_ f

I
l. An introduction ~~~~O;~ ~~Uage teachers
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CAMBRIDGE
LANGUAGE
EDUCATION
SERIES EDITOR
JACK C. RICHAtl1DS
,
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1.4 The organlzation of grammar
Ihe organization of grammar itself can now be considered. Iwo important
concepts are needed fm this, rank: and c!ass,
1.4.1 Rank
Rank refers ta different levels of organizatian within grammar. Consider
the following example:
(3) People throw stones. [inv.J
Ihis stretch of language cansi,lts of one sentence and th..reewords. Sen-
tence and word are two ranks 01' grammatical organization, which in En-
glish are recognzed in the writng system, the former by an initial capital
letter ana final fu11stop (m mher final punctuation mark) and the latter by
spaces between the units. As wi11be seen later, identification of sentences
in speech is not so straightfarward. However, it is useful to retain the term
sentence fer the highest falLKaf grammatica! organization in borh spcken
and written English.
Some basic concepts
Speakers of English generally agree over boundaries between \VO,:2-,_
However, thefe may be some vanation or indeterminacy abou! where sor:-,;:
words begin and end. For example, should we write: non standard, :ce.-
standard, or nonstandard? Linguists also sometimes recognize a single c:,_::
(technically lexical item) where the writing system has two or more WC'"~_
For example, brought up as in she brought up the question first car.: ~
analyzed as one lexical item (compare: she raised the question first). E:-.'.-
ever, fOl'present pur:poses the term ','/Ord as it is usually understod '.';::: =~
adequate.
It is also necessary to recognize ranks between sentence and word_ -
example, compare the following sentence with sentence 3.
(4) Peop1ewho live in glass houses snouldn't throw stones.
Like number 3 (People throw stones), this sentence can be ana!yzi: :::.::
three units. Two of these units can be regarded as expansions e o:,_;~
words in number 3.
(i) People wno 1ivein glass houses (expansionof people)
(ii) shou1dn't throw (expansion of throw)
(iii) stones
These units are called groups. Note that one of the groups (iii) c:,_:~:::...o
only one word, but it is still referred to as a group. Thus, this si:,_:o::':-:-
consists of three groups, each of which consists of a number of ,.<::.::
Another way of saying this is that the wards are units which are con,"",:...-
ent!> of the groups and the three groups are units which are constituEn ts ::
the sentence. This is set out in Figure 1.L
Fmther patterns of organizabon can be recognized within he g:-:~;,
These wil! be deaJt with when the internal structures ofthe various c:'-;-": ::
groups are examined. It s not necessary to recognize any ran..lcbe:-.'.~:.
group and word.
It is necessary, however, to recognze an addtional rank betwee:: g::~:.
and sentence. Take, for example, the following sentence.
(5) She's great fun but her husband's [ather duB.
TIle two underlined units are called clauses. This sentence consioco --
two clames, each of which consists of a number of groups, which ::c;;=:--
se1ves consist of a number of words, as shown in Figure 1.2. Tne \Vore :<:
which is a conjunctiun and joins the two clauses, does not really be=-~::
'i eit.~er clause, although it is conventionally analyzed as be10nging t-J :::.;;
second clause.
Thus, the analyses in this book will take into account fout ranks ,-,-i:"--
grammar: word, group, cIause, and sentenc,e.
\:. t-
')JJ.V';S~
I
(
6 Functional Eng4sh grammar
SENTENCE

I
t
Group (1)
I
I
I
I
I i
i
w
w w www
I
I I II I
People
who Jive in
glass
houses
Group (ii)
t .
I
w w
I I
shouid n't
w
I
throw
~
tJ Group (1li)
I
W

stones
Figure 1.1 Sentence, group, and word.
SENTENCE
I
I
I Ciause 1
Clause 2
I
I
I
I i
I
Group
Group Group Group Group Group Group
I
I
I
I ~. I
I~
1,
11
I I
Vi
W W WW WWW
W
w
i
I I I II i
I
I I
she
's
great
lun but her husband 's rather dull
Figure 1.2 Sentence, c1ause, group, and word.
1.4.2 Class
Tenns 1i.J.ce noun (N) and verh (V) are names ofword classes (traditionally
kIIO"VTI as parts o/ speech). The words in sentence 3 can be labeled accord-
ing to their class.
N V N
People throw stones
Tne same c1ass labels are a1solised to label the groups. Thus, in number 4
People who {ive in glass houses is a noun group (NG) and shouldnt throw is
a ver group (VG).
TViO other mljor word cIasses are adjective (Adj) and adverb (Adv) and
fue same c1ass labe1s are a1so lised to labe! the groups, for example:
Adi
(6) Tnat's goodt
Mi
{;l We remained fum friends
Some basie concepts 7
AdjG
(8) ... a !etter from a ver! angry parent ...
MjG
(9) ... we were both goad enough, .
Adv
(O) Some of my white friends abruptly changed schoa!s.
Adv
(l 1) Fartunately, the situatan has changed for the better.
AdvG
(12) It s very deeply rooted in the American psyche.
AdvG
(13) Almost inevitab!y, the swelling of ile ranks has brought with it ...
Note that pronouns, such as he, she, and il, are regarded as a subcategor1'
of noun.
1.4.3 Phrases
\Vhere the term group has been used here, some grammars use the term
phrase, for examp1e, noun phrase and adverb(ial) phrase for noun group
and adverb group; However, in this book lhe onl1' kind of pillase which is
recognized is the prepositional phrase.
A clcar distinction can be made between groups and phrases. As a11the ~J:
previous examples 01' groups show, a group ca~ be thought of as an exl
panded ward. A phrase, however, is more like a miniclause. FOl' example,_J
the fo11owingclauses conlain a vera group followed by a noun group. The
noun group functions as v!hat later wiil be caUed the objecl.
Clauses
VG NG/Oe.,JECT
She slowly approached (he -\VO frightened boys ...
VG NG/OBJECT
The expediton had crossed (he bridge that moming,
A prepositional phrase has a comparable structure, with a preposHion (9.
word like lo, rom, behind, in, en. with, lhrough, and aboUi, or a complex
preposition such as injTonr of, in spite of, and by me:ms ol) follO\ved by a
prepositional object. For example:
Prepositionai phrases
PREP NGlPREP Obj
toward (he 1;wofrightened boys
PREP NGiPREP Obj
across !he bridge
8 Functonal Eng/~ihgrammar
In other "vords, [he \Vords 1'oJlowing prepositions in prepc>sitional phrases
are not expansions of the prepositions but objects 01' prerositions. Preposi-
rional phrases are there1'ore quite di1'ferent kinds of stmctures frorn groups. j
Note, however, thar prepositionaI phrases normally operate at the same
rank as groups. V/e should, strictly spcaking, rherefore refer to group/phrase
rank, rather than just group rank.
1.4.4 Embedding