InfluenceofAnnealingTemperatureonthe

TensileStrengthandDuctilityofaBrassAlloy
HotWorking
Deformationattemperaturesabove
recrystallizationtemperature
Recrystallizationtemperature=about
onehalfofmeltingpointonabsolutescale
1. Inpractice,hotworkingusuallyperformed
somewhatabove0.5T
m
2. Metalcontinuestosoftenastemperature
increasesabove0.5T
m
,enhancingadvantageof
hotworkingabovethislevel
WhyHotWorking?
Capabilityforsubstantialplasticdeformationof
themetal farmorethanpossiblewithcold
workingorwarmworking
Why?
Strengthcoefficientissubstantiallylessthanat
roomtemperature
Strainhardeningexponentiszero(theoretically)
Ductilityissignificantlyincreased
ColdWorking
Performedatroomtemperatureorslightly
above(0.3T
m
)
Manycoldformingprocessesareimportant
massproductionoperations
Minimumornomachiningusuallyrequired
Theseoperationsarenearnetshape ornetshape
processes
WarmWorking
Performedattemperaturesaboveroom
temperaturebutbelowrecrystallization
temperature
Dividinglinebetweencoldworkingandwarm
workingoftenexpressedintermsofmelting
point:
0.3T
m
0.5T
m
,whereT
m
=meltingpoint(absolute
temperature)formetal
StrainRate
Theoretically,ametalinhotworkingbehaves
likeaperfectlyplasticmaterial,withstrain
hardeningexponentn =0
Themetalshouldcontinuetoflowatthesame
flowstress,oncethatstressisreached
However,anadditionalphenomenonoccurs
duringdeformation,especiallyatelevated
temperatures:Strainratesensitivity
WhatisStrainRate?
Strainrateinformingisdirectlyrelatedtospeedofdeformationv
Deformationspeedv =velocityoftheramorothermovementofthe
equipment
Strain rate isdefined:
where = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous height of workpiece being
deformed
h
v
=
.

.
Extrusion
V
h
StrainRatesEncountered
Operation Velocity (m/s)
Tension test 6x10
-7
6x10
-3
Hydraulic press 3x10
-3
- 3
Mechanical press 0.1 1
Forging Hammer 3 10
Explosive forming 30 -120
EffectofStrainRateonFlowStress
Flowstressisafunctionoftemperature
Athotworkingtemperatures,flowstressalso
dependsonstrainrate
Asstrainrateincreases,resistancetodeformation
increases
Thiseffectisknownasstrainratesensitivity
(a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated
work temperature. (b) Same relationship plotted on
log-log coordinates
Log( )
L
o
g
(
)
StrainRateSensitivityEquation
whereC =strengthconstant(similarbutnotequaltostrength
coefficientinflowcurveequation),andm =strainratesensitivity
exponent
m
f
C Y
&
=
Effect of temperature on flow
stress for a typical metal.
The constant C in the above
Eq. indicated by the
intersection of each plot with
the vertical dashed line at
strain rate = 1.0, decreases,
and m (slope of each plot)
increases with increasing
temperature
m
f
C Y
&
=
ObservationsaboutStrainRate
Sensitivity
IncreasingtemperaturedecreasesC, increases
m
Atroomtemperature,effectofstrainrateis
almostnegligible
Flowcurveisagoodrepresentationofmaterial
behavior
Astemperatureincreases,strainratebecomes
increasinglyimportantindeterminingflowstress
FrictioninMetalForming
Inmostmetalformingprocesses,frictionis
undesirable:
Metalflowisretarded
Forcesandpowerareincreased
Wearstoolingfaster
Frictionandtoolweararemoresevereinhot
working
Friction
LubricationinMetalForming
Metalworkinglubricantsareappliedto
toolworkinterfaceinmanyforming
operationstoreduceharmfuleffectsof
friction
Benefits:
Reducedsticking,forces,power,toolwear
Bettersurfacefinish
Removesheatfromthetooling
ConsiderationsinChoosingaLubricant
Typeofformingprocess(rolling,forging,sheet
metaldrawing,etc.)
Hotworkingorcoldworking
Workmaterial
Chemicalreactivitywithtoolandworkmetals
Easeofapplication
Cost
DifferentTypes ofLubricant
Operation Lubricants
Cold working Mineral oil, Fats
Fatty oil, Soaps
Water based emulsions
Hot Working Molten glass
Graphite
Deformationprocessinwhichworkthicknessisreduced
bycompressiveforcesexertedbytwoopposingrolls
Rolling
TheRolls
Rotatingrollsperformtwomainfunctions:
Pulltheworkintothegapbetweenthemby
frictionbetweenworkpieceandrolls
Simultaneouslysqueezetheworktoreduceits
crosssection
TypesofRolling
Basedonworkpiecegeometry:
Flatrolling usedtoreducethicknessofarectangular
crosssection
Shaperolling squarecrosssectionisformedintoashape
suchasanIbeam
Basedonworktemperature:
HotRolling mostcommonduetothelargeamountof
deformationrequired
Coldrolling producesfinishedsheetandplatestock
Rolled Products Made of Steel
150mm
250mm
40mm
Crosssection
ShapeRolling
Workisdeformedintoacontouredcrosssection
ratherthanflat(rectangular)
Accomplishedbypassingworkthroughrolls
thathavethereverseofdesiredshape
Productsinclude:
ConstructionshapessuchasIbeams,Lbeams,and
Uchannels
Railsforrailroadtracks
Roundandsquarebarsandrods
RollingMills
Equipmentismassiveandexpensive
Rollingmillconfigurations:
Twohigh twoopposingrolls
Threehigh workpassesthroughrollsinbothdirections
Fourhigh backingrollssupportsmallerworkrolls
Clustermill multiplebackingrollsonsmallerrolls
Tandemrollingmill sequenceoftwohighmills
Two-High Rolling Mill
Three-High Rolling Mill
Four-High Rolling Mill
Multiplebackingrollsallowevensmallerroll
diameters
Cluster Mill
Aseriesofrollingstandsinsequence
Tandem Rolling Mill
Arollingmillforhot
flatrolling.The
steelplateisseen
astheglowingstrip
inlowerleftcorner
(photocourtesyof
BethlehemSteel).
Diagram of Flat Rolling
(a) Draft,
(b) Reduction,
(c) True strain,
(d) Average flow stress
r =
d
t
0
= ln
t
0
t
f

Y
f
=
K
n
1+ n
d = t
0
t
f