UEME3112 UEME3112

Fl ui d Mec hani c s I I
Chapt er 1 I nvi sc i d Fl ow Chapt er 1 I nvi sc i d Fl ow
1
Outline
History of Potential Flow and Boundary Layer History of Potential Flow and Boundary Layer
Types of Motion or Deformation of Fluid Elements
Rotationality Rotationality
Irrotational Flow Approximation
Stream Function Stream Function
Velocity Potential
Continuity Equation y q
Elementary Flows
Complex Flows
2
p
The History of Potential Flow and Boundary Layer
In 1904 Ludwig Prandtl introduced a new concept, called the
boundary layer: if a fluid flows past the leading edge of a flat
surface there will generate a velocity profile Inside the boundary surface, there will generate a velocity profile. Inside the boundary
layer, the effects of viscosity are too large to be ignored. Outside the
boundary layer, the laws of perfect-fluid flow should be satisfactory.
h l l i ill diffi l d l i The calculations were still very difficult, and so only approximate
mathematical solutions were possible.
But, this idea clarified numerous unexplained phenomena and , p p
provided a much better intellectual basis for discussing complicated
flows.
So it is clear that the ideas of perfect fluid flow and boundary layer So, it is clear that the ideas of perfect-fluid flow and boundary layer
are intimately tied together.
We will consider perfect-fluid or inviscid flows in this chapter, and
3
boundary layer in chapters 3 and 4.
Deformation of a Fluid Elements
General deformation of fluid element is rather complex; however, we can
break the different types of deformation or motion into a superposition of
each type each type.
Velocity
Angular Velocity
Linear Strain Rate
Shear Strain Rate
4
In order for these deformation rates to be useful in the calculation of fluid
flows, they must be expressed in terms of velocity and derivatives of velocity.
1. Linear Motion/Translation
Simplest form of motion the element moves as a solid
body. y
The rate of translation vector is described as the velocity
vector in Cartesian coordinates:
k

k w j v i u V + + =
5
2. Linear Deformation
Linear strain rate is defined as the rate of increase in length per unit
length. It is expressed in Cartesian coordinates as
S lid bj t h i d d b t t h hil ll d Th
z
w
y
v
x
u
zz yy xx
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
= c c c , ,
Solid objects such as wires, rods, and beams stretch while pulled. Then,
they usually shrink in direction(s) normal to that direction.
This is also true for fluid elements. Therefore, for an incompressible flow,
if the element stretches in one direction it must shrink by an appropriate if the element stretches in one direction, it must shrink by an appropriate
amount in other direction(s) to compensate.
6
The shape does not change, linear deformation
2. Linear Deformation
Velocity gradients can cause deformation, stretching resulting in a change
in volume of the fluid element.
Rate of Change for one direction: Rate of Change for one direction:
For all THREE directions:
w v u d

) ( 1 c c c o
The volumetric strain rate is
the sum of the linear strain
V
z
w
y
v
x
u
dt
d
zz yy xx

) ( 1
V =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= + + =

c c c
o
o
The rate of increase of volume of a fluid element per unit volume is
rates in three mutually
orthogonal directions.
The rate of increase of volume of a fluid element per unit volume is
called as volumetric strain rate or volumetric dilatation rate or bulk
strain rate. It is positive if the volume increases.
Th li d f ti i f i ibl fl id
0

V V
7
The linear deformation is zero for incompressible fluids.
0 = V V
3. Angular Motion/Rotation
Angular velocity or rate of rotation at a point is defined as the average
rotation rate of two initially perpendicular lines that intersect at that point:
Angular motion results from
cross derivatives.
8
3. Angular Motion/Rotation g
The rotation of the element about the z-axis is the average of the angular
velocities :
Likewise about the y-axis and the x-axis:
Counterclockwise rotation is considered positive
Likewise, about the y axis, and the x axis:
and
The three components gives the rotation vector:
Using vector identities, the rotation vector is one-half the curl of the
velocity vector:
9
Vorticity and Rotationality
The definition of the rotation vector operation is the following:
The vorticity is twice the angular rotation:
These calculations were carried out for any rigid-body rotation.
Only circular motions with zero vorticity are irrotational, and hence are
potential flows.
If h h i i d h fl i id b
10
If , then there is no rotation, and the flow is said to be
irrotational.
Vorticity and Rotationality y y
Irrotational Flow: the vorticity of an irrotational flow is zero.
= 0
For a flow to be irrotational, each of the vorticity vector components must be
equal to zero.
The z-component:
The x-component lead to a similar result: The x-component lead to a similar result:
The y-component lead to a similar result:
Uniform flow will satisfy these conditions:
11
Vorticity and Rotationality y y
If the vorticity at a point in a flow is nonzero, the fluid
particles that happens to occupy that point in space is p pp py p p
rotating, and the flow in that region is called rotational.
Physically, fluid particles in a rotational region of flow
d d h l i h fl rotate end over end as they move along in the flow.
For the 2-D flow in the xy-plane, the axis of rotation must
be perpendicular to that plane i e in the z direction be perpendicular to that plane, i.e., in the z direction.
k
y
u
x
v
z

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
= ,
y x
. \
c c
12
Vorticity and Rotationality y y
The vorticity vector in cylindrical coordinates (r, , z):
u ru u u u u ) ( 1 1
| |
c c
| |
c c
| |
c c
z
r z r
r
z
e
u
r
ru
r
e
r
u
z
u
e
z
u u
r

) ( 1

1

|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
=
u u
,
u
u
u
For 2-D flow in the r-plane:
) ( 1
| |
c c
z
r
e
u
r
ru
r

) ( 1

|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
=
u
,
u
13
The Irrotational Flow Approximation pp
Irrotational approximation:
0

~ V = V ,
We must keep in mind that the assumption of irrotationality
is an approximation, which may be appropriate in some
regions of a flow field, but not in other regions. regions of a flow field, but not in other regions.
In general, inviscid regions of flow far away from solid walls
and wakes of bodies are also irrotational.
However, there are situations in which an inviscid region of
flow may not be irrotational (e.g., solid-body rotation).
14
Inviscid Flow: Irrotational Flow
Examples where inviscid flow theory can be used:
Viscous Region - Rotational
I i id R i I t ti l
g
Inviscid Region Irrotational
15
Example
Example: Determine whether the following 2-D flows are rotational or
irrotational:
( ) 2 3 (a) u = -2y, v = 3x;
(b) v = 0, w = 3yz;
(c) u = 2x, w = 2z.
16
4. Angular Deformation/Shear Strain g
Shear strain rate at a point is defined as half of the rate of
decrease of the angle between two initially perpendicular lines that
intersect at that point.
Consider a fluid element translating and deforming in 2-D plane,
the shear strain rate, initially perpendicular lines in the x- and y- , y p p y
directions:
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
= =
x
v
y
u
dt
d
xy
2
1
2
1
o c
Consider 3-D, the shear strain rate in Cartesian coordinates:
| | | |
| |
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
x
w
z
v
z
u
x
w
x
v
y
u
yz zx xy
2
1
2
1
2
1
c c c
17
Angular Deformation/Shear Strain g
Now, we combine linear strain rate and shear strain rate into
shear strain tensor:
|
|
|
|

|
| | c c c | | c c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
|
|

|
x
w
z
u
x
v
y
u
x
u
xz xy xx
2
1
2
1
c c c
|
|
|
|
|

c
|
|

| c c
|
|

|
c c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
|
.

\
=
w v w u w
y
w
z
v
y
v
y
u
x
v
zz zy zx
yz yy yx
xz xy xx
ij
1 1
2
1
2
1
c c c
c c c c
|
|
.

\
c
|
|
.

\
c
+
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
+
c z z y z x 2 2
We will see it again in Chap 2 We will see it again in Chap 2
18
We will see it again in Chap 2 We will see it again in Chap 2
Conservation of Mass: Cartesian Coordinates
The differential form of the equation for Conservation of Mass:
In vector notation, the equation is the following:
The Continuity Equation
If the flow is steady and compressible:
If the flow is steady and incompressible: If the flow is steady and incompressible:
19
Examples
Example: Assuming to be constant, do the following flows satisfy continuity?
(a) u = -2y, v = 3x;
(b) 0 3 (b) u = 0, v = 3xy;
20
Conservation of Mass: Cylindrical Coordinates y
If the flow is steady and compressible:
The Continuity Equation
If the flow is steady and compressible:
The Continuity Equation
If the flow is steady and incompressible:
21
Examples
Example: Check the following incompressible flows for continuity and
determine the vorticity of each:
( ) 6 0 (a) v
u
= 6r, v
r
= 0;
(b) v
u
= 0, v
r
= -5/r.
22
Stream Functions Stream Functions
Stream Functions are defined for steady, incompressible, 2D flow.
2 D C i i E i 2-D Continuity Equation:
Then, we define the stream functions as follows: e , we de e e s e u c o s s o ows:
Now, substitute the stream function into the continuity equation: , y q
Any flow that satisfies stream
function automatically satisfies the
continuity condition.
23
Stream Functions Stream Functions
The slope at any point along a streamline:
Streamlines have constant , thus d = 0:
dz dy dx
= =
w v u
= =
24
Stream Functions
Now, calculate the volumetric flow rate between streamlines:
The change in the value of the stream
function is related to the volume rate of flow.
25
Stream Functions in Cylindrical Coordinates
Incompressible, planar stream function in cylindrical coordinates:
Incompressible axisymmetric stream f nction in c lindrical Incompressible, axisymmetric stream function in cylindrical
coordinates:
0
) ( ) ( 1 c
+
c u ru
z r
0
) ( ) (
=
c
+
c z r r
z r
c c 1 1
r r
u
z r
u
z r
c
=
c
=

26
Interpretation of Stream Function p
A single variable () replaces two variables (u and v); once is
known, both u and v can be generated.
The stream function satisfies the continuity equation.
Curves of constant are streamlines of the flow.
The difference in the value of from one streamline to another is
equal to the volume flow rate per unit width between the two
streamlines streamlines.
In steady flow, there is no flow across (perpendicular) to a
streamline.
27
Streamlines
A streamline is a line drawn
through the flow field in such a
manner that the local velocity vector
is tangent to the streamline at every
point along the line at that instant. p g
The tangent of the streamline at a
given time gives the direction of the
l it t A t li d velocity vector. A streamline does
not indicate the magnitude of the
velocity.
The flow pattern shown by the
streamlines is an instantaneous
visualization of the flow field
28
visualization of the flow field.
Example
Example: The velocity components in a steady, incompressible, 2D flow field
are u = 2y and v = 4x. Determine the stream function and show on a
sketch with several streamlines sketch with several streamlines.
29
Streamlines
For real fluid flows, the fluid adjacent to the boundary of a solid body
does not move relative to body it sticks to the wall. So, in real fluids
the wall is a streamline of zero velocity. the wall is a streamline of zero velocity.
But, the perfect fluid has no tendency to stick to walls because it has
no viscosity. So, the streamline adjacent to a solid body in perfect-fluid
flow is one with finite velocity.
This leads to the idea that we may divide a perfect-fluid flow along a
streamline and substitute a solid body for the flow on one side of the streamline and substitute a solid body for the flow on one side of the
streamline.
30
Potential Flow
In the region outside the boundary layer, where the fluid may be
assumed to have no viscosity, the mathematical solution takes on the
form known as irrotational flow (also known as potential flow). form known as irrotational flow (also known as potential flow).
This form is analogous to the flow of heat in a temperature field or to
the flow of charge in an electrostatic field. All these flows obey
Laplaces equation under certain restrictions (for example: steady-state
mass balance for a constant-density fluid).
Not every velocity potential satisfies Laplaces equation and so not Not every velocity potential satisfies Laplace s equation, and so not
every velocity potential represents a potential flow. For example, | = x
2
,
x
2
+ y
2
, e
x
, sin x do not satisfy Laplaces equation, so they cannot
represent potential flows because they violate the mass balance for a represent potential flows because they violate the mass balance for a
constant-density fluid.
31
Potential Flow: Velocity Potential
For irrotational flow, there exists a velocity potential:
Take one component of vorticity to show that the velocity potential is irrotational:
Substitute u and v components of velocity potential: Substitute u and v components of velocity potential:
0
2
1
2 2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c c
c

c c
c
x y y x
| |
We could do this to show all vorticity components are zero.
The flow must be irrotational if there is a velocity potential.
32
Potential Flow: Velocity Potential
If the curl of a vector is zero, the vector can be expressed as the gradient of
a velocity potential
Then, rewriting the u, v, and w components as a vector:
a velocity potential.
For irrotational, planar flow:
Now substitute the stream function:
Then,
Laplaces Equation
Then for incompressible irrotational flow:
33
Potential Flow: Velocity Potential
Vector identity:
So, if , then
y
0

= V V V
0

= V V | V = V

If the curl of a vector is zero, the vector can be expressed as the gradient
of a scalar function | called potential function.
|
In fluid mechanics, vector V is the velocity vector, the curl of which is the
vorticity vector, and thus we call | as the velocity potential function. y , | y p
For irrotational regions of flows:
| V = V

34
Potential Flow: Velocity Potential
Potential flows are
irrotational vorticity is y
zero.
If the vorticity is present
( b d l (e.g., boundary layer,
wake), then the flow
cannot be described by
Laplaces equation.
35
Potential Flow: Velocity Potential Potential Flow: Velocity Potential
Laplacian Operator in Cartesian coordinates:
If a Potential Flow exists,
ith i t b d
Laplacian Operator in cylindrical coordinates:
with appropriate boundary
conditions, the entire velocity
and pressure field can be
specified
where the gradient in cylindrical coordinates, the gradient operator,
specified.
Then,
May choose cylindrical
coordinates based on the
geometry of the flow problem,
i.e., pipe flow.
36
Potential Flow: Velocity Potential Potential Flow: Velocity Potential
Lines of constant are streamlines:
Now, the change of | from one point (x, y) to a nearby point (x + dx, y + dy):
Along lines of constant |, we have d| = 0,
0
The equipotential lines are orthogonal to streamlines where they intersect.
Lines of constant | are called equipotential lines.
37
Potential Flow: Velocity Potential Potential Flow: Velocity Potential
The flow net consists of a family of streamlines and equipotential lines.
The combination of streamlines and equipotential lines are used to visualize a The combination of streamlines and equipotential lines are used to visualize a
graphical flow situation.
The elocit is in ersel
Velocity decreases
The velocity is inversely
proportional to the spacing
between streamlines.
along this streamline.
Velocity increases
along this streamline along this streamline.
38
Stream Function and Velocity Potential y
The stream function is
defined by continuity; the
Laplace equation for
results from irrotationality.
The velocity potential is
defined by irrotationality;
the Laplace equation for | the Laplace equation for |
results from continuity. 0
2
1
2 2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c c
c

c c
c
x y y x
| |
39
Potential Flow: Plane Potential Flows
Velocity components for steady, incompressible, irrotational, 2D regions of
flow in terms of velocity potential and stream function in various
coordinate systems: coordinate systems:
Planar, Cartesian:
Planar, Cylindrical:
Axisymmetric Cylindrical:
u u
c
=
c
=
| |
Planar, Cartesian:
Axisymmetric, Cylindrical:
z
u
r
u
z r
c
=
c
=
Planar, Cylindrical:
c c 1 1
40
r r
u
z r
u
z r
c
=
c
=

Axisymmetric, Cylindrical:
The Conversion between Velocity Field,
St F ti d V l it P t ti l Stream Function and Velocity Potential
| ) ( v u
|
|

) (
) , (
w v u
v u
| ) , , ( w v u
41
Incompressible? Continuity equation? p y q
Stream function exists? Irrotational? Velocity
potential exists?
Incompressible? Satisfy
continuity equation?
Irrotational? Velocity
potential exists? y q
Stream function
exists?
p
0 = - V V
0 or 0 = = , e
0
2
= V | 0
2
= V
,
42
0 V | 0 V
Example
Example: A velocity potential in 2D flow is . Find the stream
function for this flow.
2 2
y x y + = |
43
Example
Example: The 2D stream function for a flow is . Find
the velocity potential for this flow.
xy y x 7 4 6 9 + + =
44
Example
Example: In a 2D incompressible flow, the fluid velocity components are
given by and . Show that the flow satisfied the
continuity equation and obtain the expression for the stream function.
y x u 4 =
x y v 4 =
y q p
If the flow is potential, obtain also the expression for the velocity
potential.
45
Example
Example: The 2D flow of a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in the vicinity of
the 90 corner is described by the stream function .
Determine the corresponding velocity potential.
u 2 sin 2
2
r =
Determine the corresponding velocity potential.
tu
tu
|
o t /
A
o
tu

o t
sin
/
Ar =
46
o
|
o t
cos
/
Ar =
Elementary Flows
Before we discuss the elemental flows, lets visit this
Elementary Flows
Before we discuss the elemental flows, let s visit this
website:
http://simscience.org/fluid/green/potential.html
Next we will learn how the velocity fields of some
elementary and complex flows can be expressed in e e e y d co p e ows c be e p essed
terms of stream function and velocity potential.
47
1 Uniform Flow 1. Uniform Flow
Question: Do |
1
= Ax and |
2
= Ax + By satisfy Laplaces equation?
For |
1
= Ax , u = |
1
/x = A, v = |
1
/y = 0
So, |
1
describes a uniform, steady flow of velocity A in the positive x
direction. This might be the description of a wind blowing over the ocean at
a steady, uniform velocity of A.
For |
2
= Ax + By, u = |
2
/x = A, v = |
2
/y = B
So, |
2
describes a uniform, constant-velocity flow with velocity (A
2
+ B
2
)
1/2
,
making the angle arctan (B/A) with the x axis making the angle arctan (B/A) with the x axis.
These uniform flows are not of much practical interest alone, but they can
b bi d i h h fl l i i bl
48
be combined with other flows to solve more interesting problems.
1 Uniform Flow 1. Uniform Flow
For Uniform Flow in an arbitrary direction, o:
49
2 Source and Sink Flow
( ) m v r
r
= t 2
2. Source and Sink Flow
Now, obtain the stream function for the flow:
0
m
Integrating to obtain the solution:
The streamlines are radial lines and the equipotential
li i i l d b h i i
r
m
ln
2t
| =
lines are concentric circles centered about the origin:
| lines
lines
50
2 Source and Sink Flow 2. Source and Sink Flow
If m is positive, the flow is source; if m is negative, the flow is
sink
Q
sink.
(the strength of the source or sink, the volume rate of
flow emanating from the line (per unit length), where Q is flow rate,
L
Q
m =
and L is height).
These flows are of practical significance in the petroleum
industry; it describes the flow into oil well in a thick horizontal industry; it describes the flow into oil well in a thick horizontal
stratum.
The equations u
r
= m/2tr, v
u
= 0 show that the radial flow q
r
,
u
velocity becomes infinite at r = 0 (mathematical singularity); thus,
this equation cannot describe any real flow at r = 0.
51
Examples
Example: A nonviscous, incompressible fluid flows between wedge-shaped
walls into a small opening. The velocity potential (in m
2
/s), which
approximately describes this flow is | = -2 ln r. Determine the pp y |
volume rate of flow (per unit length) into the opening.
52
3. Vortex Flow
In vortex flow the streamlines are concentric circles, and the equipotential
lines are radial lines.
where K is a constant, namely the strength of the vortex.
Solution:
The sign of K determines whether the flow rotates
clockwise (-) or counterclockwise (+).
In this case, ,
The tangential velocity varies inversely with
the distance from the origin.
At th i i it t i l it
| lines
lines
53
At the origin it encounters a singularity
becoming infinite.
3. Vortex Flow
Rotation refers to the orientation of a fluid element and not the path
followed by the element. The elements deform to maintain a constant
orientation. orientation.
In general flow there is both deformation and rotation.
An ideal flow is one that has no viscosity and is incompressible.
If an ideal flow is initially irrotational, it will remain irrotational.
Two vortices: free vortex and forced vortex.
Th i li ti f th t it d i f b tht b i i il t The swirling motion of the water as it drains from a bathtub is similar to
that of a free vortex, while the motion of a liquid contained in a tank is
rotated about its axis with angular velocity corresponds to a forced vortex.
54
Free Vortex and Forced Vortex
Irrotational Flow: Free Vortex Rotational Flow: Forced Vortex
Velocity
increases
Velocity
increases
inward.
increases
outward.
i.e., water
draining from a
bathtub
i.e., a rotating tank
filled with fluid
Traveling from A to B, consider two sticks
Irrotational Flow: Rotational Flow: Rigid Body Rotation
bathtub
Initially, sticks aligned, one in the flow direction,
and the other perpendicular to the flow.
As they move from A to B the perpendicular-
Initially, sticks aligned, one in the
flow direction, and the other
perpendicular to the flow.
y p p
aligned stick rotates clockwise, while the flow-
aligned stick rotates counter clockwise.
The average angular velocities cancel each other,
As they move from A to B the sticks
move in a rigid body motion, and thus
the flow is rotational.
55
thus, the flow is irrotational.
0

= V = V , V

V = = e ,
F V t d F d V t Free Vortex and Forced Vortex
56
6.4 Vortex
A simple analogy can be made
between flow A and a merry-go-
round or roundabout and flowB round or roundabout, and flow B
and a Ferris wheel.
As children revolve around a
roundabout they also rotate at roundabout, they also rotate at
the same angular velocity as that
of the ride itself. This is analogous
to a rotational flow.
In contrast, children on a Ferris
wheel always remain oriented in
an upright position as they trace
t th i i l th Thi i out their circular path. This is
analogous to an irrotational flow.
A simple analogy: (a) rotational
circular flow is analogous to a
d b t hil (b) i t ti l
57
roundabout, while (b) irrotational
circular flow is analogous to a
Ferris wheel.
Tornadoes and Hurricanes
A combined vortex flow is one in which there is a forced vortex at the core, and a free
vortex outside the core.
The minimum pressure at the vortex center can give rise to a secondary flow which
i d d b h di i h i ( ) fl is produced by the pressure gradient in the primary (vortex) flow.
In the region near the ground, the wind velocity is decreased due to the friction
provided by the ground.
h diff i h di l di i di ll i d fl However, the pressure difference in the radial direction causes a radially inward flow
adjacent to the ground, and upward flow at the vortex center.
Pressure difference between the vortex Pressure difference between the vortex
center and outer edge:
p
1
p
0
= V
max
2
58
Circulation
Circulation () gives a measure of the average of rate of rotation of fluid
particles that are situated in an area that is bounded by a closed curved.
This concept is often useful when evaluating forces (such lift force)
developed on bodies immersed in moving fluids.
It is defined as the line integral of the tangential component of the g g p
velocity (V) around a closed curve fixed in the flow.
I = 0 for irrotational flow.
If there are singularities enclosed within the curve, I 0, for example:
free vortex.
59
Circulation: Free Vortex
For the free vortex:
(Integrate the entire circle) (Integrate the entire circle)
I= 0
The circulation is non-zero and constant for the free vortex:
The velocity potential and the stream function for the free vortex can
be rewritten in terms of the circulation:
60
Circulation
How is circulation calculated from rpm and radius?
61
Example
Example: A liquid drains from a large tank through a small opening. A vortex
forms whose velocity distribution away from the tank opening can be
approximated as that of a free vortex having a velocity potential approximated as that of a free vortex having a velocity potential
Determine an expression relating the surface shape to the strength of
the vortex as specified by the circulation
u t | ) 2 / (I =
the vortex as specified by the circulation.
62
4. Doublet Flow
Combination of an equal Source and Sink pair.
Rearrange and take tangent,
h f ll i
and
Note, the following:
Substituting the above expressions,
and
Then Then,
If a is small, then tangent of angle is approximated by the angle:
63
4. Doublet Flow
Now, we obtain the doublet flow by letting the source and sink approach one
another (a 0), and letting the strength increase (m ).
K is the strength of the doublet, and is equal
is then constant.
g , q
to ma/t.
The corresponding velocity potential then is the following:
Streamlines of a Doublet:
lines
64
4. Doublet Flow
If K is negative, the doublet is backward with the sink located at x = 0
-
(infinitesimally to the left of the origin) and the source located at x = 0
+
(i fi i i ll h i h f h i i ) I hi h li (infinitesimally to the right of the origin). In this case, the streamlines are
identical in shape, but the flow is in the opposite direction.
Also note that the above equations were derived for a doublet in which the
source and the sink were placed on the x-axis. If, however, the source and
sink are placed on the y-axis, the resulting doublet is oriented, and
expressions for the stream function and the velocity potential become
r
K u

cos
=
K u i
r
K u
|
sin
=
65
Summary of Basic Flows
66
Superposition of Basic Flows Superposition of Basic Flows
Because potential flows are governed by linear partial differential equations,
the solutions can be combined in superposition. p p
If |
1
and |
2
are each solutions of the Laplace equation, then A|
1
, (A+|
1
),
(|
1
+|
2
), and (A|
1
+|
2
) are also solutions,.
Thus, some of the basic and | can be combined to yield a streamline that
represents a particular body shape.
The superposition representing a body can lead to describing the flow around p p p g y g
the body in detail.
The superposition is only valid for irrotatioanal flow fields for which the
equations for | and are linear equations for | and are linear.
The velocity at any point in the composite field is the vector sum of the
velocities of the individual flow fields.
67
1. Rankine Half-Bodyy
The Rankine Half-Body is a combination of a source and a uniform flow.
Stream Function (cylindrical coordinates): Stream Function (cylindrical coordinates):
Velocity Potential (cylindrical coordinates):
68
1. Rankine Half-Bodyy
There will be a stagnation point, somewhere along the negative x-axis where
the velocities due to the source and uniform flow are cancelled (u = t).
For the source: For the uniform flow: u cos U v
r
=
For u = t,
U v
r
=
Then, for a stagnation point, at some x = -b (r = b), u = t:
r
m
U v
r
t 2
= = and
r t 2
Now, the stagnation streamline can be defined by evaluating y at r = b, and
u = t The value of at the stagnation point: u = t . The value of at the stagnation point:
u
t
u
2
sin
m
Ur + =
69
1. Rankine Half-Body
Since m/2 = tbU, it follows that the equation of the streamline passing
through the stagnation point, and gives the outline of the Rankine half-
body: y
Then, e ,
For inviscid flow, a streamline can be replaced by a solid boundary. So,
the source and uniform can be used to describe the flow around a
li d b d l d i if h lf b d streamlined body placed in a uniform stream half-body.
The other streamlines can be obtained by setting = constant.
70
Singularity (inside the body)
1 R ki H lf B d
( )
r
b u t
u

= sin
1. Rankine Half-Body
The width of the half-body:
Total width = 2tb
The magnitude of the velocity (V) at any point in the flow:
and and
Noting,
Knowing the velocity we can now determine the pressure field using the
Bernoulli Equation:
71
p
o
and U are at a point far away from the body and are known.
1. Rankine Half-Body
We wish to find the flow pattern around some arbitrary body.
This is normally done by combining uniform flows, sources,
i k t sinks, etc.
When a combination is found that produces a streamline with
the shape of the body in question the flow outside the the shape of the body in question, the flow outside the
streamline is a representation of the flow around the body.
The flow inside that line normally has no meaning and is The flow inside that line normally has no meaning and is
ignored.
The singularity in the flow field (source) only occurs inside g y ( ) y
the body.
72
1. Rankine Half-Body
The velocity tangent to the surface of the body is not zero,
i.e., the fluid slips by the boundary (as neglecting viscosity).
So, all potential flows differ from the flow of real fluids
(considering viscosity) and do not accurately represent the
velocity very near the boundary However outside this layer velocity very near the boundary. However, outside this layer,
the velocity distribution will generally correspond to that
predicted by potential flow theory if flow separation does not predicted by potential flow theory if flow separation does not
occur.
The pressure distribution along the surface will closely The pressure distribution along the surface will closely
approximate that predicted from the potential flow theory since
the boundary layer is thin, and there is little variation of
73
the boundary layer is thin, and there is little variation of
pressure through the boundary layer.
6.5 Half-body
Example
Example: The shape of a hill arising from a plain can be approximated with the top
section of a half-body. The height of the hill approaches 60 m.
(a) When a 60 km/hr wind blows toward the hill, what is the magnitude (a) When a 60 km/hr wind blows toward the hill, what is the magnitude
of the air velocity at a point on the hill directly above the origin (point 2)?
(b) What is the elevation of point (2) above the plain and what is the
difference in pressure between point (1) on the plain far from the hill and p p ( ) p
point (2)? Assume an air density of 1.23 kg/m
3
.
74
2. Rankine Oval
Rankine Ovals are the combination a source, a sink and a uniform flow,
producing a closed body.
Stream function and velocity function describing the flow:
75
2. Rankine Oval
The streamline = 0 forms the surface of a body of length 2l and width 2 h
placed in a uniform flow.
Ua/m is large slender body g y
Ua/m is small blunt shape body
The body half-length
2 / 1
1
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
Ua
m
a
l
t
The body half-width
76
y
Iterative
(

|
.
|

\
|
(

|
.
|

\
|
=
a
h
m
Ua
a
h
a
h t
2 tan 1
2
1
2
2. Rankine Oval
Ua/m is large slender body
Ua/m is small blunt shape body
77
2. Rankine Oval
D t f th i t f i Downstream from the point of maximum
body width, the surface pressure increases
with distance along the surface.
This condition (called adverse pressure
gradient) typically leads to separation (not
predicted by potential theory) of the flow predicted by potential theory) of the flow
from the surface, resulting in a large low
pressure wake on the downstream side of
the body.
The potential solution for the Rankine
ovals will only approximate the velocity ovals will only approximate the velocity
outside the thin, viscous boundary layer and
the pressure distribution on the front part of
h b d
78
the body.
6.9 Potential and viscous flow
3.1. Flow Around a Stationary Circular Cylinder
Combines a uniform flow and a doublet flow
d and
For the to represent flow around a cylinder, = constant for r = a (a = the
radius of the circular cylinder): y )
K = Ua
2
Doublet strength
Then, and
Then the velocity components:
Doublet strength
Then the velocity components:
6.6 Circular
cylinder
79
6.7 Ellipse
3.1. Flow Around a Stationary Circular Cylinder y y
On the surface of the cylinder (r = a):
v
rs
= 0
The maximum velocity occurs at the top and bottom of the cylinder,
magnitude of 2U ( = t/2).
Why are the
streamlines so
The figure shows the pattern
of streamlines for this flow.
We disregard the doublet flow
streamlines so
close here?
No slip or slip?
on the inside of the circle r = a
and imagine that a solid
cylinder replaces this portion
of the flow. A remarkable
feature is the symmetry of the
flow upstream and
do nstream of the c linder
80
downstream of the cylinder.
Why are the streamlines so far here?
3 1 Flow Around a Stationary Circular Cylinder 3.1. Flow Around a Stationary Circular Cylinder
Pressure distribution on a circular cylinder found with the Bernoulli equation
Then substituting for the surface velocity:
Theoretical and experimental agree well Theoretical and experimental agree well
on the front portion of the cylinder. The
actual surface pressures and ideal values
agree for a distance up to = 60.
Flow separation on the back-half in the
real flow due to viscous effects causes
differences between the theory and
81
y
experiment. So, the ideal flow is no
longer valid.
Pressure Coefficient
The pressure gradient influences flow patterns and pressure distributions
acting on bodies create forces.
A common dimensionless group for describing the pressure distribution is
ffi i t (C ) pressure coefficient (C
p
):
2
0 2
1
0
V
p p
C
p

=
where p is the local pressure, p
0
and V
0
are the free-stream pressure and
velocity.
82
The points B and D are points of stagnation (C
p
= +1.0), and the minimum
pressure (C
p
= 3.0) occurs at the point C.
Favorable and Adverse Pressure Gradient
From Eulers equation for pressure gradient and acceleration along a
pathline,
Favorable and Adverse Pressure Gradient
p c
The fluid particle accelerates (a > 0) if the pressure decreases with
s
p
a
t
c
c
=
The fluid particle accelerates (a
t
> 0) if the pressure decreases with
distance along a pathline (p/s < 0) favorable pressure gradient.
The fluid particle decelerates (a
t
< 0) if the pressure increases with
distance along a pathline (p/s > 0) adverse pressure gradient distance along a pathline (p/s > 0) adverse pressure gradient.
83
Flow Separation
Flow separation occurs when the fluid pathlines adjacent to body deviates
from the contour of the body and produce a wake.
Flow Separation
It tends to increase drag, reduce lift and produce unsteady forces leading
to structural failure (e.g., Tavoma Narrows Bridge in 1904).
The prediction and control of separation is continuing challenge for p p g g
engineers involved with the design of fluid systems.
84
6.8 Circular cylinder with separation
3.1. Flow Around a
Stationary Circular
Cylinder
Inviscid flow past a circular
cylinder:
(a) streamlines for the flow if
there were no viscous effects.
(b) pressure distribution on ( ) p
the cylinders surface,
(c) free-stream velocity on ( ) y
the cylinders surface.
85
3.1. Flow Around a
Stationary Circular
Boundary layer
Stationary Circular
Cylinder
Boundary layer
characteristics on a circular
cylinder:
(a) boundary layer
Wake
(a) boundary layer
separation location.
(b) typical boundary layer (b) typical boundary layer
velocity profiles at various
locations on the cylinder,
(c) surface pressure
distributions for inviscid
fl d b d l
Turbulent or laminar data
86
flow and boundary layer
flow.
matches better with
irrotational flow
approximation? Why?
3.1. Flow Around a Stationary Circular Cylinder
The resultant force per unit length acting on the cylinder can be determined
by integrating the pressure over the surface (equate to lift and drag).
(Drag)
(Lift)
J l R d
Substituting
Evaluating the integrals:
Jean le Rond
dAlembert
(1717-1783)
g g
Both drag and lift are predicted to be zero on fixed cylinder in a uniform
flow.
87
3.1. Flow Around a Stationary Circular Cylinder
Mathematically, this makes sense since the pressure distribution is
symmetrical around the cylinder (because of the symmetric pressure
distribution, the force on the front half cancels that one the rear half to produce , p
zero drag).
However, in practice/experiment, we see substantial drag on a circular
cylinder when is placed in a moving fluid. cylinder when is placed in a moving fluid.
This discrepancy is known as dAlemberts Paradox, 1717-1783.
Potential theory incorrectly predicts that the drag on a cylinder is zero.
88
3 2 Flow Around a Rotating Circular Cylinder 3.2. Flow Around a Rotating Circular Cylinder
Flow around a rotating cylinder is approximated by the combination of a
uniform flow past a cylinder and a free vortex.
The addition of the vortex changes the flow pattern everywhere, except at the
cylinder surface and at infinity.
uniform flow past a cylinder and a free vortex.
The streamlines that represents the cylinder is still a circle, but the values of the
surface velocity are changed.
This flow is relevant to the flow about wings and airfoils. This flow is relevant to the flow about wings and airfoils.
r
r
a
Ur ln
2
sin 1
2
2
t
u
I

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
u
t
u |
2
cos 1
2
2
I
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
r
a
Ur
and
a
U
r
v
a r
s
t
u

u
2
sin 2
I
+ =
c
c
=
=
On the surface of the cylinder (r = a):
89
The additional vortex only affects v
s
, but not v
r
.
3.2. Flow Around a Rotating Circular Cylinder
I
If = 0, then
stag
= 0 or ,
i e the stagnation points occur at
Ua
stag
t
u
4
sin
I
= The stagnation points occur at =
Stag
where(v

= 0):
i.e., the stagnation points occur at
the front and rear of the cylinder.
If 1 /(4Ua) 1 then the If -1 /(4Ua) 1, then the
stagnation points occur at some
other location on the surface as
Fi (b) d ( ) Figures (b) and (c).
If ,/(4Ua), > 1, then the
t ti i t i l t d stagnation point is located away
from the cylinder. There is a
portion of fluid that is trapped
h f d i ll
90
next to the surface and continually
rotates around the cylinder.
3 2 Flow Around a Rotating Circular Cylinder 3.2. Flow Around a Rotating Circular Cylinder
For the cylinder with circulation, the surface pressure is obtained from
the Bernoulli equation the Bernoulli equation.
2
2
0
2
sin 2
2
1
2
1
|
.
|

\
|
I
+ + = +
a
U p U p
s
t
u
|
|

|
I I
2
2 2
sin 2 1 u
or
|
.
|

\
|
I

I
+ + =
2 2 2
2 2
0
4
sin 2
sin 4 1
2
1
U a aU
U p p
s
t t
u
u
Eq A
91
3 2 Flow Around a Rotating Circular Cylinder 3.2. Flow Around a Rotating Circular Cylinder
0 =
x
F
For the rotating cylinder no force in the direction of the uniform flow is developed
Substituting Eq A into F
x
, for the drag, and integrated, yields
Substituting Eq A into F
y
, for the lift, and integrated, yields
For the rotating cylinder, no force in the direction of the uniform flow is developed.
I = U F
y

For cylinder with circulation, lift is developed equal to the product of fluid density,
t l it d i l ti
Magnus Effect
Lift on rotating bodies
upstream velocity and circulation.
The negative sign means that if U is positive in the positive x direction, and
i l i i i i ( f i h l k i i ) h
Potential flow past a cylinder with circulation gives zero drag, but non-zero lift.
circulation is positive (a free vortex with counterclockwise rotation), the
direction is downward.
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/cyl.html
92
The equation relating lift force on airfoils to , U, and is called Kutta-
Joukowski law.
3 2 Flow Around a Rotating Circular Cylinder 3.2. Flow Around a Rotating Circular Cylinder
Uniform flow towards +ve x-direction (U =
+ve), counterclockwise (I = +ve)
Low v and high P on top-half of cylinder g p y
Downward force (F
y
= -ve)
U if fl t d + di ti (U Uniform flow towards +ve x-direction (U =
+ve), clockwise (I = -ve)
Low v and high P on bottom-half of cylinder
Upward lift force (F
y
= +ve)
93
y
3.2. Flow Around a Rotating Circular Cylinder
From Eq.A the Ps distribution is studied. 2 scenerios;
1. : No rotation of the cylinder ;flow is symmetrical top
to bottom, front to back on cylinder
0 = /4 I Ua t
94
to bottom, front to back on cylinder
2. : Clockwise rotation of cylinder;flow is symmetrical
front to back, but not top to bottom.
-0.25 = /4 I Ua t