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The Hydrologic Cycle
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Hydrology
Watersheds
Meteorology
Study of the atmosphere including
weather and climate
Surface water hydrology
Flow and occurrence of
water on the surface
of the earth
Hydrogeology
Flow and occurrence
of ground water
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Intersection of
Hydrology and Hydraulics
Water supplies
Drinking water
Industry
Irrigation
Power generation
Hydropower
Cooling water
Dams
Reservoirs
Levees
Flood protection
Flood plain
construction
Water intakes
Discharge and
dilution
Wastewater
Cooling water
Outfalls
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Engineering Uses of
Surface Water Hydrology
Average events (average annual rainfall,
evaporation, infiltration...)
Expected average performance of a system
Potential water supply using reservoirs
Frequent extreme events (10 year flood,
10 year low flow)
Levees
Wastewater dilution
Rare extreme events (100 to PMF)
Dam failure
Power plant flooding
Probable maximum flood
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Flood Design Techniques
Use stream flow records
Limited data
Can be used for high probability events
Use precipitation records
Use rain gauges rather than stream gauges
Determine flood magnitude based on
precipitation, runoff, streamflow
Create a synthetic storm
Based on record of storms
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
9/30 12/31 4/1 7/2
date
S
t
r
e
a
m

f
l
o
w

(
m
3
/
s
)
Forecasting Stream Flows
Natural processes -
not easily predicted in
a deterministic way
We cannot predict the
monthly stream flow
We will use probability
distributions instead
of predictions
Seasonal trend with large variation
10 year daily average
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Surface Drainage Surface Drainage Surface Drainage
Design Flows Design Flows
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Objectives
Identify drainage
requirements and design
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Surface Drainage
surface water is removed from
pavement
Redirects water into appropriately
designed drainage systems (channels
or pipes)
Eventually, discharges into natural
water systems
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Surface Drainage
Two types of water
Surface water rain and snow (?)
Ground water can be a problem when a
water table is near surface
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Surface Drainage
System Design
Three phases
1. Estimate of the quantity of water to
reach the system
2. Hydraulic design of system elements
3. Comparison of different materials that
serve same purpose
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Calculating Peak Runoff
Rainfall Runoff Analysis /Rational Method
Q
p
= CiA
C = constant runoff coefficient
i = rainfall intensity
A = drainage area
(tc = time of concentration < rainfall duration)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t / Tp
Q / Qp
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Rational Formula - Method
to Choose Rainfall Intensity
Intensity = f(storm duration)
Expectation of stream flow vs. Time during
storm of constant intensity
Watershed
Outflow
Q
t
Q
p
t
c
Classic Watershed
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Rational Formula - Time
of Concentration (T
c
)
Time required (after start of rainfall
event) for most distant point in basin
to begin contributing runoff to basin
outlet
T
c
affects the shape of the outflow
hydrograph (flow record as a
function of time)
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Hydrologic Analysis:
Rational Method
Useful for small, usually urban,
watersheds (<200acres)
Q = CIA (english) or
Q = 0.0028CIA (metric)
Q = runoff (m
3
/sec)
C = coefficient representing ratio or
runoff to rainfall
I = intensity of rainfall (mm/hour)
A = drainage area (hectares)
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Runoff Coefficient
o Coefficient that
represents the
fraction of rainfall
that becomes
runoff
o Depends on type of
surface
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Runoff Coefficient
depends on:
Character of soil
Shape of drainage area
Antecedent moisture conditions
Slope of watershed
Amount of impervious soil
Land use
Duration
Intensity
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Runoff Coefficient
rural area
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Runoff Coefficient
urban area
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Runoff Coefficient For
High Intensity Event
(i.e. 100-year storm)
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Runoff Coefficient For
High Intensity Event
(i.e. 100-year storm)
C = 0.16 for
low intensity
event for
cultivated
fields
C = 0.42 for
high intensity
event
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Runoff Coefficient
When a drainage area has distinct
parts with different C values
Use the weighted average
C = C
1
A
1
+ C
2
A
2
+ .. + C
n
A
n
A
i
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Watershed Area
measured in hectares
Combined area of all surfaces that
drain to a given intake or culvert
inlet
Determine boundaries of area that
drain to same location
i.e high points mark boundary
Natural or human-made barriers
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Watershed Area
Topographic maps
Aerial photos
Digital elevation models
Drainage maps
Field reviews
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Intensity
Average intensity for a selected frequency and
duration over drainage area for duration of storm
Based on design event (i.e. 5-year storm)
Overdesign is costly
Underdesign may be inadequate
Duration is important
Based on values of T
c
and T
T
c
= time of concentration
T = recurrence interval or design frequency
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Time of Concentration (t
c
)
Time for water to flow from hydraulically most
distant point on the watershed to the point of
interest
Rational method assumes peak run-off rate occurs
when rainfall intensity (I) lasts (duration) >= T
c
Used as storm duration
dont use T
c
<5 minutes
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Time of Concentration
(T
c
= T
in
+ T
flow
)
T
in
Depends on:
Size and shape of drainage area
Type of surface
Slope of drainage area
Rainfall intensity
T
flow
Sewer system characteristics (shape, size,
slope, material, )
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Rational method
used for mostly urban applications
limited to about 200 acres in size
Q = CIA
Calculate once C, I, and A have been found
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Infiltration, Runoff and
Streamflow
Infiltration, Runoff and Infiltration, Runoff and
Streamflow Streamflow
Field Measurements and Methods Field Measurements and Methods
of Analysis of Analysis
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Infiltration Measurement:
Double Ring Infiltrometer
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Double Ring
Infiltrometer
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Measuring Infiltration
with Rainfall Simulator
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Rainfall Intensity
Increased until Surface
Runoff Occurs
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Streamflow Measurements
Flood forecasting
Flood analysis
Reservoir operations
Low flows water quality concerns
Design structures culverts, bridges,
stormwater systems
Evaluate changes in land use on
watersheds and/or
changes in climatic regimes
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Streamflow & Fluvial Geomorphology
(Adapted from Dunne & Leopold, 1978; Leopold, 1994, 1997)
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Flow velocity varies with depth and
channel width
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Measuring Streamflow
Discharge
Current meter method: measure
flow & stage (elevation) over time
to establish a discharge rating
curve: Continuously measure
stage (stilling well) and derive Q
from stage.
Pre-calibrated Structures for
small streams, ditches &
research applications
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Current Meter Method
Q = [Velocity x Area]
Area is channel cross-sectional area
Need to know width of channel (w), Depth of
channel (d), and Velocity of flow (V) (ft/s or
m/s)
Procedure
Depth varies across a channel
Velocity varies
Therefore need to divide the channel into
manageable segments (slices); Typically use
10-20 segments
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Discharge (Q) Measurement
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Discharge (Q) Measurement
Compute the Q for each segment (slice)

=
n
i iV A Q
1
Sum the Q for each segment to compute the
total Q for the stream
Where on a stream do you collect Q data?
Need a quasi stable section (Control Section)
Look for a relatively straight reach w/uniform
flow such as a riffle section
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Discharge (Q) Measurement
Each segment has a fixed width
Identify the midpoint for each segment & Measure:
Channel depth from water surface
Velocity
Depth of velocity measurement depends upon channel
depth
IF Depth > 0.5m (1.6 ft) take 2 measurements and
compute the average
One @ 20% depth
One @80 % depth
Average the two readings
IF Depth < 0.5m, take one reading @ 60% depth
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Discharge (Q) Measurement
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Measuring Streamflow
with a Current Meter
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Discharge (Q) Measurement
Pygmy meter
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Discharge (Q) Measurement
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Precalibrated Structures
Weirs
Flumes
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Weirs
Obstruct flow and
force it through a
notch
Stage-Q relationship
established
for each type
of notch
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Weirs
Generally used in small streams
Various types
V-notch for accurate low flow
Rectangular
Handles higher flows
Less accurate at low flows
Trapezoidal -- an intermediate weir
Concerns
Sediment & debris are trapped
Leakage
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Cipolletti (Trapezoidal) Weir
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Trapezoidal Weir
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Rectangular Weir
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90 degree V-notch Weir
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90 V-notch Weir
Q = 2.5H
2/3
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Flumes
An artificial open channel built to contain flow
within a designed cross-section and length
No impoundment
Water height in flume measured with a stilling
well
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Flumes
Used to measure flow in:
water and wastewater treatment plants
irrigation channels
agricultural runoff
runoff plots research applications
small watersheds
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Large Crest Flumes
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Long-throated Flume
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Short-throated Flume
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Parshall Flume
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H Flume
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Floods
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Estimating Discharge (Q)
where flow was not directly
measured
Large flood events that can not be
measured with conventional methods
Peak discharge in streams where
there is no gauge
Stage will give us X-sectional area
Its the velocity (v) or (u) thats
problematic
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Discharge (Q) Measurement
Mannings Equation
2 / 3 1 / 2
R S
v
n
=
u or v = average velocity (m/s)
R = hydraulic radius
= [Area/wetted perimeter]
S = Energy gradient, Approximated by water surface
slope
n = Mannings roughness coefficient
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Manning Roughness Coefficients
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Simplified Methods:
predicting peak flow
discharge
Simplified Methods: Simplified Methods:
predicting peak flow predicting peak flow
discharge discharge
Rational Method Rational Method
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Rational Method
Empirically based method
Q
p
= CIA (cfs)
Q
p
= [0.00278]CIA (cms, m
3
/s)
Most commonly used formula for estimating Q
p
from rainfall in small urban watersheds
Widely accepted method for design of storm
sewer capacity
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Rational Method
Q
p
= [1/360]CI A (cms)
C = dimensionless runoff coefficient
Vegetation type
Soil type
Amount of impervious area
High C values = high RunOff rates
I = rainfall intensity for the storm of interest
(mm/hr)
A = watershed area (acres)
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Rational Method
Only valid for storms that last as long as the
watersheds T
c
If T
c
is < T
c
for watershed then Q
peak
will be
overestimated
Assumes precipitation is uniformly distributed over
entire watershed
Assumes the RI of the flood peak is the same as the RI
of rainfall
1 in/hr of runoff from 1 acre will yield 1 cfs
Designed to be used on watersheds < 200 acres (81
hectares) NOT FOR LARGE WATERSHEDS
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