Design by re-representation: a model

of visual reasoning in design

Rivka Oxman, Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, Technion,
Haifa, Israel
The conception of design as a sequential process of description and re-
description in the development of designs is presented. Re-
representational theory (RRH) is introduced and the cognitive
mechanisms which enable re-representation in design are explicated. A
theory of re-representation and multiple representations in design is
proposed. The concept of adaptation developed in CBR is exploited to
formalize transformations in the re-representation process. An empirical
research was constructed to study the cognitive abilities which underlie
the creative phenomena of re-representation in design adaptation. On
the basis of the findings of the experiment, a model of design re-
representation is developed and presented. The main concepts of the
model, multiple representation and re-representation, are shown to
provide a powerful basis f or the understanding of creative behavior in
design. 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.
Keywords: drawings, re-representation, creativity, design precedents,
design process
1 SchOn, D A The Reflective
Practitioner: How Professionals
Think in Action I=~sic Books,
New York (1983)
2 Lawson, B How Designers
Think The Archite(~ral Press,
London (1980)
3 Akin, O Psychology of Archi-
tectural Design P~on, London
(1988)
ELSEVIER
T
he design sketch can be considered as the basis of a visual and
mental transaction between the designer and the representation,
which evokes a discrete graphical response. According to Schrn,
the designer is engaged in ' graphical conversation with the design ' t or
according to Lawson, ' t he designer has a conversation with the drawing '2.
It is these transactions with the external representation which illuminate
the visual-mental processes of designers. Where graphic media such as
design sketches are the medi um whereby the design is evolved, design
moves are ' a series of actions' of the designer which result in transform-
ations of a representation 2,3. The term ' move' is frequently empl oyed in
contemporary design research to describe the discrete increments of change
in the evolution of a design.
This elucidates one of the distinctive characteristics of the graphical design
process, particularly the process of conceptual design, namely, its develop-
0142-694X/97 $17.00 Design Studies 18 (1997) 329-347 PII: S0142-694X(97)00005-7
1997 Elsevier Science Lid All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain
329
40x man, R M 'The reflective
e y e : visual reasoning in design'
in A Koutamenls, H T l m m e r -
m a n e n d I V e r m e u l e n ( e d s ) Vis-
ua/ data bases in architecture
Averbury, Aldershot, U.K. (1995)
pp 89-112.
5 Arnhelm, R Visual Thinking
University of California Press,
Berkeley and Los Angeles
( 1 9 6 9 )
ment t hr ough a sequence o f pr ogr es s i ve st ages ove r t i me. The sequence o f
sket ches can act as a r ecor d o f r eas oni ng pr ocesses whi ch can be i nf er r ed
f r om a transition of states f r om one r epr esent at i on t o a subsequent r ep-
resent at i on.
Typi cal pr oces s es can be i nt er pr et ed and cat egor i zed as cl asses and t ypes
o f modi f i cat i on o f the r epr esent at i on 4. Accor di ng t o Ar nhe i m 5, cogni t i ve
oper at i ons in per cept i on in desi gn i ncl ude di st i ngui shi ng st ruct ural rel at i on-
ships o f t he i mages in the desi gn r epr esent at i on. Thi s i ncl udes t he i nt erpret -
at i on and concept i on o f such st ruct ures o f r el at i onshi ps ( pr ot ot ypes) . Spa-
tial gest al t and t he st ruct ural qual i t i es in conf i gur at i ons ar e e xt r e me l y
si gni fi cant in concept ual desi gn. The st ruct uri ng and r est r uct ur i ng o f shapes
whi ch ma y be obs er vabl e i n sequences o f sket ch desi gn r epr esent at i ons
evi dence the cogni t i ve abi l i t i es o f t he desi gner such as t he abi l i t y t o
e voke pr ot ot ypes.
The wa y cr eat i ve desi gner s fit and adapt gr aphi cal r epr esent at i ons t hr ough
dr awi ng and r edr awi ng i s one o f t he l east under st ood phe nome na in desi gn.
Des pi t e cur r ent wor k in under st andi ng gr aphi cal r eas oni ng in desi gn, t he
wa y per cept ual and concept ual mechani s ms oper at e i n desi gn dr awi ng are
still unf or mul at ed. The wa y knowl e dge is e mpl oye d and sequent i al clarifi-
cat i on and concept ual enr i chment ar e suppor t ed in desi gn r equi r es st udy,
under st andi ng and f or mal i zat i on. The s e ar e a mong t he obj ect i ves o f our
work.
For mal i zi ng t he pr ocedur al aspect s o f desi gn mo v e s ma y cont r i but e t o our
abi l i t y t o model vi sual r eas oni ng i n desi gn. Thi s des cr i pt i on- r e- des cr i pt i on
pr ocess is one wa y in whi ch desi gner s cogni t i vel y expl oi t gr aphi cal r ep-
r esent at i ons 4 and is, t herefore, r el evant t o t he model i ng o f desi gn. Sequen-
tial modi f i cat i on in desi gn dr awi ng is a me d i u m t hr ough whi ch desi gn
pr oces s es oper at e and are made mani f est .
1 Towards a re-representation model of visual
reasoning in design drawings
I n t hi s paper , we pr opos e a mode l o f the cogni t i ve mechani s ms and abi l i t i es
whi ch under l i e and enabl e sequent i al st at es o f gr aphi cal r e- r epr esent at i on
in desi gn. Wi t h r ef er ence t o cer t ai n r el evant ps ychol ogi cal t heor i es ci t ed
bel ow, we r ef er t o this mode l as a re-representational model of design
reasoning. The model i ng is f ounded upon an empi r i cal st udy o f des i gner s '
be ha vi or in t he gr aphi cal adapt at i on o f a desi gn solution. The obj ect i ve o f
the exper i ment wa s t o st udy t he wa y desi gner s mani pul at e gr aphi cal s ym-
bol s i n desi gn dr awi ngs, and t o i dent i f y t he knowl e dge and cogni t i ve capa-
bi l i t y r equi r ed t o enabl e r e- descr i pt i on in desi gn.
330 Des i gn St udi es Vol 18 No 4 Oct ober 1997
We ha ve mode l e d the knowl e dge e mpl oye d in vi sual r eas oni ng in t he i nt er-
act i on o f gr aphi c desi gn pr esent at i on. I t i s t hese t r ansact i ons in a gr aphi cal
me d i u m whi ch we at t empt t o st udy, t o mode l and t o f or mal i ze. As we
demons t r at e t hr ough ps ychol ogi cal studies, this l evel o f knowl e dge under -
lies t he cogni t i ve abi l i t y f or st ruct uri ng, or gener al i zat i on, o f the r epr es en-
tation. We have pr opos e d a r e- r epr esent at i onal model whi ch at t empt s t o
i dent i f y and f or mal i ze t he l evel o f knowl e dge whi ch i s r equi r ed f or maki ng
t r ans f or mat i ons o f r e- r epr esent at i on i n the i nt er act i on wi t h t he gr aphi cal
medi um. As a result, we i dent i f y and char act er i ze the t r ansf or mat i onal pr o-
cesses i nvol ved in i ncr ement s o f st at e t ransact i on. Fur t her mor e, we expl i -
cat e t he expl i ci t sets o f knowl e dge st ruct ures whi ch enabl e t he m t o occur.
Thi s exper i ment t hr ows l i ght on t he di f f er ences in t he cogni t i ve abi l i t y o f
i ndi vi dual desi gners. I t al so pr ovi des i mpor t ant i nsi ght s on knowl edge and
r e- r epr esent at i on as phe nome na o f creat i vi t y.
Thi s wor k emphas i zes the f ol l owi ng poi nt s:
(1) conceptual structures of knowledge in visual reasoning in design
Gr aphi cal r eas oni ng in desi gn is vi ewed her e as a t r ansact i on bet ween
concept ual knowl e dge st ruct ures and desi gn r epr esent at i on t hr ough a vi sual
r epr esent at i onal me di um;
(2) a re-representation theory for visual reasoning in design
Ba s e d upon empi r i cal r esear ch, and in or der t o expl ai n t he cogni t i ve abi l i -
t i es enabl i ng the sequent i al evol ut i on o f gr aphi cal r epr esent at i ons, we pr o-
pos e a r e- r epr esent at i onal mode l o f vi sual r eas oni ng in desi gn;
(3) a re-representational model in design adaptation
Thi s mode l i s hi ghl y r el evant t o cogni t i ve and comput at i onal appr oaches
t o desi gn such as Cas e- Bas ed Des i gn ~5. One o f the pr i or i t y r es ear ch i ssues
in CBD i s the f or mul at i on o f appr oaches and pr oces s es t o t he ' a da pt a t i on'
o f desi gns, or t he modi f i cat i on o f pas t desi gn r epr esent at i ons t o fit a cur r ent
desi gn situation. Wi t hi n t he cont ext o f CBD, we pr opos e t he r el evance o f
our r e- r epr esent at i onal mode l as a basi s f or f or mal i zi ng adapt at i on;
(4) re-representational theory as a foundation of studies of design crea-
tivity
Model i ng t he i nt er act i on wi t h vi sual r epr esent at i on me di a pot ent i al l y con-
t r i but es t o t he under st andi ng o f t he r el at i onshi p bet ween concept s, knowl -
edge st ruct ures and cr eat i vi t y i n vi sual r easoni ng. The mode l o f r e- r ep-
r esent at i on is, t her ef or e, hi ghl y r el evant t o t heor i es o f cr eat i vi t y i n desi gn.
Des i gn b y r e- r epr esent at i on 331
6 K a r r n i l o f f - S m l t h , A, ' Con-
straints o n representational
c h a n g e : e v i d e n c e f r o m c hi l dr en' s
drawing' Cognition Vo l 3 4 ( 1993)
p p 5 7 - 8 3 ,
7 B o d e n , M A The Creative
Mind, Myths and Mechanisms
C o x a n d Wei man, London
( 1995)
8 Da r t n a l l , T ' AI , creativity, r e p -
resentational redescdption,
intentionality, ment al life: a n
e me r g i n g pi ct ur e' Ar t i f i ci al Intelli-
g e n c e a n d Creativity, technical
report, AAAI Pr es s ( 1993)
2 The theoretical relevance of the re-representation
hypothesis
Cognitive and computational researchers are currently developing theoreti-
cal models which can assist in the analysis of sequences of representations
and in the formalization of models. Particularly relevant to our research
have been the psychological theories of re-representation with graphical
re-representation. In modeling re-representation in design, we have
exploited the Re-Representation Hypothesis (RRH), a psychological theory
of creativity 6. The RRH is a cognitive approach which explains creativity
as an act of ' conceptual exploration through re-representation '6-8. RRH
theory has been relevant to our research in design, since it provides a
plausible model of the way in which human beings explore new modifi-
cations through the externalization of knowledge structures in represen-
tations.
The human capability to ' transform knowledge into representational struc-
tures' underlies the ability to make novel modifications and changes in
those representations. Researchers in RRH theory have demonstrated that
representations of drawings which are procedural are not flexible for innov-
ative manipulations until they are turned into explicit declarative re-rep-
resentational f orm. Karmilloff-Smith 6 demonstrates this cognitive process
by the example of children' s cognitive capability in drawing in the ' funny-
man pictures study' . Re-representation of a form is possible onl y after the
underlying representational structure of that form is externalized and made
explicit in the drawing. In the case of the ' f unny- man' experiments, an
externalization of the man- body- schema is prerequisite to the distortions
of the schema which are ' funny-men' . In the development of explicit rep-
resentations of form, humans are able to transform implicit knowledge to
explicit representational structure. This appears to enable novelty through
modification and change which transcend, contradict, or depart from the
generic representation.
We will demonstrate the direct relevance of these findings to design. Re-
representation provides a changing pattern in the graphical medium. It is
this pattern which is explicated in our research. I f we are to model design
as a process of re-representation, we require the ability to model design
through, and relative to, its declarative abstractions. Following Karmilloff-
Smith, we assume that the process of transforming graphical represen-
tations can be supported only according to the declarative knowledge struc-
tures of design representation. In design, these representational structures
are frequently domain specific. An example would be the abstract formal
structure of a particular design. This formal structure must first be made
explicit in order that specific re-representational operations can be achieved
332 Design Studies Vol 18 No 4 October 1997
9 Simon, H 'Keyr~ote Lecture,
AID '92' First International Con-
ference a t C a r n e g i e Mellon Uni-
versity, Pittsburgh, Pennsyl-
vania, USA (1992)
on that structure. That is, in order to reformulate a design representation,
an understanding of its structural content in terms of the underlying schema
must be externalized. One of the contributions of our research has been to
demonstrate the cognitive ability of the human designer to recognize and
externalize the underlying schema and structural content of designs, and
then to work relative to the declarative knowledge which has been exter-
nalized. Design creativity may be seen in this sense as the ability to innov-
atively re-represent the schema or the particular structural content of the
externalized representation.
In the medium of sequential sketching we can observe the abilities enabling
change in a representational pattern which is supported by Knowledge
structures. Do there exist domain specific knowledge structures? Accordi ng
to Simon 9, drawings are empl oyed for the externalization and the ' hol di ng'
of the various design representations which allow the designer to ' reason'
with the design. Once externalized within the representation, the designer
can focus upon aspects of the representation as a part of the design prob-
lem. For example, measure, or spatial order, are knowledge structures in
plan development in architecture. Each knowledge structure may also be
associated with its own representational medium. As we have observed in
our experiments in architecture, formal and compositional knowledge such
as modulation can be activated by making explicit a grid system in the
graphic representation, and then modifying the representation according to
the explicit ordering schema. Our research has identified such underlying
domain specific schema and knowledge structures, and their role in design.
A further contribution of the research has been to demonstrate the signifi-
cance in design of the concept of multiple representations. In design a
single representation generally has embedded various underlying multiple
representational structures. For example, various underlying ordering
media such as grids or zonal structures, or functional orders and relation-
ships are frequently implicitly present in design representations~L From
our research, the human designer appears to be capable of exploiting sim-
ultaneously these various underlying representational structures and of
mitigating between them.
This differs from the traditional RRH model in proposing that multiple
representational structures are implicit in design representations. The
designer may elect to make explicit the various implied schema as the
design evolves. Thus, in design, the concept of multiple representation has
a unique significance. In any design domain, there probably exist multiple
underlying representational structures which may, in fact, be inherent in
classes of design problems. What is significant in our research is the
Design by re-representation 333
10 Kolodner, d L Case-based
Reasoning Morgan Kaufmann
(1994)
11 Hlnrlhs, T R Problem
Solving in Open Worlds: A Case
Study in Design Erlbaurn,
Northvale, NJ (1991)
demonstration that designers possess the cognitive ability to recognize,
explicate and modify these structures, and to deal with these various rep-
resentations simultaneously.
3 The methodological relevance of the concept of
adaptation in Case-Based Reasoning
Though diverse models of design relate to the developmental processes,
the way design knowledge is structured and empl oyed in such processes
is, as yet, poorly formulated. The related research area of computational
models of design cognition provides certain relevant concepts. One of the
objectives of this field is to build the theoretical foundations of design
cognition through computational modeling of design processes and reason-
ing. Work in the field generally exploits theoretical, experimental and com-
putational research. Work in Case-Based Reasoning 1 and its application
to design is directly relevant to the formulation of developmental processes
in design. In the CBR view, adaptation is empl oyed as a means of fitting
an old solution to a new one, or evolving a new design by modifying an
existing solution representation. In this work, the concept of adaptation
developed in CBR is exploited to formalize transformations in the re-rep-
resentation process.
The process of adaptation involves the re-use through modification
(' adapt at i on' ) of the prior existing representational content of a design sol-
ution. Research on case adaptation in design 11 provides a perspective in
the study and the modeling of cognitive sequences in the modification of
case representations. We employ the term, design adaptation, in the follow-
ing experiment description in order to distinguish and identify the methodo-
logical content of the requisite knowledge and formalized steps of reason-
ing in a model of graphical re-representation. In our research we exploit
certain concepts derived from adaptation research in CBR in order to for-
mally model the sequential transformations of graphical representations
in design.
4 A formal model of re-representation
The theoretical assumptions developed in the first phase of the research
were empl oyed to construct an empirical study of designers' behavior in
adaptive tasks employing design sketches and drawings. In the research
we have attempted to explicate the multiple structures of knowledge under-
lying graphical representations and to demonstrate how they support modi-
fication in designs.
The proposed approach to adaptation is based upon the seminal concept
of multiple-representation. The modeling of adaptation as a process of
334 Design Studies Vol 18 No 4 October 1997
r e- r epr esent at i on wi t hi n t he f r a me wor k o f this concept f ocus ed on a desi gn
t as k o f t he a c hi e ve me nt o f uni que desi gns t hr ough adapt i ve pr ocesses. Sub-
j ect s wer e as ked t o const r uct expl i ci t r epr esent at i onal st ruct ures i mpl i ci t i n
a par t i cul ar desi gn f or m, in our case, an ar chi t ect ur al pl an. Adapt at i on
pr oces s es i n gr aphi c r e- r epr esent at i on wer e document ed t hr ough pr ot ocol
anal ysi s. Empl oyi ng t he fi ndi ngs der i ved f r om an anal ysi s o f t he pr ot ocol s,
a gener al mode l o f adapt at i on o f r epr esent at i ons was devel oped. The
r esul t i ng gener al mode l is consi der ed t o be val i d f or i nnovat i ve and cr e-
at i ve desi gn as wel l as f or r out i ne desi gn.
We descr i be t he exper i ment , its obj ect i ves, r es ear ch const r uct i on and find-
ings. The fi ndi ngs wer e subsequent l y expl oi t ed in t he const r uct i on o f a
gener al r e- r epr esent at i on mode l o f desi gn.
4.1 Objectives and methods
The exper i ment was const r uct ed t o mode l desi gn adapt at i on in t he ar chi t ec-
tural domai n whi ch is st r ongl y char act er i zed by expl oi t at i on o f gr aphi cal
r epr esent at i ons. The mai n goal o f the exper i ment wa s t o obs e r ve and r ecor d
how desi gner s act ual l y mani pul at e gi ven desi gn r epr esent at i ons in r e- r ep-
r esent at i onal pr ocesses o f adapt at i on. Adapt at i on was def i ned as t he t as k
o f t r ans f or mi ng a gi ven desi gn ( r epr esent at i on) t o me e t changi ng con-
straints. The chosen t as k domai n was spat i al conf i gur at i on i n pl an desi gn.
The c ompl e x nat ur e o f i nf or mat i on in t he gr aphi cal r epr esent at i on o f
desi gns r ai sed sever al r esear ch issues. An addi t i onal obj ect i ve o f t he
exper i ment was t o st udy the wa y desi gner s deal wi t h this r i chness o f i nf or -
mat i on in gr aphi c r epr esent at i ons, and t he wa y t hey mani pul at e gr aphi cal
s ymbol s as abst r act knowl e dge dur i ng t he adapt at i on o f desi gn dr awi ngs.
The over al l obj ect i ve was t o pr ovi de an account o f t he r epr esent at i ons
e mpl oye d, t he oper at i ons used and t he wa y t hey wer e cont r ol l ed in t he
adapt at i on pr ocess. The fi ndi ngs wer e subsequent l y anal yzed and cat egor -
i zed f or ki nds o f r epr esent at i onal modi f i cat i ons, t he st rat egi es and oper -
at i ons e mpl oye d and the wa y t hey i nt er act in t he pr ocess. Fi nal l y, it was
possi bl e t o post ul at e t he par t i cul ar st ruct ures o f r epr esent at i on whi ch ma ke
gr aphi c r e- r epr esent at i on pos s i bl e in t hese t asks.
Each o f t he desi gner s in the exper i ment was r equest ed t o f or mul at e and
const r uct expl i ci t r epr esent at i onal st ruct ures i mpl i ci t in t he r epr esent at i on
whi ch, f or hi m/ her , enabl ed t he ma ki ng o f changes. Subj ect s wer e al so
asked t o r ecor d each o f t hei r gr aphi cal mani pul at i ons and rat i onal e. Thus,
bot h the r epr esent at i onal st ruct ures e mpl oye d in r eas oni ng by t he desi gner s
wer e i dent i fi ed and the r esul t i ng pr ocedur al mani pul at i ons wer e r ecor ded.
Des i gn b y r e- r epr esent at i on 335
12 Baharat, D, Schmitt, G,
Faltlngs, B end Smith, I 'Case-
based design in architecture' in
J Gero end F Sudweeks (eds)
AID 94 Kluwer, Dordracht (1994)
pp 145-162
13 Hue, K, Smith, I, Faltlngs,
B, Shill, S and Schmltt, G
'Adaptation of spati al design
cases' in J S Gero (ed) AI in
Design "92 Kluwer, Dordracht,
(1992)
14 Oxmen, R E 'Design shells:
a formalism for prototype
refinement in knowledge-based
design systems' Artificial Intelli.
gence in Engineering Vol" 519
(1990) pp 2-8.
15 Oxman, R E 'Design case-
bases: graphic knowledge bases
for design worksbaca' in M Tan
(ed) CAAD Futures '95 Com-
puter Aided Architectural Design
Singapore (1995)
The subjects were advanced students in architecture. They were required
to adapt a given design on the basis of changed requirements. The required
changes were purposely kept minimal in order to enhance understanding
of the complex behavior in adaptation. The problem was to reduce the area
of a given plan drawing by 20%. In such a limited problem statement
students could easily explore different solution spaces and accurately rec-
ord their decision-making rationale.
The subjects were asked to provide self-protocols recording explicit steps,
actions and reasoning. The protocols were later formally recorded in a
CAD graphics system to provide a sequence of re-representations sup-
plemented by annotated textual explanations. Multiple representations were
made explicit in the sequence. At a later stage, the group of participants
contributed in the development of a joint model.
4.2 Assumptions
An underlying theoretical assumption is that the form of the graphic rep-
resentation of designs and their amenability to adaptation are related. The
form of representation encodes information and knowledge which support
reasoning during manipulation. Therefore, in order to assist processes of
reasoning in the adaptation of design drawings, and in order to be respon-
sive to manipulations, graphic representations must be explicitly structured.
Accordi ng to these main theoretical assumptions, the following concepts
are proposed as the theoretical basis of the research.
4.2.1 Multiple representations as underlying abstraction
levels
One definition of adaptation is that the current graphic state of the represen-
tation is manipulated until a fit is achieved with the new requirements. In
order to support operations of re-representation we propose that graphic
representations must be explicitly structured. The concept of multiple rep-
resentations as underlying abstraction levels is the concept which we pro-
pose for accommodating semantic knowledge in graphics.
In the particular design task we can observe a structure of multiple underly-
ing, or background, representations. These can be different kinds of generic
abstractions of the design representation. Various works have begun to
address the role of such abstractions in design and to demonstrate their
utility in adaptation. For example, such descriptions include geometry-
based descriptions of spatial aggregations, topological descriptions of spa-
tial relations 12, grammar-based descriptions ~3 and typological descriptions
such as housing schema ~4 etc. Other work on adaptation in CBR H has
336 Design Studies Vol 18 No 4 October 1997
poi nt ed out t he si gni fi cance and r ol e o f gener al knowl e dge o f adapt at i on
pr ocedur es i n a t ask. I n this vi ew, adapt i ve knowl e dge can be r egar ded as
t he abi l i t y t o mani pul at e hol i st i c desi gns whi ch under l i e the uni que
a r r a nge me nt and r el at i onshi ps o f component s .
The r ange o f pr oces s es o f adapt at i on i n desi gn shoul d pr es er ve and expl oi t
t he si gni fi cant aspect s o f a desi gn by mai nt ai ni ng t he i nt ernal consi st ency
o f its concept ual sol ut i on. I n this exper i ment we ha ve suggest ed t o de c om-
pos e a desi gn dr awi ng t o its st ruct ures. The decompos i t i on o f desi gn dr aw-
i ng i nt o di f f er ent st ruct ures o f knowl e dge is, in fact , decompos i t i on o f
di f f er ent t ypes o f knowl edge. Des i gn dr awi ngs are usual l y not r eadi l y
de c ompos a bl e i nt o separ at e r epr esent at i ons, or structures. I n or der t o i so-
l at e i mpl i ci t r epr esent at i onal st ruct ures it is i mpor t ant t o i dent i f y t he
expl i ci t r epr esent at i ons whi ch suppor t vi sual r easoni ng. Si nce dr awi ngs are
not expl i ci t l y st ruct ured accor di ng t o t hose r epr esent at i ons, i t is si gni fi cant
t o ext er nal i ze t he m i n r e- r epr esent at i on. I n or der t o assi st pr oces s es o f
r eas oni ng in t he adapt at i on o f desi gns we have exper i ment ed wi t h t he
expl i cat i on o f under l yi ng s chema in gr aphi c r epr esent at i ons b y r equest i ng
t hat t he subj ect s ma ke t he m ( each abst r act i on l evel ) i ndi vi dual l y expl i ci t .
I n the final CAD f or ma l r econst r uct i on o f t he pr oces s t hese mul t i pl e r ep-
r esent at i ons wer e act ual l y pl aced on separ at e l ayers. We ha ve al so
at t empt ed t o gener al i ze r egar di ng t hose st ruct ured r epr esent at i ons whi ch
r ecur r ed wi t hi n t he gr oup o f subj ect s, and ma y be consi der ed r el evant as
domai n knowl edge.
4. 2. 2 Internal consistency
Dur i ng adapt at i on, t he desi gn mus t r emai n i nt ernal l y consi st ent i n or der t o
sat i sf y var i ous const rai nt s. Const r ai nt s i n evol ut i on ma y be der i ved f r om
di f f er ent sources. We ha ve i dent i fi ed t wo ki nds o f adapt at i on const rai nt s:
ext er nal gi ven const rai nt s, and i nt ernal der i ved const rai nt s.
- - ext er nal const rai nt s are i mpos e d f r om t he p r o b l e m defi ni t i on, and
are expl i ci t l y r epr es ent ed in t he p r o b l e m st at ement . For exampl e, con-
straints bet ween desi gn and desi gn envi r onment , such as t he si t e in
ar chi t ect ur e 12.
- - i nt ernal const r ai nt s are der i ved as a cons equence o f an ear l i er
desi gn mani pul at i on. For exampl e, each change in component s and
t hei r r el at i onshi ps can i mpos e new const rai nt s. I nt er nal const r ai nt s are
i mpl i ci t const r ai nt s t hat are bas ed on domai n knowl edge, t hei r r ol e is
t o keep t he cons i s t ency a mong t he mul t i pl e i nt ernal r epr esent at i ons.
I nt er nal const r ai nt s are usual l y pr opagat ed b y ot her const r ai nt s whi ch
e me r ge dur i ng t he pr ocess. The abi l i t y t o mani pul at e const r ai nt s can
be r egar ded as a si gni fi cant ki nd o f adapt at i on knowl edge. The
Des i gn b y r e- r epr esent at i on 337
designer must identify those reasoning processes that maintain the
consistency of the internal representations.
I f a design is to remain consistent, it should satisfy both external and
internal constraints. It is the ability to handle consistency by the modifi-
cation of structures, components and constraints at any time that charac-
terizes the dynamic nature of the process of adaptation. Without controlling
the impact of internal constraints between the different multiple represen-
tations, internal consistency cannot be maintained.
Wi t h each re-representation new internal constraints emerge. It may also
be necessary to violate the constraints which are imposed by the new rep-
resentation. In the experiment one goal was to understand the role of design
constraints in re-representation and how the internal consistency and integ-
rity of the design is maintained during its evolution. It is this ability to
handle consistency by modifications under conditions of dynamic con-
straint propagation that characterizes one aspect of creative design.
4.2.3 Modification strategies and operations
Another research issue was to characterize modification strategies
employed, or preferred by the subjects. Can these strategies provide a tax-
onomy for design adaptation? We believe that it is possible to define
classes of strategies and operations. These are based upon types of modifi-
cation relative to the underlying representational schema and constraints. In
addition to modification of structures of a design, the ability to manipulate
constraints can also be regarded as a significant kind of adaptation knowl-
edge. For example, adaptation may be applied to constraints by weakening
preferences and priorities. We have been able to draw only limited con-
clusions on this subject with our relatively small population of student
designers. However, it appears to us that the cognitive mastery of graphical
adaptation operations and schema modification strategies is one of the
forms of design expertise.
4.2.4 The dynamics of re-representation
Each new adaptation opens the possibility for further interactions and new
changes. In such an approach, diversity arises when opportunities for new
interactions that can be exploited are recognized by the designer as an
ever-changing pattern of possibilities.
5 Re-Representing the new from the known: a case
study in architectural re-representation
In order to test and validate our assumptions, an empirical research was
constructed. In the experiment, domain knowl edge made manifest in
338 Design Studies Vol 18 No 4 October 1997
graphical operations in a design task was studied. Representations in archi-
tecture tend to be task specific. Each task has its own representational
system which supports reasoning processes within the task domain. The
case study that was chosen was a house plan, the complexity of which was
easily manageable by the subjects. The task domain was spatial configur-
ation, or the formal and functional modification of the design representation
of the plan. The subjects, who were 15 advanced level architectural stu-
dents, were requested to do the following assignment. Given an existing
design representation (plan drawing):
(1) To construct a set of underlying multiple representational abstraction
levels for the given design. Each abstraction level suggested design
operations associated with the type of knowledge or design principle.
For example, an underlying abstraction such as an axis which is asso-
ciated with symmet ry may also be associated with operative knowl-
edge such as morphological transformations relative to axial order.
In the case study, certain classes of abstraction common in the domain
were suggested as examples, while the subjects were requested to
formulate other schema or abstraction levels which were relevant to
their own re-representational operations. Certain typical schema or
abstraction levels in the domain are (Figure 1):
underlying abstractions of order: for example: main rectangular axis, sec-
ondary diagonal axis system, main grid system, etc.
Fi gure I Abstra~:tion l evel s
as re-represent at i onal sys-
t ems in desi gn
comers di agonal axi s or t hogonal axi s
system system
formal Myers emphasized main grid system
axis
Design by re-representation 339
typological schema: (typologies in housing design): for example, the
knowledge of minimal and maximal dimensions of functional elements
such as bedroom, bathroom, stairs etc.
underlying abstractions of order in schema: for example, principles of zon-
ing, functional relations such as linkages between rooms, etc.
general design principles related to the task: for example, the reduction
of comers, layering systems, emphasizing the main axis, etc.
(2) Given an external requirement, the subject was requested to identify
design constraints and to select abstraction levels for re-representation
which were related to these constraints. In this case, the external
requirement was to decrease the area of the plan design by 20%. The
subjects identified the constraints and most decided to preserve the
topological relations of the design while effecting the re-represen-
tations.
(3) After first re-representations were effected, the designs were evalu-
ated and faults were identified. For example, the functional types may
have ' failed' functionally or formal principles such as the dimensions
of grid system may have been ' violated' .
(4) At this stage the emerging internal constraints were identified and
new re-representations were undertaken. In this way a cyclical process
of changes propagated new constraints, which elicited subsequent
modifications activated by the various knowledge sources.
I
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
o r i g i na l d e s i g n
initial state
adapted d e s i g n
f'mal state
Figure 2 Initial and adapted final state
340 Design Studies Vol 18 No 4 October 1997
Figure 2 illustrates the initial state and the final state of this subject.
The re-representation sequence of the subject' s example illustrated in this
paper, included some twenty-eight recorded iterations. The first six re-rep-
resentations are illustrated in Figure 3 and described below. Each re-rep-
resentation generates a sequence of internal constraints which must be sat-
isfied in the next re-representation and this continues in a cycle of sketches
until all constraints are satisfied including the initial constraint.
- - r e- r epr es ent at i on 0 t o 1: (components affect structural schema)
Initial constraint is a reduction of size. The initial strategy was to start the
reduction process on the holistic structure. The inner layer, one of a set of
formal layers which contain functional zones (court) was reduced to a mini-
mal functional size. This operation disturbed the consistency of the grid
system;
- - r e- r epr es ent at i on 1 t o 2: (structural operation affects component
integrity)
In order to reconstruct the regulation system the rest of the functional layers
were shifted along the diagonal axial system. As a result some typological
constraints emerged by changing the dimensions of functional spaces
(entrance corridor) and architectural elements (fireplace);
- - r e- r epr es ent at i on 2 t o 3: (parametric modification)
The extension of a functional space (entrance corridor) was made in corre-
lation with the diagonal system and axis;
- - r e- r epr es ent at i on 3 t o 4: (parametric modification of component)
Architectural element (fireplace) was transformed to original size in
relation to central axis;
- - r e- r epr es ent at i on 4 to 5: (topological and functional relationships)
The enlargement of one element (fireplace) has affected relations between
architectural elements (column and fireplace), and required a subsequent
change in related elements;
- - r e- r epr es ent at i on 5 t o 6: (formal system and parametric reduction)
The columns were shifted symmetrically and the t wo adjacent spaces
were reduced.
Design by re-representation 341
. . . . . . ' ' ' - ' l '
. . . . . . i ni t i al s t a t e
r ~ _ _ r ~
l ! ' I i:l
, Lr! q
no.1
" " ~" ' ! ~ . ' U ~ ' ~ ' ' 1
no. 2
I - "% ! I t - 71 ~ \ , ; . , 'm
! n o . 3
I
no. 4
n o . 5
Figure 3 Re-representation on transformations (analysis done by Amos Wachman, Faculty of Architecture and TP, Technion)
342 Design Studies Vol 18 No 4 October 1997
5. 1 Findings
Human designers were found to be able to extract various abstracted
explicit representations of the existing design based on their own domain
knowledge. These abstractions included typological schema, organizational
principles, morphological principles, functional relationships, etc. Subjects
were also able to externalize and categorize their graphic manipulations
conceptually despite the fact that drawings tend not to provide explicit
representational information to support such decomposition. Furthermore,
the graphical re-representation of a design exploits this same knowledge
in creating new representations.
From our research it appears that human designers utilize a personal hier-
archical order of underlying conceptual structures such as grids, construc-
tion lines etc. These multiple schematic representations serve the designer
as supportive representations for design manipulation. It is the structuring
quality of these multiple representations and the explication of their indi-
vidual internal constraints (the internal logic of the schema) which appear
to support design manipulation.
The adaptation, or modification, of representations also appears to be
dependent upon generalized domain knowledge which is learned through
design experience. In the particular design to be adapted, this generalized
knowledge enabled the externalization/construction of the underlying
schema of the design. These (various) schema constitute the multiple
underlying representations of the design. According to our findings, each
design must have such multiple representations, i f it is to support the
manipulation of designs.
This abstract knowledge may be considered an inter-related system of
domain specific representational structures. This finding is most relevant
to the problem of appropriate representations for designs. Another of the
most interesting observations was the contingent quality of the adaptation
process. It was possible to observe how each new (modified) representation
of the design introduced new modification strategies and operations, and
even new structuring concepts. Recognition and maintenance of the internal
consistency of the system of abstractions was found to be a characteristic
of designers' cognitive ability. The ability to relate to this schema as a
reference and to use or depart from it is a quality of the creative designer.
6 Towards a general model of reasoning in re-
representation
In order to develop a general model we recorded the states of evolution
of the design representations as well as the protocols of interactions
Design by re.-representation 343
between the designer and the semantic representations. The model is iterat-
ive and consists of the following main stages:
( 1 )
(2)
External Constraints: identification of external constraints. Extemal
constraints are generally derived from the problem definition or re-
definition.
Initial Strategy: selection of re-representation strategy, including
among others, structural modification of the schema, or component
re-representation within the schema. In design there is always some
form of hierarchical relationship between structure and component.
Thus the selection of working within the abstraction levels of the
schema structure, or modi fyi ng the schema depends upon the design-
er' s evaluation of the external constraint. It may also be determined
by personal design preferences.
It is the ability to handle consistency by the modification of structures,
components and design constraints which is characteristic of re-represen-
tation. The strategy must be determined by the order in which to achieve
modification. A constraint may be violated by adapting a value or by mod-
ifying the structure and it may also be possible to simplify a problem by
relaxing a constraint.
(3) Representational Abstraction Layer: selection of layer of represen-
tation of schema, abstraction level, or individual component. In gen-
eral, the constraints specify properties of the design that must be
transformed. Such properties may be restrictions on values, or
relationships between different components, and help to determine
upon which representational layer the re-re-representation can be
effected.
(4) Operational Method: selection of operational method associated with
the representational layer. The constraint(s) guide the operations on
a representation during the modification process. For example, typo-
logical substitution retrieves refinement methods; t opol ogy retrieves
topological operations such as delete, insert and parametric oper-
ations; change in a formal system retrieves its own formal represen-
tational system.
(5) Evaluation: evaluation of internal consistency with respect to rep-
resentational integrity, for example, in the formal structure of a
design.
(6) Internal Constraints: identification of internal constraints which
ensure internal integrity. The nature of a constraint affects the way
re-representation may be performed. A re-representation strategy may
also be invoked in response to the violations of the constraint.
344 Design Studies Vol 18 No 4 October 1997
(7) Selection: selection of active constraints according to priority criteria.
(8) Continue cycle.
Figure 4 describes some of the abstraction levels and their associated oper-
ational methods. The general model is schematically illustrated by one
cycle of re-representation in Figure 5.
7 Summary and conclusions: the creativity in re-
representation
Our work has explored the scientific means through which our own
intuition about design can be transformed into the development of a theor-
etical approach. We have presented the theoretical and empirical foun-
dations for re-representation models of adaptive design. In the empirical
study an approach to the modeling of the design reasoning underlying re-
representational processes through sequential drawing and sketching of re-
representations has been described.
The empirical study has led to the construction of a general model of re-
representation exploiting multiple representations of the abstraction levels
in design. The model is based on the transformation of chunks of knowl-
edge in design into explicit re-representational structures which can support
the creative act of re-representation in a graphic environment.
some abstraction levels and
schema which support multiple
representational systems
t y p o l o o c a l
schema
bathroom bedroom corridor
t o p o l o g y f o r m a l system
relations 1[ size ] [ c o n c e p t I
inside larger central, linear, axial
outside smaller
refmement
specialization
gener'ali7~ion
" o n l l
i n s e r t i o n ] I o p e r a t i o n s
scaling
operations
and
parametric
adjustment
formal
syst em
symmetry
operations
Figure 4 Abstraction levels and their associated operational methods
Design by re--representation 345
s e l e c t
i n i t i a l
c o n s t r a i n !
s e l e c t
i n i t i a l
s t r a t e g y
[ s c h e m a [
I c o m p o n e n t ]
assign
priodty
Figure 5 General model of re-representation
select first
representational
abstraction level
t ypol ogy [
t opol ogy ]
I formal ]
s e l e c t
a s s o c i a t e d
operation
specialization/
generalization I
i n s mi o n /
ddi f i on
I parametric [
evaluate
c o n s t r a i n t s
The sequent i al mani pul at i ons o f graphical represent at i ons and t he ability
t o re-descri be must be consi der ed one model o f t he creat i ve act. Invent i on
in desi gn is, among ot her cogni t i ve capabilities, consi der ed t o be i nfl uenced
by t he behavi oral mast er y o f this process. Mani pul at i on o f represent at i ons
t hrough sequences o f mul t i pl e re-represent at i ons is a keyst one o f t he cre-
at i ve process whi ch can resul t in desi gns o f unexpect ed di versi t y and nov-
el t y. It is par t o f t he par adox o f creat i vi t y that t hrough re-represent at i on,
t he new can be made f r om t he existing.
Our re-represent at i onal model o f re-represent at i on in desi gn appears t o pro-
vi de one basis f or a f or mal t heor y o f creat i vi t y. The f ol l owi ng concept s,
whi ch have emer ged f r om our empi ri cal studies, are r el evant t o t he f or mal
model i ng o f creat i vi t y.
- - t he human ability t o t r ansf or m i mpl i ci t knowl edge t o represen-
t at i onal st ruct ure enabl es modi fi cat i on and change;
- - t he capabi l i t y t o t r ansf or m knowl edge i nt o represent at i onal struc-
tures underl i es t he ability t o make novel modi fi cat i ons and changes
within, or t hrough, t hose represent at i ons;
- - t he est abl i shment o f the ri ght represent at i on may be consi der ed t o
be a creat i ve act;
Creat i vi t y can be expl ai ned in such an approach by demonst rat i ng how
desi gns can be accessed and t r ansf or med i n novel ways. Fur t her mor e, cer-
346 Desi gn St udi es Vol 18 No 4 Oct ober 1997
tain internal constraints of a re-representation in our model may necessitate
the accessing of a new layer in another relevant design. This is one of
many forms of ' explorative processes' which are common in creativity in
design. These phenomena can be formally modeled within a multi-rep-
resentational scheme of design as re-representation strategy.
Given that graphic re-representation in design is such an important and all
pervasive phenomenon, we require more empirical and theoretical work in
order to develop the basic concepts such as a t axonomy of types of knowl-
edge structures, constraints or classes of strategies and modification oper-
ations in design. Lacking this level of basic concepts, even the description
and analysis of the design protocols has been a difficult task. It is antici-
pated that these results will lead to a better understanding of human design-
ers and ultimately strengthen our ability to development tools and methods
to support them.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Technion VPR Fund. I would like
to express my appreciation of the stimulating work of the students who
participated in the graduate course in ' AI in Desi gn' . I would like to parti-
cularly thank Architect Amos Wachman who provided his work to illus-
trate our empirical study in this paper. The assistance of R. Sharvit and
H. Casakin is also acknowledged.
Design by re-representation 347