and pet fowls, insects, wild birds, rodents,
household pets and eAuipment ,especially cleaning eAuipment and egg cases/ as possible sources
of infection. They argued that favorable geographical location of the farm in respect to other
poultry units, proper location of buildings in relation to each other and to prevailing wind
currents, proper design of building inside and out, and design and positioning of eAuipment, are
important physical principles of disease prevention.
1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/ recommended that where possible, the all5in I all5out management
should be adopted for it reduces the chances of cross infection and provides the opportunity of
achieving a total depopulation and cleaning the site. They added that proper litter disposal should
be ensured. >alnek et al ,=BB?/ stipulated stringent hygiene and sanitation programs for all the
eAuipment. They included regular washing and disinfection of drinkers and feeders.
#.#.9 6acc+!a)+o!
>alnek et al ,=BB?/ noted that some diseases are so ubiAuitous and easily and rapidly spread that
avoiding e+posure is e+tremely difficult, yet little can be done to alter the course of an outbreak
should it occur. They added that vaccination is relatively harmless and ine+pensive and thus
appropriate for them. 1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/ noted that because control by vaccination is
more effective for some diseases than others and programs and reAuirements vary considerably
with the local epidemiological situation. "ccording to :okomo ,%/ )TD, ,;<<B/, vaccination
programs for layers in >entral %ganda should generally cater for !arek.s disease ,!.D./,
Infectious :ronchitis ,I.:./, ew >astle Disease ,>D/, Infectious :ursal Disease ,I:D/ and
$owl Typhoid. "nd that for broilers, I:, >D and I:D should at least be catered for.
6accines are usually supplied in vials in free9e5dried form and should be kept at D5H
<
> an d
transported in an insulated container to protect them from heat and light ,1ordan and 'attison,
=BBK/. 1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/ further recommended that when drinking water is used as
method of administration, it should be clean and free of >hlorine and metallic ions or else
skimmed milk powder should be dissolved at the rate of ;gIliter, ;<5@< minutes before adding
the vaccine, to neutrali9e the damaging components ,>hlorine or metallic ions/. "nd that the
water shouldn.t contain any debris such as rust and dirt or residues of saniti9ers and the vaccine
solution shouldn.t be put in metal storage tanks for they can all inactivate the vaccine viruses.
2ther methods of administration include splay, eye drop, and injection.
#.#.: Ca!!+$a%+('3 B&ak )r+''+!g a!" o)-&r co!)ro% '&a(r&(.
>annibalism is a common vice in poultry that often result into fatal injuries or down grading of
carcasses in the case of meat birds and loss of eggs in layers. 1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/ stated
that light breeds are more prone to this vice and heavier breeds. "nd that though the e+act cause
is often not very clear, predisposing environmental conditions include insufficient feeding and
drinking space, high5density stocking, too much heat during brooding, e+cessive light in pens
and boredom.
>annibalism takes on different forms including vent picking, feather pulling, toe picking and
head picking. >alnek et al ,=BB?/ postulated it that of these, vent picking is the most severe form
and is predisposed by prolapsed or tearing of the tissues by passage of an abnormally large egg.
$or feather pulling, they mentioned that it is usually due to nutritional and mineral deficiencies
and may be so severe as to cause fatal hemorrhages.
$raser et al ,=BB=/ mentioned that while cannibalism can be reduced by proper husbandry, under
some conditions and with some strains of birds, it can be prevented only by beak trimming
,removal of half of the upper beak and a tip of the lower beak/. They added that cautery is
generally necessary to prevent e+cessive breeding and that since it is stressful0 beak trimming
should be done with care. They stated that it can be done at = day of age or later, but generally
before lay, for the stress would reduce production in laying birds. >alnek et al ,=BB?/ warned
that beak trimming errors may permanently affect production, Auoting :ell ,=BKK/ who had
observed marked reduction in lay from water deprivation related to a beak trimming system that
resulted in long lower beaks, making it difficult to obtain water when the level was low.
#.#.; 7&&"( a!" 7&&"+!g
The key constraints regarding the feeding of poultry are feed availability, feed Auality and
$eed costs ,:yarugaba, ;<<?/. :yarugaba added that for commercial poultry production, the
availability of compounded feeds is constrained by competing use of the feed ingredients
,especially cereal grains, fish/ as human food, brewing industry and feed for other animals, and
seasonal variation. *e forecast that in %ganda, while the installed physical capacity of the feed
mills was by then enough for the then current number of commercial poultry, growth in demand
could soon not be easily met as most feed owners were constrained by lack of capital and
Aualified personnel to run large output factories.
'oor Auality feeds has been one major factor that affects the productivity and therefore, the
profitability of the poultry industry. This is due to the lack of regulations relating to feed policy,
legislations and standards. There are many small5scale feed mi+ers, which are often unskilled
and insufficiently eAuipped to manage feed milling operations. These produce substandard
Auality feeds leading to poor growth rates and production. There is need for an institutional and
legal framework to regulate the industry.
#.* R&cor" k&&2+!g
"iello et al ,=BBH/ suggested that good records of all flock activities, including hatch date,
regular body weights ,to ensure that the pullets will have reached optimal body weights when
they are brought into egg production/, lighting programs, house temperature, disease history,
medication and vaccination programs I dates, Auantity and type of feed given and mortality.
#./ Mark&)+!g o, 2o%)r. 2ro"c)(
Sonaiya and Swan ,;<<D/ reported that many developing countries do not have refrigeration as a
factor in their storage, both during transport, retail or consumer household stages, and for this
reason, the poultry meat is purchased live, and slaughtered immediately before consumption.
That also eggs are often retailed with a means for the buyer to check their Auality before buying,
either by candling or floatation methods. They further reported that transport of eggs and poultry
from farms to the city usually begins with a purchase by a middleman dealer, directly from the
household, or from small locally held weekly markets. They projected that as the industry
develops, the task of marketing eggs and poultry will still involve the collection of live poultry
and eggs from farmers, transporting them to a grading, packing or processing plant, grading and
standardi9ing the poultry meat and eggs, processing and packing them into more useful forms,
storing them ,preferably under refrigeration/, moving them through whole sale and retail
channels and delivering them to consumers at a convenient time and place.
:yarugaba ,;<<?/ reported that in %ganda, some of the broiler and layer farmers have over time
established reliable clientele such as hotels, restaurants or roadside roasted chicken sellers or
middlemen who will always pick the products from the farms and transport them to the
consumer points or to secondary retailers. *e added that some more organi9ed companies such
as %gachick have introduced a contract farming scheme whereby farmers are given either broiler
or layer day5old chicks and pay as they get the returns back. Some even sell their products back
to the company for processing and subseAuent marketing.
#.4 Po%)r. D+(&a(&(
:yarugaba ,;<<?/ postulated the most prevalent diseases among poultry in %ganda to include
ewcastle disease, respiratory disease comple+es, fowl po+, diarrhea, Salmonellosis,
>olibacillosis, fowl cholera, &umboro, "vian leucosis, >occidiosis and several parasitic
conditions both internal and e+ternal. *e added that their prevalence varies between the various
sectors and this largely depends on the preventive measures and management practices in the
different sectors. 3nowledge of the epidemiology and management of important diseases in
poultry is essential in order to improve the production and health of poultry and is critical to
improvement of the livelihoods of the rural poultry farmers.
'oultry diseases can be viral, bacterial, fungal, parasitic or due to nutritional deficiencies
especially vitamins.

#.4.1 Bac)&r+a% "+(&a(&(

Disease 7tiology Signs and symptoms
$owl >holera
,"vian
'asteirellosis/
Pasteurella
multocida
"cute form N very rapid mortality
N marked depression and
anore+ia,
N mucous discharges from the
orifices, cyanosis and fetid diarrhea

>hronic form locali9ed infections in areas like0
N the respiratory tract
,manifested by rales and a thick catarrhal
nasal discharge/,
N in the conjunctiva and
adjacent tissues,
N hock joint, facial edema,
N and middle ear and cranial
bones leading to torticollis
'ullorum
disease
Salmonella
Pullorum
N 'redominantly seen in chicks less than @ weeks
N Depression with a tendency to huddle
N (espiratory distress,
N )ack of appetite
N #hite viscous droppings that adhere to the
feathers around the vent.
N :lindness as well as swelling of the tibiotarsal
and the humeroradial and ulnar articulations
N "sub acute form with lameness and swollen hock
joints may be seen in growing birds and result in poor growth
rates
N Suboptimal egg production may be the only sign
of the disease in some cases.

>olibacillosis 'athogenic
strains of
Escherichi
a coli
"cute septicemia
:acteremia progresses to septicemia and
death, or e+tends the infection to serosal
surfaces, pericardium, joints and other organs
Infections in poultry occur in the intestine
,coli granuloma/, air sacs ,airsaccuritis/,
ovary ,salpingitis/, heart sac ,pericarditis/
There is acute septicemia leading to swollen
parenchymatous organs with congested
pectoral muscles, livers are green in color
and may have small necrotic foci.
'etechial hemorrhages, peritonitis, enteritis
leading to diarrhea and dehydration, synovitis
and osteoarthritis, cellulites leading to
variable yellowing and dimpling of the skin
ventral to the vent, breast and thighs
,>harlton et al, ;<<K/
Sub5acute
>olibacillosis
:irds that survive septicemia develop sub5
acute fibrinopurulent airsacculitis,
pericarditis, perihepatitis and lymphocytic
depletion of bursa and thymus ,>larence et
al, =BB=/.
#.4.# 6+ra% "+(&a(&(
Disease 7tiology Signs and symptoms
N&< ca()%& "+(&a(&
=NCD>
=P!&'o&!c&2-a%+)+(>

"vian
'aramy+ovirus
type = ,'!65
=/ serotype
6iscerotrophic
6elogenic
ewcastle disease
,66D/
N *emorrhagic
lesions in the intestinal tract
N &reenish
watery diarrhea
N !ortality is
high.
eurotrophic
6elogenic >D

N *igh
mortalities following
respiratory and nervous
signs
N rapid breathing
N &urgling noise
in the throat with or without
a discharge of mucus from
the mouth and nostrils
N 'aralysis with
dragging of the leg
!esogenic >D (espiratory signs and
sometimes nervous signs with
low mortality
)entogenic
respiratory >D

!ild or unapparent respiratory
infection
"symptomatic
enteric >D

Inapparent enteric infection

I!,&c)+o( Br(a%
D+(&a(& =IBD>
=G'$oro or
I!,&c)+o( Br(+)+(>

:irnavirus N "ffects young chicken, usually up to
K weeks
N Sudden onset, short course and
e+tensive destruction of lymphocytes particularly
in the bursa of $abricious and also in other
lymphoid tissue
N Immunosupression and decreased
immune response to vaccination
N :irds are listless, sleepy, dehydrated,
and have a whitish diarrhea and vents seem
irritated
7o<% 2o? =A1+a! 2o?>

"vipo+ >utaneus form
#art5like lesions or crust or
scab on the unfeathered skin of
the head, neck
Diphtheric form
)esions have the appearance
cheesy membrane or small
white nodules in the upper
respiratory and digestive tracts
which coalese to form raised
yellow plaAues on the mucous
membranes which in turn give
rise to the inappetence and
dyspnoea.

#.4.* Para(+)+c "+(&a(&(
D+(&a(&
E)+o%og. S+g!( a!" (.'2)o'(
cocc+"+o(+( P-.%' &2+co'2%&?a@ 'a+!%.
G&!( E+'&r+a
Disease is only likely to occur
N " number of disorders
occur ranging from impaired
absorption and nutrient utili9ation
due to the damaged intestinal
under conditions that buildup
of potentially pathogenic
populations of the parasites
mucosa, reduced feed intake and
diarrhea.
N There is considerable
blood loss, lowered growth, weight
loss, ruffled feathers and drop in egg
production.
H&%'+)-+a(+( "n immense diversty of
helmiths with the ematodes
being most important
They include, among others,
the respiratory tract nematodes
such as Syngamus trachea,
intestinal nematodes such as
>apillaria species, *eterakis
and "scaridia, plus >estodes
and Trematodes which are of
negligible importance in
modern poultry operations
because they all reAuire
intermediate hosts.

N " wide variety of
clinical signs ranging from general
unthriftness, inactivity, depressed
appetite, and retarded growth in
"scaridia, *eterakis, and >apillaria
species infestation.
N )arge numbers of
"scarids may block the intestinal
tract.
N There may be loss of
condition and diarrhea
Ec)o2ara(+)+(' "n immense diversity of
7ctoparasites ranging from
rice, mites, fleas, and ticks.
The soft5bodied ticks
,"rgasidae/ especially Argus
persicus ,fowl tick/ is the most
important ectoparasite of
poultry in many tropical
countries

>hewing ,2rder !allophaga/ mites
which cause irritation by feeding on
skin and feather
"part from the emaciation, weakness,
reduced growth, lowered production and
the blood loss that may reach
proportions of fatal anemia, the fowl
tick is capable of transmitting the highly
pathogenic Spirochete Borrelia
anserina.
Tick paralysis in chicken 8 a flaccid,
afebrile motor paralysis 8 may result
from attacks by A. persicus, and the
clinical signs may be confused with
botulism, neural signs of !arek.s
disease, transient paralysis, and ew
>astle disease, among others
Two species of non5burrowing mites0
Dermanyssus gallinae ,the red mite/ and
Liponyssus (Ornithonyssus) sylvarum,
through their blood sucking habits,
especially in heavy infestations, cause
reduced egg production and anemia.
#.4./ 7!ga% "+(&a(&(
$ungi and yeasts present a potential threat to poultry health notably the potential for into+ications
from consumption by poultry of -moldy. feed stuffs which contain highly to+ic by5products
,mycoto+ins/ ,1ordan and 'attison, =BBK/. 1ordan and 'attison added that in some cases, mycoses
may invade and destroy tissue when birds are e+posed to pathogenic strains or decreased
resistance may allow invasion by normally non 8 pathogenic strains.
Disease 7tiology Signs and symptoms
A(2&rg+%%o(+(
=Broo"&r
2!&'o!+aA
P!&'o'.co(+(A
M.co)+c 2!&'o!+a>

N
Aspergillus
fumigates
N 2ther
"spergillus
species, as well as
other genera such
as 'enicilium,
may be
incriminated

N #ithin the first @ 8 C days,
neonates infected in the hatchery become
dyspnoeic, polypnoeic and begin open 8
mouthed breathing ,-gaspers./ due to
progressive airway obstruction
N Survivors become lethargic
and stunted, develop conjuctival swelling,
blindness and e+hibit torticolis and other
central nervous system abnormalities.
N 2lder birds may remain
subclinically affected, show progressive
respiratory embarrassment or may also
become asphy+iated due to blockage of the
syrin+ or the trachea.

A,%a)o?+co(+(

!ycoto+in produced
by the to+igenic
strains of Aspergillus
flavus and Aspergillus
parasiticus

N Sudden death in chicks in
acute outbreaks
N %nthriftness, weakness,
anore+ia, and sudden death in subacute
outbreaks
N Impaired growth rates and
feed conversion
N !arked decrease in resistance
to infections such as Salmonellosis,
>occidiosis, Infectious :ursal disease, and
>andidiasis
N (educed egg production and
hatchability
N (educed fertility in affected
males.
#.4.4 6+)a'+! "&,+c+&!c+&(
6itamin
$unction or importance Signs and symptoms of deficiency
6+)a'+! A =R&)+!a%
or R&)+!o%>
N (eAuired
for normal
development and
repair of epithelial
structures and of
bones ,$raser et al,
=BB=/
N 7ssential
for life itself, for
growth, reproduction,
optimal utili9ation of
feeds and resistance to
infections and to
adverse climatic
conditions
,&roenewald ,=BH</
N 7pithelial I mucous membrane
metaplasia with secondary infection,
particularly of respiratory and intestinal tracts
,'attison and 1ordan, =BB=/.
N The kidneys are affected with
impacted ureters ,nutritional nephropathy/ and
visceral urate deposition , 'attison and 1ordan,
=BB=/
N (educed egg production and
hatchability
N (educed appetite and growth
N (ough plumage and corneal
hyperkeratosis of the mucous membranes of
mouth and esophagus ,the usual pathognomonic
sign/ ,'attison and 1ordan ,=BB=/
N Salivary and tear glands cease to
function in birds of all ages ,Smith, =BB@/
6+)a'+! D
=C-o%&ca%c+,&ro%>

N $or
inducing the synthesis
of >alcium 8 binding
proteins and of
controlling intestinal
absorption, blood
translocation and
metabolism of
>alcium, and
'hosphorous
N They
added that deficiency
thus results into
N (ickets ,reduced bone mineral
deposition/ in young growing chicken
N 2steoporosis and poor egg shell
Auality in laying hens, even though the diets
may be well supplied with >alcium and
'hosphorous.
N (achitic deformities develop
especially in the legs, producing painful, hard
joint swellings and lameness, abnormality being
most clearly seen in the structures of the
pro+imal tibiotarsus.
N Tubercula and capitula of the ribs
may be enlarged
N :ones, beak and claws become
soft and pliable
N &rowth is retarded and feather
development is poor.

6+)a'+! E
=Toco2-&ro%>

N "n inter5
and intracellular
antio+idant,
preventing o+idation
of unsaturated lipids
within cells
N This also
ensures erythrocyte
stability and capillary,
N Deficiency allows abnormal
formation or accumulation of e+cessive lipid
hydropero+ides, with resulting tissue damage
N Three classical syndromes of
6itamin 7 deficiency in chicks0
N 7ncephalomalacia or -cra9y
chicken disease. characteri9ed by uncoordinated
gait, prostration and brain lesions. The chicks
e+hibit an outstretching of legs with toes curled0
blood and vessel
integrity.
N
regulation of pituitary
8 mid brain system
,thus influencing
thyroid and adrenal
hormone output/
N ucleic
acid metabolism
N Involved
in fertility and
prevention of
degenerative changes
in muscles and liver.
and the head is often in a retracted position
N 7+udative diathesis with severe
edema caused by a marked increase in capillary
permeability
N utritional muscular myopathy in
chicks characteri9ed by degeneration of muscle
fibers
6+)a'+! K

Indispensable in blood
coagulation, participating
in 'rothrombin formation

N Increased blood coagulation time
in young chicks begins to increase
N *emorrhages in any part of the
body
N Sub5acute hematomas, as the only
e+ternal sign
6+)a'+! B co'2%&?
The : vitamins are a
group of compounds
with related functions
These are Thiamin
,:
=
/, (iboflavin ,:
;
/,
'yrido+ine ,:
K
/
'antothenic acid,
icotinic acid,
>holine, 6itamin :
=;
,
:iotin and $olic acid.
7ssential for productivity
especially for ma+imum
growth of chicks.

N "n acute stage of polyneuritis and
a progressive paralysis is observed beginning
first in the toes and ultimately reaching the
head, where upon the head is retracted so that it
lies on the back.
N Deficient adults have a blue comb
N )ack of available (iboflavin in the
york of the incubated eggs greatly reduces
hatchability and causes curled toe paralysis and
-clubbed down. in hatched chicks
N icotinic acid deficiency in chicks
shows as enlargement of hock joints, and
bowing of the legs similar to perosis but the
"chilles tendon rarely slips from its condyles
N Deficiency symptoms of
'antothenic acid in chicks are rather non5
specific ,7nsminger, =BB=/ but include poor
growth, poor feathering, liver damage, and
lesions around the beak, eyes, and vent.
N >hicks deficient in 6itamin :
=;
e+hibit growth retardation, anemia and lesions
in the gi99ard while in adults, there is reduced
hatchability, and in some cases, perosis on
addition to fatty livers, kidneys, and hearts
,)eonard et al =B?B/

#.8 Soc+oB&co!o'+c a(2&c)( )-a) a,,&c) )-& a"o2)+o! o, a!" (cc&(( +! co''&rc+a%
2o%)r. 2ro"c)+o! +! A,r+ca.
Transformation of family poultry production system in "frica would reAuire a better
understanding of socio5economic aspects of the system ,3italyi, =BBH/. " review by Sonaiya
,;<<?/ of many studies carried out in "frica shows positive impact of poultry projects on income
generation, particularly, marginali9ed groups, including women. Despite the potential of poultry
to alleviate poverty and improve the Auality of life of low5income earners, the rural poor and
their children, little attention has been paid to it as demonstrated by the limited funding and
e+pertise in the sector ,Sorensen, =BBB/. Sorensen added that poultry is also not regarded as an
area of importance in terms of political aspects or scientific prestige in many countries including
%ganda.
The development of the commercial sector in %ganda is also still limited by the low availability,
low Auality and high costs of feeds and other inputs ,:yarugaba, ;<<?/. :yarugaba further
observed that with the introduction of the privati9ation of farm input supply, the supply of
poultry drugs, vitamins, minerals and vaccines has improved but is still limited to major urban
centres. "nd that the Auality of these inputs is of a low standard, especially for those that reAuire
a cold chain such as vaccines. The cost of the inputs is often high because they are packaged in
volumes ,such as =<<<5C<<< dose vaccines/ that are not suitable for use by small5scale farmers.
The long standing gender ineAuity in "frica is another socioeconomic aspect that affects
commercial poultry production. Sonaiya and Swan , ;<<D/ stipulated how rural women carry out
a fundamental role in agricultural production, rural development and food security . They
referred to the $"2 studies and statistics which showed that women produce between K< and H<
percent of food in "frica and "sia and appro+imately D< percent in )atin "merica. :ut sadly,
they observed that numerous disparities persist regarding the participation of rural women in
poultry production. They backed their argument with a fact that women face greater difficulties
than men with regard to access to input resources ,such as land and credit, among others/ and to
services designed to increase productivity, for e+ample, research, technology transfer and
e+tension services. "nd that it is a common finding in "frica for women to have significantly
higher illiteracy levels than men.
)ike the other sub5sectors in agriculture, the poultry industry is constrained by lack of capital
Investment. Sonaiya and Swan ,;<<D/ postulated that >onventional financial institutions in
"frica are reluctant to give loans to farmers and the inadeAuate capital limits the numbers that
most farmers can keep and this in turn limits their ability to ma+imi9e the profit associated with
larger5scale production or adoption of advanced technologies.
:yarugaba ,;<<D/ noted that although the %gandans have kept poultry for a long time, their
knowledge and skills in improved management may be limited in some cases. *e added that
there are few trained, knowledgeable and skilled e+tension workers. >onseAuently the delivery
of advisory services to farmers for commercial production is still weak.
There is generally a lack of organi9ed marketing infrastructure in many Sub Saharan "frican
countries ,3italyi, =BBH/. :yarugaba ,;<<?/ noted that in %ganda, 2nly %gachick has a
slaughter plant. This means that products on the market are unprofessionally handled, resulting
in a lack of grades and standards, insufficient market information and e+pensive products being
presented to a market dominated by low incomes and therefore low purchasing power.
:yarugaba ,;<<?/ also reported the problem of the 'ower Supply. *e wrote that %ganda largely
depends on hydro5electric power and that following environmental changes in the region that
have resulted in less rainfall and lower levels of water for the supply of hydroelectric power,
there have been increases in electricity tariffs which affect the cost of production, especially for
those that rely on electricity such as feed millers. . In addition to the high tariffs, electricity
supplies are also unreliable. 3italyi ,=BBH/ also observed that the laboratory diagnostic facilities
are not available in up5country areas and where they are available0 they are e+pensive, thus
making disease management difficult










CHAPTER THREE
*.0 METHODOLOGY
*.1 S)". Ar&a.
The study area was !asaka !unicipality, a town that lies at )atitude ,D!S/ <
<
=H
I
DK S and
)ongitude ,D!S/ @=
<
D;
I
D;7, at an "ltitude of =@;=m, in !asaka district, central %ganda. The
municipality is divided into three administrative divisions of yendo 8 Ssennyange, 3atwe 8
:utego, and 3imaanya 5 3yabaku9a division. The )and tenure system was mainly mailo land ,a
land tenure system where registered land is held in perpetuity/ and to some e+tent lease holdings
of the !asaka !unicipal >ouncil. The town had a population of ?;,@<< ,%:2S estimate, ;<<B/
*.# Targ&) 2o2%a)+o!
The target population was Intensive commercial poultry units I farmers in !asaka !unicipality.
*.* Sa'2%+!g.
The population si9e ,/ was estimated at ?C intensive poultry units within the municipality. This
was according to the office of the D62 in the district. &iven at ?C, the sample si9e ,s/ was K@.
This was determined using a table developed by 3rejicie and !argon ,=B?</.The table gives
the sample si9e, S, of a randomly chosen sample for a given finite population of cases and
sampling error CJ." list of commercial intensive poultry farmers was compiled for each
division, from which respondents were selected randomly. (andomi9ation was effected by
stratified random sampling, where ;< farmers were selected from each division.
*./ Da)a co%%&c)+o!.
Oualitative data collection methods were used to collect the relevant data. The methods below
were combined to generate the reAuired informationF
a/ " structured Auestionnaire to the target population
b/ 3ey Informant interviews with local veterinarians, local veterinary e+tension workers,
""DS coordinators, veterinary drug shop attendants and dealers in poultry feeds.
c/ 2bservations
*.4 Da)a a!a%.(+(
Data obtained from Auestionnaires, observations and key informat interviews was captured and
analy9ed using the statistical package for socio5 scientists ,S'SS/. Oualitative data was analy9ed
by descriptive statistics and was used to compliment and give meaning to the Auantitive data.

CHAPTER 7OUR
/. O RESULTS
/.1 Soc+o&co!o'+c 1ar+a$%&(
'oultry farming was found to be the main occupation of majority of the respondents ,C=.KJ/.
#hile the rest ,DH.DJ/ also practiced poultry farming, most of their time was occupied by other
activities. The majority of the poultry farmers ,KH.HJ/ were women. HD.DJ of farmers
interviewed were married, K.@J were single women, D.?J were widowed, while D.?J were
divorced. only =C.KJ of the homesteads were headed by females, the majority ,HD.DJ/ were
headed by males.
The farmers that ran the poultry units had attained various educationIliteracy levels as shown by
the table below.
Table =F )evel of literacyIeducation of the poultry farmers
L&1&% o, E"ca)+o! 7r&5&!c. P&rc&!)ag&
'rimary education C H.@
Secondary education ;C D=.?
>ertificate or diploma in a related field D K.?
2thers ;K D@.@
Total K< =<<.<
!ost of the farmers ,CB.?J/ were members to at least some famers. groupIassociation with
special interest in livestock production. The majority of the farmers ,H;.HJ/ had attended at least
a community based seminarIworkshop on poultry management. *owever only D;.;J of the
farmers visited were involved in the ""DS program. In the poultry units, the majority of the
farmers ,H;.HJ/ employed family labour and the remaining =?.;J employed hired labour. The
farmers had varying length of e+perience in the poultry production business, the majority
,KB.HJ/ had been into poultry farming for at least four years, while the rest, less than four years
as shown by the figure below
7+g. 13 E?2&r+&!c& o, )-& 2o%)r. ,ar'&r(
/.# Acc&(( )o cr&"+) a!" (a1+!g (&r1+c&(
?B.?J of the respondents revealed that inadeAuate capital or financial constraints significantly
affected their poultry enterprises. @B.KJ of the respondents ever accessed loansIcredit services
from any S">>2I!$II:ank. 2f the few that accessed credit from these financial institutions,
majority ,C?.?J/ rated their accessibility, convenience and interest rates as being fair, but the
remaining D;.=J complained of their unfriendliness. early a third ,@=.BJ/ of the farmers
estimated the net worth of their enterprises at less than two million %ganda shillings but this
varied considerably for the rest as shown by the figure below.
7+g.#3 E()+'a)&" !&)B<or)- o, )-& 2o%)r. &!)&r2r+(&(
" total of H;.CJ of the respondents were running a savings account with at least a
S">>2I!$II:ank.
/.* T.2&( a!" !'$&r o, $+r"( k&2)
"ll the farmers visited kept chicken. !ajority ,B@.HJ/ kept e+otic breeds of chicken and the rest
,K.@J/, local breeds. ?@.DJ of the farmers kept egg5strain birds and the rest kept broilers or
multipurpose local breeds as shown by the figure below.
7+g #3 Pr2o(& o, c-+ck&! r&ar&"
!ost farmers obtained their stock from the leading poultry breeding companies in the country
such as :iyin9ika, %&">*I>3, :okoma, sambya, among others, while a few imported their
stock from neighboring countries such as 3enya and Pambia.
"mong the farmer who kept layers, C?.DJ were small scale holders with less than C<< birds and
among the broiler farmers K=.CJ kept less than @<< birds and remaining @H.CJ kept @<< to =<<<
birds. ?CJ of the farmers who kept multipurpose chicken kept @<< birds or less. This is
illustrated by the figure below.
7+g. *3 S)ock (+C&( +! )-& "+,,&r&!) La.&r( 2o%)r. !+)(
#hen the se+ of the correspondent was cross5tabulated against the stock si9e of )ayers poultry
units, the outcome was as show in the table below.
Ta$%& #3 S&? o, )-& corr&(2o!"&!) cro((B)a$%a)&" aga+!() )-& ()ock (+C& o, %a.&r( !+)(
S)ock (+C& o, %a.&r( !+)(
Total

Se+ of
correspondents

)ess than
C<<
C<< and less than
=<<<
=<<< and
above

!ale C @ H =K
female ;; H = @=
Total ;? == B D?
'earson chi5sAuare value was <.<<= at BCJ confidence interval which is less than <.<C, thus
indicating se+ significantly influences the stock si9e of layers in the study area.
/./ N)r+)+o!
B@.CJ of the poultry farmers fed their birds on homemade ,self formulated/ feed which is
formulated from mukene ,small fish/, mai9e bran, cotton seedcake, vitamin premi+, bone meal,
lake shells, sunflower, soya and salt. It was outside the scope of this study to e+amine whether
the various formulations used provided all the nutritional reAuirements to the birds. *owever, a
clue on how authentic these formulations were obtained from their source. This is shown in the
table below.
Ta$%& #3 T-& (orc& o, )-& ,or'%a)+o!( (&" +! 2r&2ar+!g -o'&'a"& ,&&"( ,or )-& c-+ck&!
Sorc& o, )-& ,or'%a)+o!( 7r&5&!c. P&rc&!)ag&
)ocal e+tension workers ;C D@.=
Self developed D K.B
Traders in feed ingredients =C ;C.B
$ellow farmers K =<.@
:reeding companies C H.K
2thers @ C.;
Total CH =<<.<
$eed ingredients were purchased from local traders. Interaction with some of these traders
revealed that they had not accessed any technical training or education in animal nutrition. They
were unhappy about the unsteady supply of the ingredients being that most of them are seasonal
agricultural products and complained about their customers. ,farmers/ obsession with low prices.
" few of the farmers ,K.CJ/ fed their birds on commercially prepared feeds under the brand
names of mostly %&">*I>3, %6IT", and $ormula feeds.
"ll the broiler farmers fed their birds ad lib. The farmers who kept layers too fed the chick and
growers without a particular freAuency or definitive Auantity. ?<.?J of the layer farmers
provided feeds to their adult layers twice a day, ;;.<J and ?.@J availed it once and three or four
times a day, respectively. The distribution of appro+imate Auantity of feed the farmers availed to
an adult layer per day was as shown in the table below.
Ta$%& *3 A1&rag& 5a!)+). o, ,&&"( a1a+%&" )o a! a"%) %a.&r 2&r "a.
Da!)+). o, ,&&" 7r&5&!c. P&rc&!)ag&
)ess than =<<g = ;.?
=<< and less than =;<g @ H.=
=;< to =@<g =H DH.K
"bove =@<g D =<.H
ot measured == ;B.?
Total @? =<<.<
ote that ;B.?J of layer farmers practiced restricted feeding but without any regard to Auantity.
7ven among rest, the level accuracy in measuring the feeds was mostly low as it was mostly
estimated by visual means.
"lmost all the respondents ,BH.DJ/ changed the type of feed fed to their birds with change in
age. HH.BJ of the respondents provided urban tap water to their birds and D.HJ and K.@J used a
well and rain water respectively.
/.4 Ho(+!g
"ll the correspondents used the deep litter system using coffee husks as litter as floor material
for poultry houses. BK.HJ of the respondants reported that they use iron sheets for roofing of the
poultry houses. The tables below indicate the different types of materials used in the construction
of the walls and floors.
Ta$%& /3 T.2&( o, 'a)&r+a%( (&" +! )-& co!()rc)+o! o, <a%%(
Ma)&r+a% 7r&5&!c. P&rc&!)ag&
:ricks CK HH.B
Iron @ D.H
#ood @ D.H
2thers = =.K
Total K@ =<<.<
Ta$%& 43 T.2&( o, 'a)&r+a%( (&" +! )-& co!()rc)+o! o, ,%oor(
Ma)&r+a%( 7r&5&!c. P&rc&!)ag&
7arth ;? D;.B
:ricks =D ;;.;
cement ;= @@.@
others = =.K
Total K@ =<<.<
@?.@J of the poultry units possessed a specifically prepared brooder, CD.;J used the same
house they use for growing the birds to maturity and K.HJ used their own houses as brooding
area. In the brooder, the commonest heat source was charcoal ,B=.CJ/, =.?J used bulbs and
K.HJ used a combination of charcoal and hurricane lumps.
@B.@J of the correspondents lost very few birds in the brooder and @;.=J, on average lost only ;
to CJ of their stocked chicks in the brooder, but the remaining ;H.KJ lost, on average, more than
CJ of the chicks in the brooder.
To determine whether the type of brooder significantly affected the survival of the chicks in the
brooder, the type of brooder was cross5tabulated against percentage losses of chicks in the
brooder as shown by the table below.
Ta$%& 83 Cro((B)a$%a)+o! o, ).2& o, $roo"&r aga+!() 2&rc&!)ag& %o((&( o, c-+ck( +! )-&
$roo"&r
P&rc&!)ag& o, )-& +!+)+a% ()ock %o()
+! )-& $roo"&r
To)a%
6ery few ; to C J "bove C J
Type of
brooder



specifically designed brooder house H D B ;=
!y house ; = = D
Same house as i use for growing
birds to maturity
=; =; K @<
2ther = =
Total ;; =H =K CK
'earson.s chi5sAuare value was <.@B; at BCJ confidence interval. Since the chi5sAuare value
was not less than <.<C, the two variables were not significantly correlated.
Ta$%& 93 Ca)&gor+Ca)+o! o, 2o%)r. -o(&( $a(&" o! 1&!)+%a)+o!
6entilation $reAuency 'ercentage
'oor =C ;@.H
fair =C ;@.H
good =B @<.;
early ideal =D ;;.;
Total K@ =<<.<

6ery few poultry houses ,;;.;J/ had ventilation that was close to the ideal. Qet, ;@.HJ of the
poultry houses had the ventilation which was categori9ed as very poor,.. Ideally, ventilation of a
poultry house is judged based on the ratio of total open wall area to the total floor area. :ut due
to lack of standard figurers ideal for 7ast "frica, judgment was based on the following.
'oor F5 heavy nasty smell, less than half of one of the length walls open.
$air F5 more than half of one of the length walls open.
&ood F5 more than half of both length walls open, length not than =@m, width not more than Dm.
early ideal F5 about R of both length walls open, length not more than =@m, width not more
The study did not include the stocking density of the birds due to absence of the dimensions of
houses in the farmers. records and the researcher sensed a high risk of transmitting diseases from
one poultry unit to another if the option of moving with tape measure to take the dimensions was
considered.
/.8 H.g+&!&
D?.BJ of the layers units had litter replaced at intervals of two and four months.., @C.DJ of them
at intervals of more than four months while in =;.DJ litter was replaced more freAuently, atmost
two months. It was revealed that in D.;J, litter was changed only after it was deemed necessary
based on the litter condition. *owever, this was different among broiler farmers who reported
that litter was replaced every after a few weeks. The correspondents interviewed disposed off the
used litter in various ways as illustrated by the table below. "t least BC.=J of the correspondents
reported that they always disinfected and rested their poultry houses before introduction of a new
batch of birds and all the farmers claimed they properly washed the drinkers at least once a day.
*owever, observation revealed that most of the poultry units lacked proper drinkers and
improvised with basins or cut jerry cans. The water was thus easily contaminated with feacal
droppings and water freAuently spilled on to the litter.
Ta$%& :3 D+(2o(a% ar&a( ,or (&" %+))&r
D+(2o(a% ar&a( 7r&5&!c. P&rc&!)ag&
To the bush ; @.@
To the nearby garden =D ;@.<
)eft within the compound C H.;
>arried off to far from the premises @B K@.B
$ed to pigs = =.K
Total K= =<<.<
/.9 H&a%)-
/.9.1 Co!)ro% a!" 2r&1&!)+o! o, "+(&a(&(
K<.BJ of the poultry units were out of bounds to all people apart from the routine providers of
labour, while the rest were accessible to e+ternal people as shown by the figure below.
7+g.43 Acc&((+$+%+). o, &?)&r!a% 2&o2%& )o 2o%)r. -o(&(
H<.KJ of the poultry units lacked provisions for disinfection of clothes and foot wear. " few
,=.KJ/ of the respondents reported having these provisions only in the brooder. 2nly DB.;J of
the poultry units were sealed off from free range chicken or other birds and animals.
"ll the farmers carried out vaccination as a line of defense against diseases, B;.=J of them
claiming to vaccinate against all diseases as per the schedule from breeders and K.@J at least
catered for ewcastle, &umboro, and infectious bronchitis.
Interaction with these farmers revealed that all of them devised means to keep the cold chain,
*owever, more than half ,C@.CJ/ would buy already reconstituted vaccines or when the vials
had already been opened by the drug shop attendants. Some farmers admitted using tap
,chlorinated/ water for vaccination and many would administer antibiotics within ? days of the
vaccination.
Interaction with some of the 6eterinary drug shop attendants revealed that although it is a
regulation from D" that vaccines should be sold in full sealed vials ,which are usually C<< or
=<<< doses for most vaccines/, most of their customers are small scale poultry holders who often
pressuri9ed them to break the bulk and sell to them in small doses.
The poultry enterprises employed different personnel to carry out the vaccination as shown by
the table below.
Ta$%& ;3 T-& 2&r(o!!&% )-a) carr. o) 1acc+!a)+o! +! )-& 1ar+o( 2o%)r. !+)(
P&r(o!!&% 7r&5&!c. P&rc&!)ag&
Self ,providers routine labor/ DC ?=.D
6eterinarian K B.C
>.:.".*.# B =D.@
Self, but practitioners for injectable vaccines @ D.H
Total K@ =<<.<
/.9.# Para(+)&(
;;.KJ of the correspondents revealed to have had problems with ectoparasites in their poultry
units and for all of these, it was mites. B;.@J of them had attempted to control them using
chemicals, with considerable success.
H?.@J of the farmers used to deworm their birds but the freAuency of doing this differed between
poultry units as shown by the table below.
Ta$%& 103 I!)&r1a%( a) <-+c- "&<or'+!g +( "o!& +! )-& 2o%)r. !+)(.
I!)&r1a%( 7r&5&!c. P&rc&!)ag&
2nce a month ;@ DK.<
2nce in two months =C @<.<
2nce in @ months K =;.<
#hen deemed necessary K =;.<
Total C< =<<.<
H;.BJ of the respondents that regularly dewormed their flock commonly used "scale+5
(
, ?.@J
of the farmers used "lbenda9ole while the rest used other drugs. *owever B?.=J of those that
used "scale+ ,which is a 'ipera9ine/ never repeated the deworming after a week or two to clear
the worms previously in early developmental stages.
/.9.* Pro,&((+o!a% 1&)&r+!ar. a!" &?)&!(+o! (&r1+c&(
KK.?J of the farmers used to access veterinary or e+tension services0 ?K.;J of this was offered
by community based animal health workers with Aualifications of Diplomas or certificates and
the remaining few accessed services from 6eterinary surgeons. The farmers who received
professional services revealed that they received regular farm visits from these personnel at
intervals illustrated by the figure below.
7+g. 83 A22ro?+'a)& +!)&r1a%( a) <-+c- )-& 2o%)r. !+)( r&c&+1&" a"1+(or. ,ar' 1+(+)(
!ost farmers confessed that it was costly to access proper veterinary services in case of an
outbreak of a disease. That usually the most friendly option was to go to 6eterinary drug shops,
describe a few clinical signs to the attendants who would then advise on which drug the farmer
should buy, and administer to hisIher birds. "part from the costs, some who never received
veterinary services accused these professionals of being corrupt and e+ploitive self interested
fellows while others claimed that with their e+perience, they did not need a professional for
anything.
/.9./ Mor)a%+)+&(
CB.?J of the farmers reported to have had mortalities in their flocks within the previous si+
months and for K;.;J of these units the cause of the deaths was greatly suspected to be diseases,
while for some it was trauma, as shown by the figure below.
7+g. 93 Pro$a$%& ca(&( o, )-& "&a)- +! )-& ,%ock(
In cases where the cause of the mortalities was disease, the researcher, where possible, worked
out a tentative diagnosis. It should however be noted that this was very subjective to the clinical
signs and other relevant information provided by the correspondents. In cases where a tentative
diagnosis had been arrived at by a 6eterinarian that attended to the outbreak, hisIher diagnosis
was taken. The table below shows the tentative diagnoses at arrived at.
Ta$%& 113 T&!)a)+1& ca(&( ="+(&a(&(> o, 'or)a%+)+&( a) )-& "+,,&r&!) 2o%)r. !+)(
D+(&a(& 7r&5&!c. P&rc&!)ag&
ewcastle disease ? @<.D
>occidiosis H @D.H
ot clear or others H @D.H
Total ;@ =<<.<
/.: B&ak )r+''+!gA co!)ro% o, ca!!+$a%+('
Some farmers who kept layers practiced beak trimming, K;.HJ these doing it in the fourth or
fifth month, however, the age varied considerably in various units, as illustrated by the table
below.
Ta$%& 1#3 Ag& ,or $&ak )r+''+!g
Ag& 7r&5&!c. P&rc&!)ag&
$irst month = ;.@
Second month ; D.?
Third month D B.@
$ourth or fifth month ;? K;.H
In lay = ;.@
ot done at all H =H.K
Total D@ =<<.<
The rationale for the beak trimming in relation to the purpose of the procedure, as well the effect
of the trimming to the feeding, drinking and conseAuently productivity of the layers, also varied
considerably. In K;.CJ of the units, the procedure was performed fairly, in a third ,@@.@J/ of
the units it was good. *owever, it was poor in the remaining few ,D.;J/. The judgment was
guided by the following.
&ood 8 the beak ape+ curves gently with no sharp edges, the remaining beak parts are fairly long
with the lower one slightly longer.
$air 8 the beak parts cut to end abruptly, they are fairly long with the lower one slightly longer or
there are chances of re5growth.
'oor 8 beaks cut too short and the parts are of eAual length or the length may be okay but the
lower beak is too long compared to the upper lip
/.; P&r,or'a!c&@ %&1&% o, 2ro"c)+o! a!" 'ark&)+!g
BD.?J of the farmers stocked the birds at day old, the remaining C.@J did it at one month old.
DB.<J of the poultry units would, on average, have nearly =<<J of their flock survive up to
maturity while the success of the other units in relation to this aspect varied as shown by the
figure below.
7+g. :3 Sr1+1a% o, )-& ()ock&" $+r"( 2 )o 'a)r+).
!ost of the broiler farmers and those who kept local breeds revealed to have been putting on
market less than =<<< birds per year.
CH.CJ of )ayer farmers reported that on average they achieved a mean hen day production of
C<J at five months of age of the birds while the rest achieved the same at different times as
shown by the table below.
Ta$%& 1*3 Ag& o, )-& %a.&r( a!" )-& '&a! -&! "a. 2ro"c)+o!
Ag& 7r&5&!c. P&rc&!)ag&
)ess than C moths C =;.;
C moths ;D CH.C
K months H =B.C
? months ; D.B
above ? months ; D.B
Total D= =<<.<
The )ayer farmers reported varying levels of success in terms of the mean hen day production
they register when their flocks strike peak production. This is illustrated by the figure below.
7+g. ;3 M&a! -&! "a. 2ro"c)+o! ac-+&1&" a) 2&ak 2ro"c)+o!
)ayer farmers ultimately put their birds to market as off5layers after varying lengths of egg
production, as shown by the table below.
Table =DF "verage length production after which the layer farmers market off their birds as off5
layers.
L&!g)- 7r&5&!c. P&rc&!)ag&
)ess than one year C ;=.?
= to less than =.C years ? @<.D
=.C to ; years =< D@.C
"bove ; years = D.@
Total ;@ =<<.<
The average price of an off5layer was %g. Shs. K,HDK.; while the average price of a tray of eggs
was %g. Shs. DC<<.
?@.@J of the broiler and local chicken farmers practiced early marketing where the target price
was %g. Shs. K<<< to ?<<< while the rest marketed their birds at four to five months of age. $or
this age they would fetch =<,<<< to @<,<<< %g.Shs.
K@.KJ of those who practiced early marketing reali9ed their target price at si+ weeks of age
while =H.;J achieved the same at seven to eight weeks. "nother =H.;J reali9ed that at above
eight weeks of age.
HB.HJ of the poultry farmers marketed their products to local traders in !asaka town, K.HJ
e+ported their product (wanda, (.D.>ongo or other neighboring country, =.?J, to traders in
other big towns in the country while another =.?J had contract market.
$armers were asked to comment on the current prices of their poultry products in relation to the
cost of production. D?.@J complained that they are poor but when they were asked to comment
on the availability of the market, KC.CJ believed it was good. The responses are as shown in
figure below.
7+g. 103 Pr+c&( o, 2o%)r. 2ro"c)( a!" 'ark&) a1a+%a$+%+).
/.10T-& 'o() +'2or)a!) co!()ra+!)( r&2or)&" )o -+!"&r +!)&!(+1& co''&rc+a% 2o%)r.
2ro"c)+o! +! )-& ()". ar&a
"sked to mention the most important constraint to intensive commercial poultry farming in the
study area, K@.CJ of the farmers complained about the scarcity, price fluctuations, and poor and
unreliable Auality of feeds and feed ingredients. The responses are as shown in the table below
$ig.==F >onstraints to intensive commercial poultry production.
The farmers suggested a number of solutions as remedies to those constraints among which
included the following0
2n poultry feeds, they suggested the following0
Since most poultry units are small scale holders with limited capital, they suggested
cooperation and stock feeds jointly in large Auantities at strategic seasons of the year, so
that they can utili9e the economies of large scale and buffer the seasonal fluctuations.
Some farmers called in the hand of state agencies or other concerned stake holders that
could stock the feeds in large Auantities at the seasons of abundance and sell to the
poultry farmers at fair prices at the seasons of scarcity. This could stabili9e the supply
and protect them from e+ploitative feed ingredients. traders.
Some farmers also thought that growing their own mai9e could be a good idea.
2thers believed the state could also assist by making policies that stop or regulate the
e+porting of unprocessed mai9e and other sources of feed ingredients.
(egarding the issue of feed Auality and feed ingredients, many called for regulatory
policies by !""I$ or the ational :ureau of Standards that could monitor the Auality of
feeds and also ensure that those dealing in feed ingredients have received some minimum
training in poultry or animal nutrition.
"s regards inadeAuate capital, they called on more credit services from the state and
other stake holders at more friendly interest rates. They also talked of the need for more
seminars and e+tension services from the stake holders such as state agencies, breeding
companies and community development agencies. Some were not pleased with the
""DS program in the area, complaining that it had so many conditions and accusing
some of those driving it of being corrupt and discriminative fellows steering the program
to the direction of their immediate self5interest.
(egarding marketing and e+ploitative buyers, some farmers thought that cooperating and
jointly marketing their products would help them secure some contract markets and fight
for more fair prices.
/.11 R&cor" k&&2+!g
BC.;J of the correspondents kept the basic records regarding stocking, death, costs and
e+penditure, sales and income, among others.
CHAPTER 7I6E
4.0 DISCUSSION
The research was carried out to establish the factors influencing commercial intensive poultry
production in !asaka municipality. This chapter discusses the findings of this research.
4.1 Soc+o&co!o'+c ,ac)or(
4.1.1 G&!"&r
The majority of the poultry farmers in the study area were female, most of whom were married
and the homesteads were headed by men. >ross5tabulation of the se+ of the correspondent
against the stock si9e of layers indicated that most small scale enterprises were run by women
while the men dominated in running the large scale poultry enterprises. The chi5sAuare test
indicated that the two variables were highly correlated. This was probably because women had
more financial constraints and yet had less access to credit facilities. This arises due to lack of
securities e.g. land or other assets reAuired by conventional financial institutions to secure loans.
!ost households are headed by men who also control the family assets and resources0 this
e+plains why there is less access of valuable assets by women. This occurrence is not different
elsewhere in "frica as reported by Sonaiya and Swan ,;<<D/ that numerous disparities persist
regarding the participation of rural women in poultry production in "frica.
4.1.# E"ca)+o!a% ()a)(
The majority of the farmers in the study area had attained at least some secondary education.
This implies that they have ability to appreciate and adopt the basic technologies in poultry
production, understand the basic principles of disease control, poultry nutrition as well as
carrying out good basic record keeping in the poultry business.
4.1.# Acc&(( )o (22or) I!()+))+o!(
!ajority of the farmers were members to farmers. association and had taken part in some
seminarIworkshop on poultry production. This illustrates their euphuism to acAuire knowledge
either from friends or development agencies. $ew of them, however, were participating in the
""DS program, a government initiative to pass on knowledge, technical and financial
assistance to the farmers. This was probably due to the influence of politics on the program in
many areas that biases people of different political affiliations and hinders them from joining the
program
The study revealed that most of the farmers in the study area were significantly constrained by
inadeAuate capital however a few of them were able to access credit from financial institutions.
This is probably because of the unaffordable conditions reAuired by financial institutions such as
securities. In addition to this, farmers complain of high interest rates which scare them from
applying for loans. Sonaiya and Swan ,;<<D/ postulated that conventional financial institutions
in "frica are reluctant to give loans to farmers and the inadeAuate capital limits the number of
poultry that most farmers can keep and this in turn limits their ability to ma+imi9e the profit
associated with larger5scale production or adoption of advanced technologies.
4.# T&c-!+ca% ,ac)or(
4.#.1 N)r+)+o!
:yarugaba, ;<<?, reported that the key constraints regarding the feeding of poultry are feed
availability, feed Auality and feed costs. In the study area, majority of the poultry farmers fed
their birds on home5made feeds formulated from different ingredients most of which were
agricultural by5products. The high costs of commercially prepared feeds had forced the farmers
to formulate their own feeds to reduce on the costs of production. The farmers got the
formulations used in mi+ing these feeds from local e+tension workers, feed ingredient traders
and fellow farmers, among others. There was thus a big likelihood of these formulae being
distorted as they were being passed on from one farmer to another. It was found that most traders
grossly lacked technical knowledge about animal nutrition. This category of people was thus not
a very reliable source of important technical information of feed formulation. .
In !asaka, just like the rest of %ganda, there are no policies regulating the Auality of the feed
ingredients. There is also no reliable mechanism by which buyers can check the Auality before
buying. This leaves a loop5hole for unscrupulous dealers to mi+ unpalatable materials such as
stones into the fish meal, crushed mai9e cobs into the mai9e bran, among others, and offer these
products at more attractive prices. These low attractive prices put the faithful traders at a
disadvantage and promote the thriving of the deceitful traders increasing the deterioration of the
feed Auality on the market.
The poor feed Auality adversely affects productivity of the birds and thus profitability of the
business. This prompts the farmer to further seek low cost feeds which, in times of scarcity, are
correspondingly low Auality feeds, thereby bringing productivity further down and at times
driving himIher out of business.
In addition to feeding on a doubtable ration, it was also found that the Auantity given to birds was
doubtful in most poultry units visited. "lmost all the layers farmers practiced restricted feeding
in their adult flocks, but many lacked weighing scale for accurately measuring how much to
give. There was thus a likelihood of underfeeding of the birds or sometimes feed wastage. This
would impact negatively on the productivity of the birds thus, making the business less
profitable. "lmost all the farmers had access to fresh clean drinking water as urban tap water or
from wells.
4.#.# Ho(+!g
!alden and (ichard ,=B?B/ observed that chicken that is comfortable and free from stress is
most likely to perform at its ma+imum potential. The study revealed that most of the units had
fairly permanent structures constructed out of bricks and roofed with iron sheets. $or most of the
houses, however, the floor and walls were rough thus favoring the survival and multiplication of
ectoparasites and also hindering effective cleaning and disinfection. !arko and :ell ,=BB</
emphasi9ed the need for proper ventilation0 it lowers humidity and keeps the litter dry. In the
tropics, a building with open sides is ideal and the sides should be open in a direction to allow
the prevailing wind to blow across the width of the building ,cross5flow ventilation/ ,Sonaiya
etal , ;<<D/. $or many of the poultry units visited, the ventilation was very far from ideal leading
to poor litter conditions and the need for freAuent replacement of the litter. There was also
increased accumulation of gases such as ammonia and carbon dio+ide which predisposes birds to
respiratory problems.
:rooding is a critical phase of any poultry business, as performance of the growing birds and
ultimately productivity depends on proper development during the early stages, !alden and
(ichard ,=B?B/. The study revealed that most of the poultry units lacked a properly designed
brooder and used the same house as they use for growing to maturity or even the farmer.s own
house for a brooder. This makes the bio5safety measures difficult and increases the chances of
passing on infection from the previous stock to the chicks. !ost farmers used charcoal as a
source of warmth in the brooder. This was probably due to the high electricity tariffs in the
country and a high cost of installing bulbs that can convert affectively electricity into heat. The
use of charcoal is however more labor intensive in that the attendant has to freAuently add more
charcoal, ;D hours a day and lack of commitment to this may lead to chilling.
$ortunately, most of the farmers had a good survival rate of the chicks in the brooder and the chi5
sAuare test indicated that there was no significant relationship between the type of brooder and
the percentage loss of chicks in the brooder.
4.#.* H.g+&!&
The study revealed that most of the poultry units lacked proper drinkers and improvised with
basins or cut jerry cans. The water thus easily got spilled to the litter leading to wet litter. 1ordan
et al ,=BB=/ advised that drinkers should be properly designed, placed at correct height for the
age of the birds and with correct water level in them in order to avoid spillage. >alnek et al
,=BB?/ warned that wet litter provides optimal conditions for increased multiplication or
maturation of coccidian, bacteria and molds on the litter and should be avoided or promptly dealt
with if it is seen to occur. The wet litter, as noted by 1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/, can also lead to
accumulation of e+cess "mmonia which conseAuently reduces appetite and damages the
respiratory system, thus predisposing to infection 8 >olibacillosis 8 and, hence, to poor
performance. The water spillage could thus e+plain why there were many instances of recent
mortalities suspected to be caused by >occidiosis
!ost of the poultry farmers visited disposed the used litter to distant places but a few kept it
within the compound for some time which poses a threat of cross infection. " few farmers who
also practiced piggery would roast the litter and feed it to feeds. This, in my opinion, is a good
way of putting such a by5product to good use. It is pleasing to mention that all the farmers visited
reported that they properly washed the drinkers at least once a day. In the same way, almost all
the correspondents reported that they always disinfected and rested their poultry houses before
introduction of a new batch of birds.
4.#./ H&a%)-
4.#./.1 Co!)ro% a!" 2r&1&!)+o! o, "+(&a(&(
The survey revealed that the majority of the poultry units were kept out of bounds for e+ternal
people and for those that ever received people into the poultry houses, they were mostly
veterinary or e+tension personnel. !ost of the poultry units however lacked provisions for
disinfection of foot wear and clothing by people entering poultry houses. There was thus a
significant mobile threat posed by the personnel and the vehicles. "lmost half of the poultry
units were not sealed off from free range chicken or other birds and animals. >alnek et al ,=BB?/
warned that backyard I range birds and pet fowls, insects, wild birds, rodents, household pets and
eAuipment as possible sources of infection and thus these units operated with a grave risk of
contracting infection.
The study revealed that all the farmers carried out vaccination and most of them vaccinated
against all the diseases as stipulated by the vaccination schedule provided by the breeders.
"ccording to :okomo ,%/ )TD, ,;<<B/, vaccination programs for layers in >entral %ganda
should generally cater for !arek.s disease ,!.D./, Infectious :ronchitis ,I.:./, ew >astle
Disease ,>D/, Infectious :ursal Disease ,I:D/ and $owl Typhoid. "nd for broilers, I:, >D
and I:D should at least be catered for. "lthough farmers vaccinated against the mentioned
diseases, some confessed that the cost of vaccinating against $owl Typhoid was too high and
they often skipped it. "s emphasi9ed by 1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/ that vaccines should be kept
at D5H
<
> and transport them in an insulated container to protect them from heat and light, the
study showed the farmers were committed to keeping the cold chain. 1ordan and 'attison ,=BBK/
emphasi9ed storing them in vials in free9e5dried form and also warned against using chlorinated
drinking water for administering them. This however, deviates from the findings of the study
where due to small flock si9es many farmers found it convenient to buy doses smaller than those
packed in vials on market. The 6eterinary drug shop attendants open the vials and sold a piece of
the vaccine tablet ,and sometimes reconstituted/. This was found to be improper based on three
possible sources of errors that may lead to vaccine failure, namely0
Inaccuracy in the estimation of the dosage by the drug shop attendant since this is based
on only visual judgment.
The vaccine reconstituted at the veterinary shop may not be viable at the time of
administration depending on the time lag and environmental conditions.
The remaining piece of the vaccine will not remain in a sealed vial ,vacuum/ as it awaits
the ne+t buyer. Since the vaccine will be subjected to a different environment, chances
are high that it will not be viable by the time the ne+t buyer surfaces.
Some farmers admitted to using tap ,chlorinated/ water for administration of the vaccine and
many would administer antibiotics after the vaccination. It was discovered that most farmers kept
antibiotics and would administer them at the slightest suspicion of disease in their flock.
"dmission of antibiotics soon after vaccination would thus kill the attenuated vaccine and
prevent the intended build5up of immunity, thus vaccination failure.
The challenge of power cuts for days would lead to lack of ice packs leading to the discard of big
stock of vaccines, which lead to big economic losses. The study also indicates that majority of
the farmers administered the vaccines ,including injectables/ by themselves and never sought
any technical assistance on this. It did not seem as though these farmers had enough technical
skills and training to take on such tasks.
4.#./.# Para(+)&(
"lthough, 'attison and 1ordan ,=BBK/ reported an immense diversity of ectoparasite that affect
poultry ranging from )ice, mites, fleas, and ticks, only a few of the correspondents in the study
revealed to have had any problems with ectoparasites and which were dealt with effectively.
This, therefore, does not seem to constitute a significant factor in intensive commercial poultry
production in !asaka municipality.
The study revealed that majority of the farmers were acAuainted with the negative effects of
helminthes and attempted to control them using chemical drugs. They mentioned nematodes as
the most important group of helminthes in poultry. >alnek et al ,=BB?/ stipulated that
chemotherapy was secondary to sanitation and breaking the life cycle in the control measures of
helminthes. %p ?<J of farmers interviewed dewormed their birds as freAuent as monthly and
@<J of them dewormed every after two months using mostly "scale+, a 'ipera9ine. It was noted
that deworming this freAuently was being over9ealous on the side of the farmers0 yet using these
drugs adversely affects production and increases the likelihood of drug residues in the products.
'ipera9ine, the preferred drug has activity on only adult worms, this implies that the younger
stages of life were not affected and the worm population would thus recover Auickly, unless the
deworming is repeated after a week or two. It was found that none of the farmers repeated
deworming as stipulated.
4.#.4 Pro,&((+o!a% 6&)&r+!ar. a!" E?)&!(+o! S&r1+c&(
The study revealed that most of the farmers would access regular professional veterinary and
e+tension services. *owever, prompt and proper veterinary services were found to be difficult
and e+pensive to access in cases of an outbreak of a disease prompting the farmers to take on the
convenient alternative of medicating the birds with antibiotics they often stocked. This may be as
a result of having few trained, knowledgeable and skilled veterinary e+tension workers as also
reported by :yarugaba ,;<<D/. There was general lack of proper diagnostic laboratories in the
study area which hindered proper diagnosis resulting into unrewarding interventions, thus
leading to poultry mortalities that would sometimes drive some farmers out of business.
4.* O)-&r ,ac)or(
4.*.1 Mor)a%+)+&(
!ore than half of the farmers had registered mortalities in their flock within the last si+ months
which were mostly attributed to diseases notably ewcastle disease and >occidiosis. "s
mentioned before, hygiene was grossly lacking in many of the farms visited, and a number of
loopholes were found as mentioned earlier which increased the risk of failure were very common
thus increasing mortalities cases. The bio5safety measures in most units were not stringent
enough as evidenced by the lack provisions for disinfection of foot wear and e+posure of the
poultry units to free5ranging birds and other animals.
4.*.# B&ak )r+''+!g
The study revealed that most of the farmers that kept layers practiced beak trimming as a
precaution against cannibalism, a common vice in poultry that often result into fatal injuries,
though the e+act cause not often very clear as stipulated 1ordan et al. ,=BBK/. It was also
revealed that most of the farmers trimmed the beaks of their birds in the third or forth month.
This was contrary to $raser et al ,=BB=/ who warned that beak trimming was a very stressful
process and that it needed to be done at = day of age or just a little latter. In majority of the layer
units, the beak trimming had been done fairly well0 the beak parts had been cut abruptly because
of being cut at an old age, the remaining parts were fairly long with the lower one slightly longer
and re5growth was a common finding, this was considered fair.
4.*.* L&1&% o, 2&r,or'a!c&
7very poultry farmer aspires to stock healthy chicks, brood them successfully, and see them
grow at an optimum rate up to maturity where they are either marketed for meat or start laying
optimally. !ortalities at any stage, retarded growth and reduced production therefore represent
economic losses. The study revealed that almost all poultry units stocked their birds at day old
but it was only roughly half of them that had nearly =<<J of their birds survive to maturity.
=@.?J of the farmers on average had less than HCJ of their initial stock survive up to maturity
and this, by all standards, represents big economic losses considering the contemporary cost of a
day5old chick and the cost of bringing it to a certain age. The scale of production in all broiler
enterprises visited was still very low. Despite the fact that a batch of broilers is ready for market
ideally within less than two months and thus practical for one to produce up to five batches a
year. !ost farmers reported to put on market less than =<<< birds a year.
In the study, more than half of the farmers reported to achieve a hen day production of C<J at
five months which was not different from what was reported by :okomo ,%/ ltd, ,;<<B/.
*owever, not all farmers achieved this, some reported reaching the C<J hen day production at
seven months or above. This indicated a prolonged pre5production period and thus increased pre5
production e+penditure which in turn negatively affects the profitability and thus the
attractiveness of the business.
"ccording to :okomo ,%/ ltd ,;<<B/ properly raised and managed layers with a good genetic
potential should strike a mean hen day production of about B=J in the ;D
th
week of age and
maintain it at above B<J until around the C<
th
week. )ess than half ,D=.?J/ of the layer farmers
in the study reported that the mean hen day production they registered when their flocks stroked
peak production was at least B<J, with ==.=J of the farmers reporting a mean hen day
production of less than K<J as peak production. This scenario represents feeding =<< birds and
less than K< of them laying eggs at a time of ma+imum production and thus the profitability of
such an enterprise is low and less attractive. >hi5sAuare tests could not show any significant
relationship between the ma+imum hen day production reali9ed and any other Auantitative
variable in the survey and thus the ma+imum hen day production reali9ed is a function of an
interplay of very many management factors ,both Auantitative and Aualitative/ discussed earlier,
as well as the genetics.
The success of a )ayers enterprise is also to be measured in terms of the length of production of
the flock i.e. the interval from the point when the hen day production of C<J is attained to when
it is no longer economically viable to keep the birds on the farm and should thus be sold off as
off5layers. In the study, the farmers reported varying mean length of production with =.C to ;
years being the modal range. The researcher did not come across standard reference figures for
this variable, but it can be confidently argued that a production length of less than one year as
reported by ;=.?J of the correspondents was too short considering the large pre5production input
that is supposed to retrieved in this period, !ost of broiler farmers hit their target marketing
price of K<<< to ?<<< at si+ weeks of age. !any of these however complained of the scarcity of
market which would force them to keep the birds on the farm for more time which represents
more e+penditure in feeding them.
4.*./ Mark&)+!g
Sonaiya and Swan ,;<<D/ reported a gross deficiency in refrigeration and other preservation
facilities in many developing countries. They e+plained that the system then basically involved
middlemen who would buy the products from the farmers and sell to secondary retailers in cities.
They further reported that grading, packing or processing and standardi9ing of the poultry meat
and eggs were developments that the industry still had to aspire for. The study revealed that most
farmers sold their products to local middle men in !asaka who would also sell to secondary
retailers in !asaka town and thus the sub5sector had no significant advances from what Sonaiya
and Swan ,;<<D/ reported. " few farmers e+ported their products to neighboring countries and
just a few had established contract clientele. !ost farmers had considered neither establishing
contract market with hotels or schools nor e+porting due to their unstable and low scale of
production as well as the highly wanting Auality of their products.
The farmers reported an interesting discrepancy between the prices of eggs and the demand of
eggs. This did not closely align with the law of demand. The trend of comments on market
availability was roughly the reverse of that on the prices of the products. !ost farmers reported
that market was readily available but at a price which was very poor compared to the cost of
production. This was probably due to the fact that most farmers were small scale holders and
individually had no power to bargain for fair prices unlike if they were in a cooperative.
4.*.4 R&cor" K&&2+!g
The study revealed that almost all farmers kept basic records regarding stocking, death, disease
history, vaccination programsIdates, costs and e+penditure, sales and income, and feeding
regimes. *owever "iello et al ,=BBH/ emphasi9ed taking good records of all flock activities,
including regular body weights, lighting programs, house temperature and medication, which
were generally lacking in most of the poultry units visited. The lack of records on medication
was probably due to the poor approach in disease management discussed earlier. The general
lack of records on medication makes clinical interventions by veterinarians difficult when the
cases were ultimately referred to them.
5
CHAPTER SIE
8.0CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1 CONCLUSIONS
The study established that intensive commercial production in !asaka municipality is still at a
very low scale with C?.DJ of the layer farmers keeping less than less than C<< birds and K=.CJ
of the broiler farmers keeping less than @<< birds. #omen ,KH.HJ/ are more involved in
commercial intensive poultry production than men and thus the sub5sector would be a very
effective tool towards achieving both empowerment of women and fighting e+treme poverty in
!asaka and areas of similar setting. The study revealed that the limiting factors to intensive
commercial poultry production were0 inadeAuate capital, improper housing and design of
eAuipments, low hygienic standards, inadeAuacies in disease prevention and control measures,
mortalities, reduced production due to diseases, inadeAuate professional veterinary and
e+tension services, gross lack of knowledge on proper poultry management, lack of adeAuate
feed ingredients and, lack of organi9ed marketing structures and seasonal fluctuations of prices.
!alnutrition and under5nutrition was caused by low Auality of feed ingredients, seasonal
fluctuations of feed availability and prices. ewcastle and >occidiosis were found to be the most
important causes of mortalities as a result of vaccination failure and poor hygienic standards
respectively. The low capital investment and inadeAuacy of convenient and affordable credit
services greatly limited the scale of production, this denied the farmers the opportunity of
enjoying the advantages of large scale production and adoption of improved technologies. The
low scale of production coupled with lack of organi9ed marketing structures made the individual
farmers very vulnerable to e+ploitation by middlemen.
8.# RECOMMENDATIONS
!ore research is reAuired into the Auality of feed ingredients by collecting samples of the feed
ingredients from the study area and subjecting them to laboratory procedures to determine their
nutritional value.
The state authorities ,!""I$ and :S/ should make efforts to protect the poultry farmers from
feed adulterations and poor feed Auality that unfairly causes them financial losses by instituting
policies that enable monitoring feed standards and Auality. 'olicies should ensure that dealers in
poultry ingredients who also practice feed mi+ing should receive some minimum training and
should be eAuipped with the basic principles in poultry and animal nutrition and should possess
the basic eAuipments necessary to do the mi+ing effectively as well as proper storage facilities.
The ministry ,!""I$/ should continuously work towards a more effective transfer of
knowledge from the technocrats to the farmers. Since the ""DS program is already in the area
with such an objective, there should be an increased mobili9ation of the locals by the local
leaders, religious leaders and other stake holders to embrace the program. 'olitici9ing the
program should be minimi9ed and the ideology that some members of the society have more
stakes in the program than others should be fought. $armers should be helped to appreciate the
rewards of adopting more advanced technologies and advices so that they can deem it worth to
pay for the valuable advisory services. " better access to professional veterinary and e+tension
services will hopefully work towards improved poultry management, a more effective and
prompt disease control and management and adoption of new technologies.
The stake holders should continuously work towards improved access to affordable credit
services by the farmers. This will hopefully increase the scale of production thereby enabling the
farmers operate at economies of large scale. The ""DS program is already touching this
problem by offering loans at a very low interest rate to groups of farmers. *owever, many
farmers accused the program of being heavily infected with gross corruption and thus more
research and investigations is called for into their claims. Through community based seminars,
religious leaders and other stake holders should build more patriotism and allegiance to the
common good in the community members.
Since most farmers are still operating at a very low scale, they should consider cooperation, joint
stocking of inputs and joint marketing. This will hopefully increase their chances of receiving
proper storage and preservation facilities for their products, securing a more reliable market for
their products as well as having a strong voice when agitating for more decent and fair prices for
their products.
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