Theory & Design of Automotive Engines Crankshaft

B Dinesh Prabhu, Asst. Professor, P E S College Engg., Mandya, KARNATAKA 1

Firing Order
Every engine cylinder must fire once in every cycle. This requires that for a four-stroke four-
cylinder engine the ignition system must fire for every 180 degrees of crank rotation. For a six-
cylinder engine the time available is only 120 degrees of crank rotation.
The order in which various cylinders of a multi cylinder engine fire is called the firing order.
The number of possibilities of firing order depends upon the number of cylinders and throws of the
crankshaft. It is desirable to have the power impulses equally spaced and from the point of view of
balancing this has led to certain conventional arrangements of crankshaft throws. Further, there are
three factors which must be considered before deciding the optimum firing order of an engine. These
are:
(i) Engine vibrations
(ii) Engine cooling and
(iii) Development of back pressure
Consider that the cylinder number 1 of the four-cylinder engine, shown in Fig., is fired first. A
pressure p, generated in the cylinder number 1 will give rise to a force equal to {pA [b/(a + b)]} and
{pA [a/(a + b)]} on the two bearings A and B respectively. The load on bearing A is much more
than load on bearing B. If the next cylinder fired is cylinder number 2, this imbalance in load on the
two bearings would further aggravate the problem of balancing of the crankshaft vibrations & would
result in severe engine vibrations. If we fire cylinder number 3 after cylinder number 1, the load may
be more or less evenly distributed.
Further, consider the effect of firing sequence on engine cooling. When the first cylinder is
fired its temperature increases. If the next cylinder that fires is number 2, the portion of the engine
between the cylinder number 1 and 2 gets overheated. If then the third cylinder is fired, overheating is
shifted to the portion between the cylinders 2 and 4. Thus we see that the task of the cooling system
becomes very difficult because it is then, required to cool more at one place than at other places and
this imposes great strain on the cooling system. If the third cylinder is fired after the first the
overheating problem can be controlled to a greater extent.
Theory & Design of Automotive Engines Crankshaft
B Dinesh Prabhu, Asst. Professor, P E S College Engg., Mandya, KARNATAKA 2
Next, consider the flow of exhaust gases in the exhaust pipe. After firing the first cylinder,
exhaust gases flow out to the exhaust pipe. If the next cylinder fired is the cylinder number 2, we find
that before the gases exhausted by the first cylinder go out of the exhaust pipe the gases exhausted
from the second cylinder try to overtake them. This would require that the exhaust pipe be made
bigger. Otherwise the back pressure in it would increase and the possibility of back flow would arise.
If instead of firing cylinder number 2, cylinder number 3 is fired. then by the time the gases exhausted
by the cylinder 3 come into the exhaust pipe, the gases from cylinder 1 would have sufficient time to
travel the distance between cylinder 1 and cylinder 3 and thus, the development of a high back
pressure is avoided
It should be noted that to some extent all the above three requirements are conflicting and
therefore a trade-off is necessary.
For 4-Cylinder engines the possible firing orders are: 1-3-4-2 or 1-2-4-3
The former is more commonly used in the vertical configuration of cylinders.
For a 6-Cylinder engine firing orders can be: 1-5-3-6-2-4 or 1-5-4-6-2-3 or 1-2-4-6-5-3 or 1-2-3-6-5-4
The first one is more commonly used.
Other Firing Orders
For 3 Cylinder engine 1-3-2
8 Cylinder in-line engine 1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4
8 Cylinder V shape engine 1-5-4-8-6-3-7-2, 1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2, 1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4,
1-8-7-3-6-5-4-2, 1-5-4-2-6-3-7-8
Cylinder No. 1 is taken from front of the in-line engines whereas in V shape front cylinder on
right side-bank is considered cylinder No.1 for fixing H.T. leads according to engine firing order.
Theory & Design of Automotive Engines Crankshaft
B Dinesh Prabhu, Asst. Professor, P E S College Engg., Mandya, KARNATAKA 3
Vibration Damper
The power impulses tend to set up a twisting vibration in the crankshaft. When a piston moves
down on its power stroke, it thrusts through the connecting rod, against a crankpin with a force that
may exceed 2 tons. This force tends to twist the crankpin ahead of the rest of the crankshaft. Then, as
the force against the crankpin recedes, it tends to untwist, or move back into its original relationship
with the rest of the crankshaft. This twist-untwist action, repeated with every power impulse, tends to
set up an oscillating motion in the crankshaft. This is called Torsional vibration. If it were not
controlled, it could cause the crankshaft to break at certain speeds. To control torsional vibration,
devices which are called vibration dampers, or harmonic balancers, are used. These dampers are
usually mounted on the front end of the crankshaft and the drive-belt pulleys are incorporated into
them.
A typical damper is made in two parts, a small inertia ring or damper flywheel and the pulley.
They are bonded to each other by a rubber insert about 4-inch [6-mm] thick. The damper is mounted
to the front end of the crankshaft. As the crankshaft speeds up or slows down, the damper flywheel has
a dragging effect. This effect, which slightly, flexes the rubber insert, tends to hold the pulley and
crankshaft to a constant speed. This tends to check the twist-untwist action, or torsional vibration, of
the crankshaft.
Rubber
Ring
Fig. A torsional-vibration damper
Theory & Design of Automotive Engines Crankshaft
B Dinesh Prabhu, Asst. Professor, P E S College Engg., Mandya, KARNATAKA 4
Engine Bearings
Bearings are placed in the engine wherever there is rotary motion between engine parts. These
engine bearings are called sleeve bearings because they are shaped like sleeves that fit around the
rotating shaft. The part of the shaft that rotates in the bearing is called a journal. Connecting-rod and
crankshaft (also called main) bearings are of the split, or half, type. The upper half of a main bearing is
installed in the counter bore in the cylinder block. The lower half is held in place by the bearing cap.
The upper half of a connecting rod big end (or crankpin) bearing is installed in the rod. The lower half
is placed in the rod cap. The typical bearing half is made up of a steel or bronze back, with up to five
linings of bearing material. The bearing material is soft therefore, the bearing wears, and not the more
expensive engine part. Then, the bearing, and not the engine part, can be replaced when it has worn
too much.
Fig. Typical sleeve-type bearing half with its parts named
Fig A- Thrust-type main bearing and a connecting rod
bearing, showing their positions on the crankshaft
Fig. A typical Crankshaft thrust bearing half
Theory & Design of Automotive Engines Crankshaft
B Dinesh Prabhu, Asst. Professor, P E S College Engg., Mandya, KARNATAKA 5
Thrust bearing
The crankshaft has to be kept from moving back and forth in the block. To prevent back-and-
forth movement, one of the main bearings is a thrust, or end-thrust, bearing. This bearing has flanges
on its two sides. Flanges on the crankshaft fit close to the flanges on the thrust bearing. If the
crankshaft tends to shift forward or backward, the crankshaft flange comes up against the thrust-
bearing flange. This prevents endwise movement.
Bearing Lubrication
Oil from the engine oil pump flows onto the bearing surfaces. The rotating shaft journals are
supported on layers of oil. The journal must be smaller than the bearing so that there is a clearance
(called oil clearance) between the two. In the engine oil moves through this clearance. The lubricating
system feeds oil to the main bearings. It enters through the oil holes and the rotating journals carry it
around to all parts of the bearings. The oil works its way to the outer edges of the main bearings. From
there, it is thrown off-and drops back into the oil pan. The oil thrown off helps lubricate other engine
parts, such as the cylinder walls, pistons, and piston rings. The connecting-rod bearings are lubricated
through the oil holes drilled in the crankshaft. As the oil moves across the faces of the bearings, it also
helps to cool them. The oil is relatively cool as it leaves the oil pan. It picks up heat in its passage
through the bearings. This heat is carried down to the oil pan and released to the air around the oil pan.
The oil also flushes and cleans the bearings. It flushes out particles of grit and dirt from the bearings.
The particles are carried back to the oil pan by the oil. They then settle to the bottom of the oil pan, or
are removed from the oil by the oil screen or filter.
Theory & Design of Automotive Engines Crankshaft
B Dinesh Prabhu, Asst. Professor, P E S College Engg., Mandya, KARNATAKA 6
Fig. Oil clearance (exaggerated) between the
main bearing and the crankshaft journal
Bearing Oil Clearances
The greater the oil clearance, the faster oil flows through the bearing. Proper clearance varies with
different engines, but 0.0015 inch [0.037mm] is a typical clearance. As the clearance becomes greater
(owing to bearing wear, for example), the
amount of oil flowing through and being
thrown off increases. With a 0.003inch
[0.076-mm] clearance only twice 0.0015 inch
[0.037 mm], the oil throw off increases as
much as five times. A 0.006inch [0.152-mm]
clearance allows25 times as much oil to flow
through and be thrown off. As bearings wear,
more and more oil is thrown onto the cylinder
walls. The piston rings cannot handle so much
oil. Part of it works up into the combustion
chambers, where it burns and forms carbon.
Carbon deposits in the combustion chambers
reduce engine power and cause other engine troubles.
Excessive oil clearances can also cause some bearings to fail from oil starvation. An oil pump
can deliver only a certain amount of oil. If the oil clearances are excessive most of the oil will pass
through the nearest bearings. There won't be enough for the more distant bearings. Then these will
probably fail from lack of oil. An engine with excessive bearing oil clearances usually has low oil
pressure: The oil pump cannot build up normal pressure because of the large oil .clearances in the
bearings. If bearing oil clearances are too small, there will be metal to- metal contact between the
bearing and the shaft journal. Very rapid wear and quick failure will result. Also, there will not be
enough oil throw off to lubricate cylinder walls, pistons, and rings.
Theory & Design of Automotive Engines Crankshaft
B Dinesh Prabhu, Asst. Professor, P E S College Engg., Mandya, KARNATAKA 7
Bearing Requirements
Bearings must be able to do other things besides carry loads. Some of these are listed below.
1. Load Carrying Capacity-Modern engines are lighter and more powerful. They have higher
compression ratios which impose greater bearing loads. Only a few years ago, bearing loads were
around 1600 to 1800 psi [11,032 to 12,411kPa]. Today, connecting-rod bearings carry loads of up to
6000 psi [41,369 kPa].
2. Fatigue Resistance-When a piece of metal is bent back and forth, over and over, it hardens
and finally breaks. This is called fatigue failure. You have probably done this with a piece of wire or
sheet metal. Bearings are subject to such loads and must withstand them without failing from fatigue.
3. Embedability This term refers to the ability of a bearing to permit foreign particles to embed
in it. Dirt and dust particles enter the engine despite the air cleaner and oil filter. Some of them work
onto the bearings and are not flushed away by the oil. A bearing protects itself by letting such particles
sink into, or embed in, the bearing lining material. If the bearing were too hard to allow this, the
particles would lie on the surface. They would scratch the shaft journal and probably gouge out the
bearing. This would cause overheating and rapid bearing failure. Therefore, the bearing material must
be soft enough for adequate embedability.
4. Conformability This is associated with embedability. It is the ability of the bearing material
to conform to variations in shaft alignment and journal shape. For example, suppose that a shaft
journal is slightly tapered. The bearing under the larger diameter will be more heavily loaded. If the
bearing material has high conformability, it will "flow" slightly, from the heavily loaded areas to the
lightly loaded areas. This slight flow evens the load on the bearing. A similar action takes place when
foreign particles embed in the bearing. As they embed, they displace bearing material, producing local
high spots. However with high conformability, the material flows away from the high spots. This
prevents local heavy loading that could cause bearing failure.
5. Corrosion resistance - the by-products of combustion may form corrosive substances
harmful to some metals. Bearing materials must be resistant to corrosion. Unleaded gasoline, required
on cars using catalytic converters, changes the chemistry of the engine oil. Catalytic converters, are
installed in the exhaust systems to reduce the pollutants coming out the tail pipe. The unleaded
gasoline, in changing the chemistry of the oil, tends to increase bearing corrosion. Therefore, the
composition of engine bearings has been changed. For example, instead of the copper-lead bearings
used for years, some engines now have aluminum-lead bearings. These appear to withstand corrosion
better.
6. Wear Rate The bearing material must be so hard and tough that it will not wear too fast. At
the same time, it must be soft enough to permit good embedability and conformability.
Theory & Design of Automotive Engines Crankshaft
B Dinesh Prabhu, Asst. Professor, P E S College Engg., Mandya, KARNATAKA 8
Fig. Effect of a metallic particle that
is embedded in the bearing material
Fig. The crankshaft has oil holes drilled through it to carry lubricating oil from the main bearings
to the connecting-rod bearings
Fig. Standard crankshaft for a V-6engine (left) compared with a V-6 crankshaft with splayed
crankpins (right)