Universitatea OVIDIUS Constana

Departamentul ID-IFR
Facultatea de Litere
Limba engleza contemporana
Semantica lexicala
Caiet de Studiu Individual
Specializarea Limba i Literatura Romn! i
Limba i Literatura "n#lez!
$nul de studii III
Semestrul II
Titular disciplin:
Conf. univ. dr. BEJ! Camelia
"#$"
Cuprins
C%!TE&'%(() E!*L+S, L!*-*E
LE.+CL SE&!T+CS
Contents:
-nit
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Title
I*+RODUC+IO*
,ORD FOR-$+IO* $FFI.$+IO*
Ob/ectives o0 Unit %
%1% +o de0ine t2e main concepts3 4ord5 le6eme5 morp2eme5 root5 stem5
su00i65 pre0i6
%1& +o distin#uis2 bet4een a00i6es and in0lections
%1' +o indenti07 t2e t7pes o0 a00i6es
Send-a4a7 assi#nment
$ns4ers and comments to sel0-assessed 8uestions
9iblio#rap27 o0 unit %
,ORD FOR-$+IO*1 CO-:OU*DI*;
Ob/ectives o0 Unit &
&1% +o de0ine compoundin# and compounds
&1& +o distin#uis2 bet4een compounds and p2rares
&1' +o identi07 t2e t7pes o0 compounds
Send-a4a7 assi#nment
$ns4ers and comments to sel0-assessed 8uestions
9iblio#rap27 o0 unit &
,ORD FOR-$+IO*3 CLI::I*;5 CO*V"RSIO*
Ob/ectives o0 Unit '
'1% +o de0ine clippin#
'1& +o identi07 t7pes o0 clippin#
'1' +o recon#nize ot2er 4ord 0ormation processes3 c2an#e o0 stress5
conversion
Send-a4a7 assi#nment
$ns4ers and comments to sel0-assessed 8uestions
9iblio#rap27 o0 unit '
,ORD -"$*I*;
Ob/ectives o0 Unit (
(1% +o de0ine denotation and connotation
(1& +o anal7ze t2e semantic components o0 <ins2ip terms
Send-a4a7 assi#nment
$ns4ers and comments to sel0-assessed 8uestions
9iblio#rap27 o0 unit (
L".IC$L R"L$+IO*1 S=*O*=-=
Ob/ectives o0 Unit )
(
%&
%>
&(
&?
CO*+"-:OR$R= "*;LIS@ L$*;U$;"1
L".IC$L S"-$*+ICS
Cuprins
A
)1% +o de0ine t2e le6ical relation o0 s7non7m7
)1& +o distin#nis2 bet4een t2e terms in a s7non7mic series
Send-a4a7 assi#nment
$ns4ers and comments to sel0-assessed 8uestions
9iblio#rap27 o0 unit )
L".IC$L R"L$+IO*3 $*+O*=-=5 @O-O*=-=5 :$RO*=-=
Ob/ectives o0 Unit A
A1% +o de0ine and identi07 t7pes o0 anton7ms
A1& +o distin#uis2 bet4een t7pes o0 2omon7ms
A1' +o reco#nize paron7ms
Send-a4a7 assi#nment
$ns4ers and comments to sel0-assessed 8uestions
9iblio#rap27 o0 unit A
9I9LIO;R$:@=
'B
(%
CO*+"-:OR$R= "*;LIS@ L$*;U$;"1
L".IC$L S"-$*+ICS
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
-nit $
/%(0 1%(&T+%!. 11+.T+%!
%BJECT+2ES of -nit $
+2e main ob/ectives o0 Unit % are3
to de0ine t2e main conceptsC
to distin#uis2 bet4een a00i6es and in0lectionsC
to identi07 t2e t7pes o0 a00i6es1
$.$ To define t3e main concepts: 4ord5 lexeme5 morp3eme5 root5 stem5 suffix5 prefix
De7 4ords3 4ord5 root5 stem5 morp2eme5 a00i65 pre0i65 su00i61
Lexicolog6 is a branc2 o0 lin#uistics 42ic2 studies t2e vocabular7 o0 a
#iven lan#ua#e and deals 4it2 t2e structure5 2istor7 and meanin# o0 4ords1
$ s7non7mous term in $merican "n#lis2 is E4ord stud7F1 Le6icolo#ists
ma7 specialize eit2er in t2e s7nc2ronic or in t2e diac2ronic stud7 o0
lan#ua#e1
+2e 0ields o0 le6icolo#ical stud7 are3
%1 Et6molog6 42ic2 studies t2e ori#in o0 4ords1 +2e diac2ronic
approac2 prevails1
&1 Lexical morp3olog6 o0 present-da7 "n#lis25 42ic2 studies le6ical
units5 p2raseolo#7 and 4ord-buildin#1
'1 Lexical semantics 42ic2 studies t2e meanin#s o0 4ords and
p2rases1 In & and ' t2e s7nc2ronic approac2 is used1
T3e 4ord ma7 be de0ined at several lin#uistic levels3 p2onolo#icall75
morp2olo#icall75 semanticall7 and s7ntacticall71
From a p2onolo#ical point o0 vie45 t2e 4ord is anal7sed as bein#
made up o0 a speec2 sound or a series o0 speec2 sounds 42ic2 2ave t2e
0unction o0 p2onemes1
$t t2e morp2olo#ical level t2e 4ord is anal7sed as t2e basic
lin#uistic unit o0 speec2 consistin# o0 morp2emes1 It is made o0 a sin#le
base 4it2 various in0lectional elements1
$t t2e semantic level5 t2e 4ord is used to communicate meanin#1
T3e morp3eme is t2e smallest unit o0 0orm t2at 2as meanin# and certain
0unctional relations in a #iven lin#uistic s7stem1 -orp2emes are t2e
meanin#0ul elements o0 a 4ord1 For e6ample3 true is a sin#le morp2eme5
untrue contains t4o morp2emes U*-G+RU"5 untruthfulness contains )
morp2emes3 U*-G+RU"G-+@G-FULG-*"SS1
4
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
-orp2emes cannot be e8uated 4it2 s7llables1 On t2e one 2and a sin#le
morp2eme can 2ave more t2an one s7llable5 as in river, harvest, gorilla5
etc1 On t2e ot2er 2and t2ere are sometimes t4o or more morp2emes in a
sin#le s7llable5 as in kissed HDISS G E:$S+ +"*S"FI5 cats HC$+ G
E:LUR$LFI5 mens H-$* G E:LUR$LF G E:OSS"SSIV"FI1 Some
morp2emes li<e boy, orange, dog can stand alone as 4ords and are
t2ere0ore called free morp3emes1 Ot2er morp2emes 0unction onl7 as parts
o0 ot2er 4ords and are <no4n as bound morp3emes3 U*-5-*"SS5-"R5
etc1
T3e lexeme is an item o0 t2e vocabular71
lexeme JKle<si3mL Halso lexical itemI t2e smallest unit in t2e meanin#
s7stem o0 a lan#ua#e t2at can be distin#uis2ed 0rom ot2er similar units1 It
is an abstract unit 42ic2 occurs in man7 di00erent 0orms in actual spo<en
or 4ritten sentences1 He1#1 all in0lected 0orms suc2 as sings, singing, sang,
sung 4ould belon# to t2e one le6eme singI1 Similarl75 suc2 e6pressions as
bury the hatchet, give up, school boy 4ould eac2 be considered a sin#le
le6eme1 In a dictionar75 eac2 le6eme 2as a separate entr7 or sub-entr71
From a le6ical point o0 vie45 t2e structure o0 t2e 4ord consists o03
root M t2e basic morp2eme 0rom 42ic2 a 4ord is derived
stem M t2e part o0 a 4ord t2at participates in t2e 0ormation o0 a ne4 4ord
affixes M an addition to a stem or root in order to build a ne4 4ord
2uman HrootNstemI G -itarian Ha00i6I M 2umanitarian
2umanitarian HstemI G -ism Ha00i6I M 2umanitarianism
music HrootNstemI G -al Ha00i6I M musical
musical HstemI G -l7 Ha00i6I M musicall7
$ stem ma7 be eit2er identical 4it2 t2e root or derived 0rom a root 4it2
t2e 2elp o0 a su00i61
Self7assessed test $.$
"6plain t2e 0ormation o0 t2e 0ollo4in# 4ords identi07in# t2e root5 stems
and a00i6es3
enchantment5 likelihood5 revaccination
:lease provide t2e ans4er in t2e space above1 Su##ested ans4ers can be 0ound at t2e end
o0 t2e unit 1
$." To distinguis3 bet4een affixes and inflections
De7 4ords3 $ sin#le 4ord is conceived as a base consistin# o0 a sin#le 0ree morp2eme
5
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
Hcat, penI5 42ile a derivative 4ord is conceived as consistin# o0 a stem and
a00i6 Hpre0i6 or su00i6I5 t2us bein# pol7morp2ic1
ffixes s3ould be distinguis3ed from inflections:
"6amples o0 in0lections3
*ominal in0lections3
-s to mar< pluralit7 HhumansI
s to s2o4 #enitive case HhumansI1
Verbal in0lections3
-(e)s to mar< '
rd
person s#15 present tense HHe humanizesI
-ed to s2o4 past simple HHe humanizedOI
-ing to mar< t2e present participle humanizingI1
"6amples o0 a00i6es3
human *
human-ity *
human-ism *
human-istic $
human-itarian $
human-itarian-ism *
human-ize V
human-ly $dv
+nflections encode #rammatical cate#ories3 nominal cate#ories Hnumber
and caseI and verbal cate#ories Htense5 personI1 In0lectional morp2emes
are relevant s7ntacticall71 +2e7 do not produce ne4 4ords5 but di00erent
0orms o0 t2e same 4ord1
In0lections can onl7 occur at t2e end o0 t2e 4ords5 42ile a00i6es are
attac2ed eit2er on t2e le0t or on t2e ri#2t o0 t2e 4ord1
In contrast affixes 2ave as a result ne4 le6emes5 t2e7 c2an#e t2e class o0
4ords to 42ic2 t2e base belon#s1 $00i6es are relevant semanticall71
$00i6es ma7 2ave not onl7 a 0inal position5 but also an initial position5
2ence t2e labels3 pre0i6 and su00i61
Self7assessed test $."
Indicate 0or eac2 a00i6 42et2er it is derivational or in0lectional3 toys,
listened, reassessment, childrens, fatherly, improbable, improbability,
calculating, disarms, unremarkable, unpretentiousness.

:lease provide t2e ans4er in t2e space above1 Su##ested ans4ers can be 0ound at t2e end
o0 t2e unit 1
6
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
$.8 To identif6 t3e t6pes of affixes
De7 4ords3 Criteria for t3e classification of affixes
$00i6es ma7 be classed accordin# to 0unction5 ori#in5 t2e part o0 speec2
t2at t2e7 0orm5 productivit75 le6ical-#rammatical meanin#1
$. Classification of affixes according to t3eir function:
*overning derivational affixes are a00i6es 42ic2 c2an#e t2e class o0 t2e
4ord to 42ic2 t2e7 are added1 +2e7 are su00i6es3
eart2 G en P eart2en * G su00i6 P $d/
(estrictive derivational affixes do not c2an#e t2e class5 determinin# onl7
a c2an#e o0 meanin#1 +2e7 ma7 be
pre0i6es3
mis- G 0ortune P mis0ortune pre0i6 G * P *
sel0- G con0ident P sel0-con0ident
su00i6es3
<itc2en G -ette P <itc2enette * G su00i6 P *
2ero G -ism P 2eroism
". Classification of affixes according to t3eir origin
'refixes of *ermanic origin:
0or- 0orbid5 0or#ive5
0ore- 0ore0at2er5 0oreman5 0oresi#2t
mis- misassociate5 misappre2end5 misvalue
out- out#ro4t25 outpost5 outdated
over- overc2ar#e5 overdue5 oversimpli07
under- undereducate5 under#round35 undersecretar7
up- up#rade5 upli0t5 uproot
4it2- 4it2ra45 4it2stand
'refixes of Latin origin:
bi- bi0ocal5 bimont2l75 bi4ee<l7
de- deca05 decompose
dis- disa#ree5 disconnect
em- en-empo4er5 enable5 ent2rone
in-5 il-5 im- ille#al5 inaccurate5 imper0ect5 irrecoverable5 irreducible
non- noncombatant5 noncon0ormist
pre- pre-eminent5 pre-natal
sel0- sel0command5 sel0committment5 sel0-sc2ooled
sub- subdivide5 subspecies
super- supersonic5 superstructre
trans- transliterate5 transoceanic
'refixes of *ree9 origin:
anti- antibod75 antiin0lationar75 antit2esis
7
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
bio- bio#rap275 bio2azard
#eo- #eomorp2olo#75 #eopolitics
27dro- 27drod7namics5 27droelectric
27per- 27perbole5 27per0iction5 27perte6t
macro- macroscopic5 macrosociolo#7
micro- micro4ave5 microprocessor
ps7c2o- ps7c2obiolo#75 ps7c2odrama5 ps7c2o#enesis
tele- teleban<in#5 telecommute5 teles2oppin#5 tele4or<in#
Suffixes of *ermanic origin:
-dom 0reedom5 o00icialdom
-er 2ac<er5 net4or<er5
-0ul rest0ul5 spite0ul
-2ood man2ood5 priest2ood
-in# 4eddin#5 4innin#s
-is2 bo7is25 4omanis25
-l7 beatl75 #odl75 dail7
-ness #reatness5 sel0is2ness
-s2ip aut2ors2ip5 s2olars2ip
-t2 #ro4t25 4i0t2
-4ard bac<4ard5 s<74ards
-4ise cloc<4ise5 li<e4ise
-7 boo<75 class75 smo<75 sunn7
Suffixes of (omance :Latin5 1renc35 +talian ; origin:
-able ban<able5 cop7ri#2table5
-al recital5 rene4al
-an5-ian s7ntactician5 p2onetician
-ation 0ormation5 2ibernation
-ee assi#nee5 #rantee5
-ence patience5 resistence
-ese /ournalese5 Qapanese
-ess lioness5 4aitress
-ette <itc2enette5 novelette
-HiI07 intensi075 simpli07
-ic aller#ic5 s7ntactic
-ical economical5 0anatical
-ism collo8uialism5 terrorism
-it7 0acult75 universit7
-ize5-ise moralize5 moralise
-ment /ud#ment5 puzzlement
-or actor5 conductor
Suffixes of *ree9 origin:
-#rap27 le6ico#rap275 p2oto#rap27
-ic periodic5 ma#netic
-ism alp2abetism5 4omanism5 7out2ism
-lo#7 musicolo#75 p2raseolo#7
-p2obia claustop2obia5 arac2nop2obia
8
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
Classification of affixes according to t3e 4ord class t3e6 form
Dependin# on t2e class to 42ic2 t2e derived 4ord belon#s5 su00i6es are
called nominalizers Hor noun 0ormativesI i0 t2e derived 4ord is a noun5
ad<ectivisers Hor ad/ective 0ormativesI i0 t2e result o0 derivation is an
ad/ective5 verbalizers Hor verb 0ormativesI and adverbializers Hor adverb
0ormativesI1
$ccordin# to t2e stem to 42ic2 t2e7 are added5 t2ese 0ormatives 0all into
several patterns3
*ominalizers are added to t2e 0ollo4in# stems3
2erb stem = !ominaliser > !oun
marr7 G -a#e P marria#e
arrive-G -al P arrival
drive G -er P driver
d<ective stem = !ominalizer > !oun
0ree G -dom P 0reedom
$merican G- ism P $mericanism
$d/ectives 0all into t2e 0ollo4in# productive patterns3
!oun Stem = d<ectivizer > d<ective
sentiment G -al P sentimental
beaut7 G -0ul P beauti0ul
4oman G -is2 P 4omanis2
0riend G -less P 0riendless
2erb stem = d<ectiviser > d<ective
eat G -able P eatable
distrust G -0ul P distrust0ul
Verbalizers 0all into t2e 0ollo4in# patterns3
!oun stem = 2erbaliser > 2erb
len#t2 G -en P len#t2en
idol G -ise P idolise
d<ective stem = 2erbaliser > 2erb
blac< G -en P blac<en
$merican G -ise P $mericanise
$dverbialisers3
d<ective stem = dverbialiser > dverb
slo4 G -l7 P slo4l7
!oun Stem = dverbialiser > dverb
end G -lon# P endlon#
s<7 G -4ardHsI P s<74ardHsI
9
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
$. 'roductivit6
:roductivit7 is #iven b7 t2e 0re8uenc7 4it2 42ic2 an a00i6 is used in t2e
lan#ua#e and 4it2 42ic2 spea<ers use it in order to create ne4 4ords1
$ccordin# to t2is criterion5 a00i6es are re#arded as productive Halso called
activeI5 semi-productive and unproductive1 +2e most productive a00i6es
can be added to almost an7 stem in order to 0orm a ne4 4ord1
Unproductive a00i6es are no lon#er used to 0orm ne4 derivatives1
:roductivit7 is usuall7 associated to t2e idea o0 d7namism in lan#ua#e1
'roductive prefixes are3 anti-, e-, etra-, dis-, de-, mis-, non-, out-, re-,
self-, sub-, under.
Semi7productive prefixes are3 ante-, arch-, com-, co-, counter-, hyper-,
in-, mid-, neo-, pro-, post-, sub-, super-, semi-, trans-, ultra-, up-, vice-.
-nproductive prefixes are3 en-, fore-, !ith-.
'roductive suffixes are3 -able, -an, -ed, -er, -ic, -ist, -ism, -ing, -ish, -ize,
-ly, -less, -ness, -tion.
Semi7productive suffixes are3 -ate, -dom, -ful, -hood, -ee, -eer, -ette,
-ling, -let, -ship, -!ard(s).
-nproductive suffixes are3-ance, -age, -ent, -sion, -cy, -en, ify, ive, -ary,
-some, -th.
". Classification of affixes according to t3eir meaning:
$00i6es can be #rouped accordin# to some common semantic traits 42ic2
are added to t2e #rammatical ones1
Some a00i6es e6press t2e idea o0 Ecollectivit7F3 -dom, -hood, -ism, -ship,
-ery (brotherhood, friendship).+2e idea o0 E0emale bein#F is e6pressed b73
-ess, -ine, -tri, -ette (usherette, !aitress), 42ile ob/ects o0 lesser value are
mar<ed b7 t2e su00i6 -ette3 articlette, cigarette, storyette, essayette)1
Diminutive su00i6es e6press t2e idea o0 EsmallnessF3 -ie5 or -y3 birdie,
doggie, kiddy, puppy1 +2ese #et an emotional colourin# or a collo8uial
c2aracter5 42en attac2ed to nouns denotin# adult persons5 usuall7 0amil7
members3 daddy, auntie, "etty, #izzie, etc1 Ot2er su00i6es indicate
disapproval3 -ard Hdrunkard, dullardI5 -ling H!eakling, priestlingI5 -ster
Hgangster, rhymesterI1
=ou 2ave 0inis2ed Unit %1
I recommend to 7ou t2at 7ou revise t2e main topics o0 t2is unit1 It is time
0or 7ou to do t2e send-a4a7 assi#nment and 2and it to 7our course
instructor1
Send7a4a6 assignment. -nit $
10
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
%1 9rie0l7 comment on t2e main criteria used to classi07 a00i6es in "n#lis21
&1 Consider t2e 0ollo4in# 4ords3 atheism, circulation, coldness,
craftsmanship, fashionable, hopeful, kingdom, neighbourhood,
refreshment, !aiter.
aI For eac2 4ord identi07 its le6ical cate#or7 H*5 V5 $5 $dvI1
bI "ac2 4ord contains more t2an one morp2eme1 List all t2e
morp2emes and indicate 42et2er t2e7 are 0ree or bound1
cI Indicate 0or eac2 a00i6 42et2er it is derivational or in0lectional1
dI State t2e ori#in and e6plain t2e meanin# o0 t2e su00i6es1
'1 $00i6ation #ives rise to pairs o0 4ords t2at are sometimes con0used1
"6plain t2e di00erence in meanin# bet4een t2e 0ollo4in# con0usables3
childish $ childlike continual $ continuous
councillor $ counselor factitious $ fictitious
%udicial $ %udicious practical $ practicable
ns4ers and comments to self7assessed ?uestions
ns4ers $.$
enc2ant HrootNstemI G -ment Ha00i6I M enc2antment
li<e HrootNstemI G -l7 Ha00i6I M li<el7
li<el7 HstemI G -2ood Ha00i6I M li<eli2ood
vaccine HrootNstemI G -ation Ha00i6I M vaccination
re- Ha00i6I G vaccination HstemI M revaccination
ns4ers $."
to7s3 -s in0lectional
listened3 -ed in0lectional
reassessment3 re- derivational5 -ment derivational
c2ildrenFs3 -Es in0lectional
0at2erl73 -ly derivational
improbable3 im- derivational
improbabilit73 im- derivational5 -ity derivational
calculatin#3 -ate derivational5 -ing in0lectional
disarms3 dis- derivational5 -s in0lectional
unremar<able3 un- derivational5 -able derivational
unpretentiousness3 un- derivational5 -tious derivational5 -ness derivational
-nit "
/%(0 1%(&T+%!. C%&'%-!0+!*
11
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
%BJECT+2ES of -nit "
+2e main ob/ectives o0 Unit & are3
to de0ine compoundin# and compoundsC
to distin#uis2 bet4een compounds and p2rasesC
to identi07 t2e t7pes o0 compounds1
".$ To define compounding and compounds
Compounding Halso compositionI is a process o0 coinin# ne4 4ords b7
combinin# t4o or more t2an t4o stems or roots1 +2e 0irst element o0 a
compound is treated as a stem and not as a 4ord5 t2at is 427 in0lections on
t2e 0irst constituent are absent1 Onl7 case and number in0lections survive in
a 0e4 instances1
+2e genitive in0lection is reco#nizable in a 0e4 compounds o0 t2e t7pe3
craftsman, crafts!oman, sportsman, to!nspeople, tradesman, statesman
and in compounds in set p2rases3
a days hunt, a good days !ork, a goodnights sleep, a half hours drive, a
minutes silence, a moments hesitation, a mornings !ait, barbers shop,
cats pa!, etc.
+2e plural in0lection is reco#nizable in3
arms race, communications net!ork&officer&problem&satellite&specialist&
system, customs barrier&co-operation&house&officer&union, fast goods.
services, goods circulation& train&truck, special needs children, sports
agent&car&centre&page.
+2e meanin# o0 man7 compounds is based on t2e sum o0 t2e meanin#s o0
t2e component 4ords1 +2e basic meanin# is rendered b7 t2e last element5
42ile t2e 0irst one speci0ies t2e additional meanin#3 e1#1 fo-hunter a 2unter
specialized in 2untin# 0o6es5 and !olf-hunter a 2unter 42o 2unts 4olves1
+2e constituent structure o0 compounds is dependent on t2e 4a7 t2e
compound is built1 Compounds made up o0 t2ree Hor more elementsI can be
interpreted in t4o 4a7s3
student 0ilm societ7
Jstudent J0ilm societ7L E0ilm societ7 0or studentsF
JJstudent 0ilm Jsociet7LL Esociet7 0or student 0ilmsF
silver Janniversar7 rin#L Ean anniversar7 rin# made o0 silverF
Jsilver anniversar7L rin# Ea rin# 0or t2e silver anniversar7F
12
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
Self7assessed test ".$
+2e compounds made up o0 t2ree elements can 2ave t4o di00erent readin#s
Hmeanin#sI1 Use brac<ets to e6plain t2e di00erence in meanin#3
Ideal @ome "62ibition a lon# term contract1
:lease provide t2e ans4er in t2e space above1 Su##ested ans4ers can be 0ound at t2e end
o0 t2e unit 1
"." To distinguis3 bet4een compounds and p3rases
$s compounds and p2rases 2ave certain common c2aracteristics5 lin#uists
2ave decided upon a number o0 criteria to distin#uis2 bet4een compounds
and s7ntactic p2rases1 +2e criteria include t2e 0ollo4in#3
$. Spelling
Compounds can be spelled solidl75 as t4o separate 4ords or can 2ave
27p2enated spellin#3
solid compounds spaced compounds 36p3enated
compounds@36p
3enes
pic<poc<et brea<0ast room lion-2earted
ban<assurance 0air cop7 lon#-distance-runner
+2ere are even cases 42en di00erent dictionaries provide t4o spellin#s 0or
t2e same compound3
O60ordNLon#man CobuildNCambrid#e
e7ebro4 e7e-bro4
e7esore e7e-sore
Since t2ere is a complete lac< o0 uni0ormit7 in t2e spellin# o0 compounds in
"n#lis25 t2is criterion is not considered b7 some lin#uists to be reliable1
In contrast p2rases are al4a7s spelt as separate 4ords3 J
*:
the pretty girlL
". T3e p3onological criterion
$ compound o0 t4o elements is stressed on t2e 0irst constituent and t2ere is
no /uncture5 42ile a p2rase is stressed on t2e last constituent3
Compounds '3rases
a blac<bird HEa <ind o0 birdFI a blac< bird HEa bird 42ic2 is blac<FI
a bluebell HEa <ind o0 sprin# 0lo4erFI a blue bell HEa bell 42ic2 is blueFI
a blac<board a blac< board HEa board 42ic2 is blac<FI
a redcoat HEa soldierFI a red coat HEa coat 42ic2 is redFI
a reds<in HEan $merican IndianFI a red s<in HEs<in 42ic2 is sunburntFI
13
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
8. T3e morp3ological criterion
Compounds 2ave morp2olo#ical inte#rit75 i1e1 t2e elements o0 a compound
cannot be split up b7 ot2er 4ords or p2rases5 nor can t2e7 be modi0ied b7
very3
Compounds '3rases
a truc< driver a care0ul driver1
Ra truc< $merican driver a care0ul $merican driver1
+2e ad/ective 'merican cannot intervene bet4een t2e 0irst and t2e second
element o0 t2e compound5 but it can be inserted in t2e noun p2rase1
Rver7 blac<birds ver7 blac< birds1
+2e de#ree adverb very can intensi07 t2e ad/ective in t2e p2rase5 but it
cannot be used in a compound3
+2e 4ooden bo6 4as made o0 a ver7 blac< board1
R+2e teac2er 4rote on a ver7 blac<board1
A. /ord order
+2e 4ord order o0 compounds is 0i6ed5 42ile in p2rases it is 0ree3
Compounds '3rases
a blac<board a blac< board
a #reen board
a 42ite board
a blac< table
a redcoat a red coat
a #reen coat
a red scar0
a red cap
a bro4n /ac<et
B. T3e semantic criterion
Compounds 2ave an idiomatic meanin#1 +4o compounds built on t2e same
combinator7 pattern and usin# 4ords belon#in# to t2e same semantic 0ield
do not 2ave a similar meanin# or t2e7 2ave onl7 one similar meanin# in
common3
sunstruc< Ea00ected or touc2ed b7 t2e sunF1
moonstruc< Emar<ed b7 mental unbalanceF1
+2e combinatorial pattern is3 noun G past participle1 +2e nouns belon# to
t2e same semantic 0ield Ecelestial bodiesF5 but t2e resultin# compounds 2ave
di00erent meanin#s1
4ol0-2unter Eperson 42o 2unts 4olvesF
0o6-2unter Eperson 42o 2unts 0o6esF
14
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
lion-2unter Ea person 42o see<s t2e compan7 o0 celebritiesF
Self7assessed test "."
;roup t2e 0ollo4in# compounds accordin# to t2eir spellin#3
aI solid3 tablecloth,
bI spaced3 breakfast room,
cI 27p2enated heart-disease.
t2e armed 0orces5 bac<#round5 class-consciousness5 dress circle5 0irst-
o00ender5 @i#2lander5 li#2t-minded5 lipstic<1
:lease provide t2e ans4er in t2e space above1 Su##ested ans4ers can be 0ound at t2e end
o0 t2e unit 1
".8 To identif6 t3e t6pes of compounds
In traditional #rammar compounds are classi0ied b7 t2e 4ord class to 42ic2
t2e7 belon#1 Compounds usuall7 2ave t4o constituents5 eac2 belon#in# to
one o0 t2e cate#ories3 *5 $5 V5 :5 etc1 +2e compound itsel0 ma7 belon# to
t2e cate#or7 *5 V or $1
Compound nouns 0orm t2e lar#est class o0 compounds in "n#lis25 almost
?ST o0 t2e total number o0 compounds1 +2e most 0re8uent patterns include
t2e 0ollo4in# possible combinations **5 $*5 :*5 V*3
* G * mail-bo65 o00ice-bo7
verbal * G * 2eatin# s7stem5 4or<in# #irl
* G verbal * boo<-bindin#5 ni#2t-0l7in#
$ G * #randmot2er5 2i#2-lands
:ro G * s2e-cousin5 2e-bear
V G V cut-bac<5 turn-round
:ast participle G * bro<en 2eart5 bro<en marria#e
$dv G * onloo<er5 out2ouse
$dv G verbal * 4ell-bein#
+2e less usual compound patterns include3
V G V ma<e-believe5 ma<es2i0t
$dv G $dv out-bac<
$ G *um 2i#2-0ive
*um G * t4o-dec<er5 t4o-seater
letter G * U-boat5 +-s2irt5 V-nec<
Compound verbs
V G V dr7-clean5 t7pe-4rite
* G V c2err7pic<5 bab7sit5 crossclassi07
: G V outlive5 overstep5 overdo
$ G V 42ite4as25 2i#2li#2t
$dv G V broadcast5 over2ear
15
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
Compound ad<ectives
* G $ 2eadstron#5 s<in deep5 dut7-0ree5 0ello4-t2eatrical
$ G :articiple eas7#oin#5 lo4born5 2i#2born5 2i#2-minded
* G :art storm-beaten5 sea-#oin#
$ G * open-air5 2i#2 level
: G $ underripe
: G :art in#ro4n
$ G $ bitter-s4eet5 7ello4-bro4n
$ G pron1 t2e @oll7 One5 t2e absent one
:N$dv G * o00s2ore5 up2ill5 do4nstairs
$dv G$ ever#reen5 overan6ious
*um G * 0irst-class5 t4o-p2ase5 t4o-4a7
$dv G :articiple 4ell-meanin#5 ill-0avoured
Compound 'ronouns
Inde0inite 8uanti0ier G * somebod7
:ron1G :ron1 one anot2er5 eac2 ot2er
:ro G * ever7bod7
ne#1adv G * nobod75 not2in#
Compound adverbs are 0ormed o0 compound ad/ectives and t2e Ul7 su00i61
* G : G * e7e-to-e7e
$ G *-ed ti#2t-lipped
$dv G * up-2ill5 do4n-2ill5 no4ada7s5 outside
$dv G :rep 2erea0ter5 2ereb7
: G * toda75 inside
Instead o0
summar7
=ou 2ave 0inis2ed Unit &1
I recommend to 7ou t2at 7ou revise t2e main topics o0 t2is unit1 It is time
0or 7ou to do t2e send-a4a7 assi#nment and 2and it to 7our course
instructor1
Send7a4a6 assignment. -nit "
%1 ,2ic2 are t2e criteria used to distin#uis2 bet4een compounds and
p2rasesV
%1 ;roup t2e 0ollo4in# compounds accordin# to t2eir structure3
first-offender, fur-lined, Highlander, late-comer, light-minded, stocking
(eavers, three-cornered, treasure-seekers, !arm-hearted.
* G * G -er3 !eek-ender
$ G * G -er3 left-hander
V G V G -er3 go-getter
$dv G V G -er3 ne!-comer
16
,ord 0ormation1 Compoundin#
* G V G -er3 theatre-goer
*um G * G -er3 first-nighter
$d/ G * G -ed3 broad-shouldered
* G * G -ed3 doll-faced
*um G * G -ed3 t!o sided
ns4ers and comments to self7assessed ?uestions
ns4ers ".$
JJIdeal @omeL "62ibitionL Ee62ibition o0 ideal 2ousesF1
JJIdealL @ome "62ibitionL Eideal e62ibition o0 2ousesF1
Ja Jlon# termL contractL Ea contract concluded 0or a lon# termF1
Ja Jlon#L term contractL Ea contract o0 man7 pa#es 42ic2 ends on a set date1
ns4ers "."
aI solid3 bac<#round, @i#2lander5 lipstic<
bI spaced3 t2e armed 0orces, dress circle
cI 27p2enated3 class-consciousness, 0irst-o00ender5 li#2t-minded1
Bibliograp36
%1 @ulban @oria5 )ynthesis in *nglish #eicology and )emantics5 "ditura
Spanda5 Iai5 &SS%1
&1 :la# In#o5 (ord-formation in *nglish5 Cambrid#e +e6tboo<s in
Lin#uistics5 C1 U1 :15 Cambrid#e5 &SS&1
'1 Lip<a Leon2ard5 &SS&5 *nglish #eicology+ leical structure, !ord semantics and !ord
formation5 +Wbin#en3 *arr1
17
,ord meanin#
-nit 8
/%(0 1%(&T+%!: CL+''+!*5 C%!2E(S+%!
%BJECT+2ES of -nit 8
+2e main ob/ectives o0 Unit ' are3
to de0ine clippin#C
to identi07 t7pes o0 clippin#C
to reco#nize ot2er 4ord 0ormation processes3 c2an#e o0 stress5
conversion1
8.$ To define clipping
clippin#5 protot7pe5 clipped 4ord1
Derivation and composition are 4ord-buildin# processes based on
addition1 In contrast5 clipping Halso <no4n as s3ortening5 curtailing
or contractionI is a process o0 s2ortenin# t2e 4ord 0orms1 +2e 4ord
under#oin# clippin# is <no4n as a protot7pe5 42ile t2e resultin# 4ord
is a clipped 0orm1
Semanticall7 clipped 0orms can be o0 t4o t7pes3
a1 a s7non7m o0 t2e protot7pe Hi1e1 t2e protot7pe and t2e clipped 4ord
2ave identical meanin#s3
protot6pe clipped 4ord
telep2one P p2one
advertisement P ad
in0luenza P 0lu
b1 t2e clipped 0orm developed some meanin#s o0 t2eir o4n3
2istor7 P stor7
In man7 cases t2e protot7pe remains a pol7semantic 4ord5 t2e contracted
term #ettin# a specialised meanin#3 e1#1 acute is pol7semantic HEs2arp at an
end5 Ecomin# s2arpl7 to a crisisF5 Esensitive to impressionsF5EcleverFI5 42ile
cute is monosemantic HEcleverFI1
Clippin# al4a7s reduces a pol7s7llabic 4ord to a monos7llabic one5 b7
removin# t2e initial s7llable HphoneI5 t2e 0inal s7llable HrepI or t2e initial
and t2e 0inal s7llable HfluI1
Self7assessed test 8.$
Identi07 t2e stems o0 t2e 0ollo4in# clippin# compounds H4it2 a complete
0irst stem and a clipped second stemI3
cable#ram robocop
c2eesebur#er sno4mobile
18
,ord meanin#
2eadp2one mil<a2olic
:lease provide t2e ans4er in t2e space above1 Su##ested ans4ers can be 0ound at t2e end
o0 t2e unit 1
8." To identif6 t6pes of clipping
+raditionall75 t2ree t7pes o0 clippin# 2ave been identi0ied3
ap3aeresis or fore7clipping3 t2e loss o0 initial p2onemeHsI
acute P cute
airplane P plane
e6c2an#e P c2an#e
omnibus P bus
s6ncope or medial clipping3 t2e loss o0 some p2onemes in medial position
Hunproductive toda7I
0antas7 P 0anc7
spectacles P specs
apocope or bac97clipping3 loss o0 p2onemes in 0inal position Hver7
productiveI
advertisement P ad
bic7cle P bi<e
cinemato#rap2 P cinema
dormitor7 P dorm
ta6imeter P ta6i
Ellipsis is a special 0orm o0 clippin# consistin# o0 t2e omission o0 a 4ord
usuall7 used in a p2rase3
0inal e6aminations P 0inals
/et-propelled plane P /et
soap opera P soap
"llipsis can be accompanied b7 t2e bac<-clippin# o0 t2e 0irst term3
#raduate-student P #rad
public 2ouse P pub
zoolo#ical #arden P zoo
"llipsis5 bac<-clippin# and su00i6ation can be combined to coin ne4
4ords3
#randmot2er P #rann7
movin# picture P movie
tal<in# picture P tal<ie
bbreviation Halso called alp3abetism or initialismI is a process o0
s2ortenin# 4ords5 based on a reduction o0 an apocope t7pe1 +2e 4ords o0 a
p2rase are reduced to t2eir initial letters5 bein# read as a combination o0
t2e alp2abet letters3
19
,ord meanin#
electronic data processin# "D:
"uropean Societ7 0or t2e Stud7 o0 "n#lis2 "SS"
$ lar#e number o0 abbreviations is used in t2e 0ield o0 computers3
CD-RO- Compact disc read-onl7 memor7
$+ $dvanced tec2nolo#7
Some abbreviations can be ambi#uous5 t2e7 ma7 stand 0or di00erent t2in#s3
$$ $lco2olics $non7mous
anti-aircra0t
$rc2itectural association
$utomobile $ssociation
$bbreviations 2ave turned into acron7ms3
$IDS $c8uired Immune De0icienc7 S7ndrome
U*"SCO United *ations "ducational5 Scienti0ic and Cultural
Or#anisation
$cron7mization turns p2rases into initial letters o0 t2e 4ords in t2ose
p2rases and t2en interprets t2ese initials p2onolo#icall71 +2us5 t2e
'c,uired -mmune .eficiency )yndrome provides aids 42ic2 is rendered
pronounceable b7 appl7in# t2e "n#lis2 spellin# rules1
$bbreviations ma7 preserve several letters but t2e 4ord is pronounced
entirel73
avenue ave1
incorporated inc1
road Rd1
Latin 4ords are also 0re8uentl7 abbreviated5 some are read in t2eir ori#inal
0orms or in "n#lis23
Latin3 "n#lis23
e1#1 Ji3 d/i3L e6empli #ratia 0or e6ample
i1e1 Jai i3L id est t2at is
Bac9 derivation or bac9 formation
It is a process o0 0ormin# ne4 4ords b7 clippin# alread7 e6istin# 4ords1
+2e ne4 4ords are 0ormed b7 misunderstandin# o0 t2e structure o0 t2e
4ord1 +2is misinterpretation is due to analo#7 and i#norance o0 t2e
et7molo#7 o0 t2e 4ord1
It is <no4n t2at a#ent nouns5 i1e1 nouns t2at denote t2e a#ent o0 an action5
are 0ormed 0rom verb stems G -er3
build P builder
4or< P 4or<er
20
,ord meanin#
97 analo#7 it 4as supposed t2at ot2er a#ent nouns endin# in -er& -or also
2ave correspondin# verbal stems3
bab7-sitter P to bab7-sit
butc2er P to butc2
bur#lar P to bur#le
t7pe4riter P to t7pe4rite
editor P to edit
+2e misinterpretation o0 ot2er noun 0orms endin# in -tion&-sion enlar#ed
t2e number o0 verbs coined b7 bac<-0ormation3
electrocution P to electrocute
ent2usiasm P to ent2use
television P to televise
9ac< derivation is especiall7 0avoured b7 spea<ers o0 $merican "n#lis21
Self7assessed test 8."
%1 Compare t2e 4ords in t2e t4o columns belo41 Comment on t2eir
0ormation pointin# out 42ic2 is t2e ori#inal 4ord and 42ic2 is t2e derived
one1
to automate automation
to bab7-sit bab7-sitter
to ent2use ent2usiasm
#reed #reed7
to 2ouse<eep 2ouse<eeper
to sleep4al< sleep-4al<in#
to televise television
:lease provide t2e ans4er in t2e space above1 Su##ested ans4ers can be 0ound at t2e end
o0 t2e unit 1
8.8 To recognize ot3er 4ord formation processes: c3ange of stress5 conversion
T3e c3ange of stress
It involves s2i0tin# t2e accent in a 4ord1 +2is p2enomenon is peculiar in
4ords o0 Romance ori#in naturalized in "n#lis2 Hborro4ed and adapted to
t2e lan#ua#eI1 Verbs and ad/ectives borro4ed 0rom Romance retained
t2eir ori#inal stress5 42ile nouns came to 2ave t2e stress on t2e 0irst
s7llable5 as in ;ermanic1 +2is 0act brou#2t 4it2 it a di00erence o0 stress
bet4een nouns on t2e one 2and and verbs and ad/ectives on t2e ot2er
2and3
* V
Kaccent acKcent
Ka00i6 aK00i6
Kproduce proKduce
Krecord reKcord
21
,ord meanin#
Ksub/ect subK/ect
* $
Kaccident acciKdental
Katom aKtomic
+2us in "n#lis2 it is common to indicate t2e resultative nominalization b7
s2i0tin# t2e accent 0rom t2e stem to t2e pre0i61 +2is process is still
productive 4it2 verbs pre0i6ed 4it2 -re+ re/make HvbI&/remake HnI,
re/!rite&/re!rite1
Conversion :also zero derivation5 functional c3angeI is a 4ord-buildin#
process 42ic2 a00ects bot2 t2e morp2olo#ical and t2e s7ntactic status o0
4ords1 It involves s2i0tin# a 4ord 0rom a part o0 speec2 into anot2er part
o0 speec25 in ot2er 4ords5 c2an#in# t2e #rammatical cate#or7 o0 a 4ord1
Conversion serves to coin ne4 le6emes on t2e basis o0 e6istin# ones1 +2us
t2e coversion o0 nouns to verbs is illustrated belo43
bed P to bed Eto put to bedF
bottle P to bottle Eto put in a bottleF
bomb P to bomb Eto t2ro4 bombs onF
+2e input cate#or7 can be an ad/ective or a verb5 42ile t2e output cate#or7
a verb or a noun respectivel73
$1 clean P V1 to clean
calm P to calm
V1 to c2eat P *1 a c2eat
to approac2 P an approac21
Instead o0
summar7
=ou 2ave 0inis2ed Unit '1
I recommend to 7ou t2at 7ou revise t2e main topics o0 t2is unit1 It is time
0or 7ou to do t2e send-a4a7 assi#nment and 2and it to 7our course
instructor1
Send7a4a6 assignment. -nit 8
%1 9rie0l7 comment on t2e main t7pes o0 clippin#1
&1 ;ive t2e 0ull 0orm o0 t2e 0ollo4in# abbreviated 4ords1 Indicate t2eir
pronunciation as 4ell3 $-5 91$15 9C5 c1015 "1F1L15 e1#15 "1S1L15 et al15 i1e15
D1O15 R1:15 U1*1"1S1C1O15 viz15 XI: HCodeI1
'1 Read t2e 0ollo4in# pairs o0 4ords1 ;ive t2eir p2onetic transcription1
* V * V
protest to protest record to record
import to import sub/ect to sub/ect
ob/ect to ob/ect suspect to suspect
present to present torment to torment
22
,ord meanin#
(1 +2e 0ollo4in# terms are associated 4it2 computer or internet use1 For
eac2 item5 identi07 its le6ical cate#or7 and comment upon t2e 4ord-
0ormation process Hcompoundin#5 s2ortenin#5 acron7m5 conversion5 etc1I
and provide a brie0 de0inition5 i0 possible1
He1#1 chatgroup U noun5 compound5 Ea #roup o0 people tal<in# to#et2er via
t2e InternetFI1
c7berent2usiast
c7berspace
F$Y
to e-mail
smile7s
so0t4are
to do4nload
bro4ser
to <e7board1
ns4ers and comments to self7assessed ?uestions
ns4ers 8.$
cable#ram3 cable G tele#ram
to7toon3 to7 G cartoon
c2eesebur#er3 c2eese G 2ambur#er
sno4mobile3 sno4 G automobile
2eadp2one3 2ead G telep2one
mil<a2olic3 mil< G alco2olic
ns4ers 8."
to automate Z automation
to bab7-sit Z bab7-sitter
to ent2use Z ent2usiasm
#reed Z #reed7
to 2ouse<eep Z 2ouse<eeper
to sleep4al< Z sleep-4al<in#
to televise Z television
-nit A
/%(0 &E!+!*
%BJECT+2ES of -nit A
+2e main ob/ectives o0 Unit ( are3
to de0ine denotation5 connotation5 le6ical 0ieldC
to anal7ze t2e semantic components o0 <ins2ip terms1
23
,ord meanin#
A.$ To define denotation5 connotation5 lexical field
T3e meaning of a 4ord can be anal7sed in terms o0 denotation and
connotation1
0enotation is t2e part o0 t2e meanin# o0 a 4ord or p2rase t2at relates it to
p2enomena in t2e real 4orld or in a 0ictional or a possible 4orld1
Denotative meanin# ma7 be re#arded as t2e central or core meaning o0 a
le6ical item1 It is o0ten e8uated 4it2 referential meaning1
Connotation is #iven b7 t2e additional meanin#s t2at a 4ord or p2rase 2as
be7ond its central meanin#1 +2ese meanin#s s2o4 peopleFs emotions and
attitudes to4ards 42at t2e 4ord or t2e p2rase re0ers to1 Connotation is
sometimes re0erred to as affective meaning or emotive meanin#1 For
e6ample5 child 2as t2e denotation Ea 7oun# 2uman bein#F and t2e
connotation Ea00ectionateF5 Eamusin#F5 ElovableF5 Es4eetF5 Enois7F5
Eirritatin#F1
-eanin# is more t2an denotation and connotation1 ,ord meanin# is
in0luenced b7 t2e conte6t in 42ic2 t2at 4ord occurs1 +2e tendenc7 o0 4ords
to occur to#et2er repeatedl7 is called collocation1 Collocation re0ers to t2e
restrictions on 2o4 4ords can be used to#et2er5 0or e6ample 42ic2
prepositions are used 4it2 particular verbs5 or 42ic2 nouns and verbs are
used to#et2er1 For e6ample5 perform is used 4it2 operation5 but not 4it2
discussion Hto perform an operation5 but not to perform a discussionI1
+2e meanin# o0 a le6eme is5 in part5 its relation to ot2er le6emes o0 t2e
lan#ua#e1 "ac2 le6eme is lin<ed in some 4a7 to numerous ot2er le6emes o0
t2e lan#ua#e1 +2ere are t4o <inds o0 lin<a#e3 s7nta#matic and
paradi#matic1 +2e s6ntagmatic relation is t2e mutual association o0 t4o or
more 4ords in a se8uence so t2at t2e meanin# o0 eac2 is a00ected b7 t2e
ot2erHsI and to#et2er t2eir meanin#s contribute to t2e meanin# o0 t2e lar#er
unit5 t2e p2rase HJ
*:
the %udgeL J
$:
very oldLI or t2e sentence HHe lived in an
old cottageI1
+2e paradigmatic relation is a relation o0 c2oice1 ,e c2oose 0rom amon# a
number o0 possible 4ords t2at can 0ill t2e same blan<3 t2e 4ords ma7 be
similar in meanin# or 2ave little in common but eac2 is di00erent 0rom t2e
ot2ers1 +2us5 instead o0 sa7in# 0he %udge !as arbitrary, 0or instance5 4e
can sa7 0he %udge !as cautious or careless, or busy or irritable, and so on1
$not2er aspect is sense relations3 t2e meanin# o0 an7 e6pression varies
4it2 conte6t5 42at ot2er e6pressions it occurs 4it2 and 42at e6pressions it
contrasts 4it21
Le6ical items5 42ose meanin#s 2ave somet2in# in common5 0orm #roups
4it2 ot2er le6emes1 +2ese #roups o0 le6emes are called lexical fields1 +2e
le6emes o0 a le6ical 0ield are o0 t2e same 4ord class Hi1e1 t2e7 are all nouns5
or all ad/ectives5 etcI5 and t2e7 are interrelated b7 precisel7 de0inable
meanin# relations1
24
,ord meanin#
Self7assessed test A.$
Speci07 t2e denotation and t2e connotation o0 t2e 4ord bird3
Indicate t2e collocation o0 t2e verb to lay3
List t2e terms o0 t2e le6ical 0ield o0 t2e 4ord friend3
:lease provide t2e ans4er in t2e space above1 Su##ested ans4ers can be 0ound at t2e end
o0 t2e unit 1
A." To anal6ze t3e semantic components of 9ins3ip terms
De7 4ords Semes5 semantic 0eatures5 <ins2ip terms1
+2e meanin# o0 a 4ord can be anal7sed into some basic elements5 42ic2
are called semantic components@ primitives5 semantic mar9ers or semes1
+2e stud7 o0 t2e semantic components 2as been connected 4it2 terms
belon#in# to t2e same le6ical 0ield1 +2ese semes5 mar<ers or semantic
components are abstract t2eoretical entities5 dimensions re#arded as
c2aracterisin# t2e respective 0ield1 $mon# t2e basic semantic components
o0 t2e le6ical 0ields t2ere are semes indicatin# t2e dimensions J$bstractL5
J$nimateL5 J@umanL5 JSe6L5 J$dultL5 J;enerationL5 JLineL5 JRan<L1 +2ese
are used in plus or minus terms and placed in brac<ets1 For e6ample5 child
JG2umanL J-adultL5 man JG2umanL JGadultL1
T3e componential anal6sis of meaning is 0ruit0ul to various lexical fields5
i1e1 #roups o0 4ords t2at are in a certain semantic relations2ip due to a
uni07in# t3eme or idea1 One o0 t2e ma/or le6ical 0ields 42ic2 2as been
studied in t2e "n#lis2 lan#ua#e is t2at o0 t2e <ins2ip s7stem5 i1e1 terms
denotin# 0amil7 members1
T3e lexical field of 9ins3ip terms in Englis3 is based on t2e 0ollo4in#
4ords3 grandfather, grandmother, father, mother, uncle, aunt, brother,
sister, cousin, she-cousin, son, daughter, grandson, grand daughter.
+2e semantic mar<ers used in t2e componential anal7sis o0 t2e meanin# o0
t2ese terms are t2e 0ollo4in#3
a1 Consan#uinit7 e6presses t2e ori#in o0 t2ese relations2ips3
JGconsan#uinit7L Eblood relations2ipsF
J-consan#uinit7L Erelations2ip b7 allianceF
b1 Line1 +2is dimension is divided into direct line Hindicatin# ancestors or
descendants o0 t2e e#oI indirect line Hincludin# all ot2er relationsI1
25
,ord meanin#
c1 ;eneration1 +2is dimension 2as t2e e#o mar<ed J;eneration SL as t2e
:oint o0 re0erence1 $scendin# #eneration J;eneration G&L and
J;eneration G%L 0rom t2e 0irst #eneration to t2e e#o1
Descendin# ;enerations J;eneration -%L and J;eneration -&L1
d1 Ran<1 +2is dimension is considered as a position in relation to ot2ers1 It
consists o0 direct relations2ips mar<ed JGDirectL and indirect relations2ips
J-DirectL1 Direct relations2ips are not mediated5 42ile indirect relations2ips
are mediated1
+2e componential anal7sis o0 t2e meanin# o0 <ins2ip terms is illustrated
belo43
#rand0at2er3JGConsan#uinit7L5 JGLineL5 J;enerationG&L5 JG-aleL5 J-DirectL
mot2er3 JGConsan#uinit7L5 JGLineL5 J;enerationG%L5 J--aleL5 JGDirectL
uncle3 J-Consan#uinit7L5 J-LineL5 J;enerationG%L5 JG-aleL5 J-DirectL
sister3 JGConsan#uinit7L5 J-LineL5 J;eneration SL5 J--aleL5 J-DirectL
s2e-cousin3 J-Consan#uinit7L5 J-LineL5 J;eneration SL5 J--aleL5 J-DirectL
son3 JGConsan#uinit7L5 JGLineL5 J;eneration-%L5 JG-aleL5 JGDirectL
#randdau#2ter3JGConsan#uinit7L5JGLineL5J;eneration-&L5J--aleL5J-DirectL
In a more elaborate anal7sis o0 t2e meanin#5 #rammatical 0eatures li<e JG*L
and JGCountableL can be added to t2e semantic 0eatures3
0at2er3 JG*L5 JGCountableL5 JGConcreteL5 JG$nimateL5 JG@umanL5 JG-aleL5
JGConsan#uinit75 JGLineL5 J;enerationG%L5 JGDirectL1
$n accurate description o0 t2e meanin# o0 t2e le6emes s2ould also ta<e into
consideration relational components1 +2ese are semantic components
representin# relations bet4een or amon# t2e terms anal7sed3
0at2er3 . :arent o0 = and -ale .
mot2er3 . :arent o0 = and Female .
son3 . C2ild o0 = and -ale .
dau#2ter3 . C2ild o0 = and Female .
brot2er3 . C2ild o0 :arent o0 = and -ale .
sister3 . C2ild o0 :arent o0 = and Female .
+2e componential anal7sis o0 meanin# is use0ul in t2e discussion o0 t2e
le6ical relation o0 27pon7m7 bet4een t4o terms suc2 as !oman and
mother1
1other is t2e 27pon7m o0 !oman5 as it is t2e superordinate element1 +2is is
proved b7 t2e 0act t2at mother contains in its meanin# postulate all t2e
0eatures o0 t2e 4ord !oman3 JG$nimateL5 JG@umanL5 JGFemaleL5 JG$dultL5
to 42ic2 t2e semantic 0eatures o0 <ins2ip terms are added
JGConsan#uinit7L5 JGLineL5 J;enerationG%L5 JGDirectL and t2e relational
components Z . :arent o0 = P1
In a similar 4a75 bachelor and spinster are 27pon7ms o0 man and !oman
because t2e7 contain all t2e semantic 0eatures 0ound in t2e meanin#
postulates o0 man and !oman5 42ile addin# t2e speci0ic seme JG*ever
marriedL1
26
,ord meanin#
+2us componential anal7sis reveals t2e similarities and di00erences bet4een
le6ical items in a semantic 0ield1
Self7assessed test A."
;ive t2e componential anal7sis o0 t2e meanin# o0 t2e 0ollo4in# <ins2ip
terms3
father, aunt, brother, mother-in-la!.
:lease provide t2e ans4er in t2e space above1 Su##ested ans4ers can be 0ound at t2e end
o0 t2e unit 1
Instead o0
summar7
=ou 2ave 0inis2ed Unit (1
I recommend to 7ou t2at 7ou revise t2e main topics o0 t2is unit1 It is time
0or 7ou to do t2e send-a4a7 assi#nment and 2and it to 7our course
instructor1
Send7a4a6 assignment. -nit A
%1 ,rite t2e componential anal7sis o0 meanin# 0or t2e term father5
includin# #rammatical 0eatures5 semantic components and relational
components1
&1 "6plain t2e relation o0 27pon7m7 bet4een t2e terms man and father.
ns4ers and comments to self7assessed ?uestions
ns4ers A.$
bird3 denotation Ea 4arm-blooded e##-la7in# vertebrate animal 42ic2 2as
0eat2ers5 4in#s5 and a bea<5 and t7picall7 is able to 0l7F
connotation Enois7F5 Eli#2t-2eartedF5 Elovel7F5 Eli#2tF5 E0reeF
to la73 to la7 an e##5 la7 t2e blame5 to la7 be0ore someone5 to la7 claim to
somet2in#5 to la7 open to somet2in#5 la7 to rest5
0riend3 0riends2ip5 0riendl75 un0riendl75 0riendliness5 un0riendliness5
0riendless5 0riendlessness1
ns4ers A."
0at2er3 JG*L5 JGCountableL5 JGConcreteL5 JG$nimateL5 JG@umanL5 JG-aleL5
27
,ord meanin#
JGConsan#uinit7L5 JGLineL5 J;enerationG%L5 JGDirectL1
aunt3 JG*L5JGCountableL5JGConcreteL5JG$nimateL5JG@umanL5 JGFemaleL5
J[Consan#uinit7L5 J-LineL5 J;enerationG%L5 J-DirectL1
brot2er3 JG*L5 JGCountableL5 JGConcreteL5 JG$nimateL5 JG@umanL5
JG-aleL5 JGConsan#uinit7L5 J-LineL5 J;eneration SL5 J-DirectL1
mot2er-in-la43JG*L5 JGCountableL5 JGConcreteL5 JG$nimateL5 JG@umanL5
JGFemaleL5 J-Consan#uinit7L5 J-LineL5 J;enerationG%L5 J-DirectL
Bibliografie -nitate de CnvDare !r. A
%1 L7ons Q15 #anguage and #inguistics. 'n -ntroduction5 %?>%1
&1 C2ioran Dumitru5 *lements of *nglish )tructural )emantics5 9ucureti3
"D:5 %?B'1
'1 @ur0ord Q1 R15 @easle7 915 Smit2 -1 915 )emantics+ ' coursebook5
Cambrid#e Universit7 :ress5 Cambrid#e5 *e4 =or<5 &SSB1
28
Le6ical relations1 S7non7m7
-nit B
LE.+CL (ELT+%!S. S)!%!)&)
%BJECT+2ES of unit B
+2e main ob/ectives o0 unit ) are3
to de0ine t2e le6ical relation o0 s7non7m7C
to distin#uis2 bet4een t2e terms in a s7non7mic seriesC
to identi07 t2e sources o0 s7non7m71
B.$ To define t3e lexical relation of s6non6m6
De7 4ords S7non7m75 s7non7ms5 s7non7mous5 s7non7mic series1
S6non6m6 is de0ined as identit7 o0 meanin#1 S6non6ms are le6emes t2at
2ave t2e same or almost t2e same #eneral sense1 S7non7ms are
interc2an#eable at least in some conte6ts1
+2e dictionaries o0 s7non7ms5 also called t2esaurus Hpl1 t2esauriI5 appeared
as t2e result o0 some practical needs5 in order to compensate 0or memor7
and in0ormation limitations1
Distinction ma7 be dra4n bet4een complete or absolute s7non7m7 and
incomplete s7non7m71 $bsolute s7non7ms re8uire an absolute identit7 in
meanin#3 s!eater, pullover. :er0ect s7non7ms are rare1 +2ere are no
le6emes 42ic2 could substitute 0or eac2 ot2er in all possible locations1
*ear-s7non7ms are used in dictionar7 de0initions Hto !rite 2 to put do!nI1
+2e di00erences in meanin# bet4een s7non7ms can be e6plained b7
re#ional5 st7listic5 emotional5 di00erences1 For e6ample5 t2e s7non7ms truck
and lorry are used in di00erent dialects H$"1 0ruck N 9r"1 lorry), sand!ich -
butty are s7non7mous in 9r"1 9ut t2e 0irst is standard "n#lis25 t2e latter is
re#ional "n#lis21 +2ere ma7 be a st7listic di00erence bet4een s7non7ms5 0or
e6ample3 insane - loony H0ormal - in0ormalI1 S7non7ms ma7 collocate Hco-
occurI 4it2 di00erent 4ords5 0or e6ample5 t2e pair o0 s7non7ms rancid -
rottenC rancid can onl7 collocate 4it2 butter& bacon5 42ile rotten collocates
4it2 eggs.
+2ere ma7 be an emotional 0eelin# or connotation attac2ed to one o0 t2e
s7non7ms5 0or e6ample3 youths and youngsters are s7non7ms5 youths is less
pleasant t2an youngsters1
+2e meanin# o0 t2e s7non7ms ma7 overlap5 but t2e7 appear in di00erent
combinations1 For instance5 freedom and liberty5 42ic2 are commonl7
treated as s7non7ms3 )he is en%oying her freedom& liberty, can appear in
di00erent combinations3 freedom of epression, academic freedom, but not
29
Le6ical relations1 S7non7m7
in3 liberty of epression, academic liberty1
"8uall75 t2e meanin# o0 liberty is not 0ull7 contained in t2e meanin# o0
freedom5 because t2e meanin# in3 )he took a real liberty, is peculiar to
liberty5 and not available 0or freedom.
Self7assessed test B.$
Find t2e protot7pe in t2e 0ollo4in# #roups o0 s7non7ms and #ive reasons
0or 7our c2oice3
%1 2andsome5 lovel75 beauti0ul5 prett75 comel75 #ood-loo<in#1
&1 to in8uire5 to as<5 to 8uestion5 to interro#ate1
'1 odour5 scent5 smell5 bou8uet5 0ra#rance5 per0ume1
(1 0ri#2t5 0ear5 consternation5 2orror5 dread5 panic5 alarm1
)1 coura#e5 braver75 0ortitude5 valour5 #allantr71
A1 po4er0ul5 0orce0ul5 potent5 0orcible1
B1 ripe5 mature5 adult5 #ro4n-up1
:lease provide t2e ans4er in t2e space above1 Su##ested ans4ers can be 0ound at t2e end
o0 t2e unit 1
B." To distinguis3 bet4een t3e terms in a s6non6mic series
S7non7ms are #rouped in s6non6mic series1 +2e 4ords included in a
s7non7mic series belon# to t2e same #rammatical cate#or75 i1e1 all o0 t2em
are nouns5 or all o0 t2em are verbs5 etc1 In a s7non7mic series5 one o0 t2e
terms ac8uires a dominant position and in dictionaries o0 s7non7ms it
becomes t2e 2ead4ord1
+2is dominant term e6presses t2e most #eneral meanin#5 all t2e ot2er
members o0 t2e series addin# some speci0ic 0eatures1 I0 t2e dominant term
o0 a s7non7mic series is a pol7semantic 4ord Ht2e noun ob%ect 2as t4o
meanin#sI5 t2en it is included in t4o s7non7mic series3
t2in#5 ob/ect5 article
intention5 aim5 purpose5 end5 ob/ect5 #oal5 ob/ective
In man7 cases a general 4ord HcleanI 2as as its e8uivalents onl7
specialised 4ords5 42ic2 are called ideo#rap2ic s7non7ms:
clean cleanse5 clear5 4as25 dust5 puri075 pur#e5 4ipe
S7non7mic series must be re#arded as Eopen seriesF especiall7 in literar7
4or<s5 as a 4riterFs ima#ination cannot be restricted b7 t2e limits imposed
30
Le6ical relations1 S7non7m7
b7 dictionaries o0 s7non7ms1
S6non6mic distributions
Di00erences bet4een or amon# s7non7ms are mar<ed b7 di00erences in
le6ical distribution5 i1e1 t2e7 can occur in t2e same conte6ts or not1
For e6ample5 accident and chance can be used interc2an#eabl7 in3 to
happen by accident&chance, but t2e7 are not s7non7mous in ot2er conte6ts
in 42ic2 t2e7 cannot be substituted 0or eac2 ot2er1 +2us onl7 accident can
be used in t2e 0ollo4in#3 a traffic accident, a cerebral accident, an
accident of appearance, to meet !ith accident. ,2ile chance can onl7
appear in3 to leave things to chance, to take ones chance, a game of
chance, chances of peace, etc. Restrictions o0 t2is t7pe are called
collocational restrictions.
S7non7ms are also di00erentiated b7 #rammatical properties5 0or e6ample5
sick and ill are bot2 used predicativel75 but onl7 sick can be an attribute a
sick man, child, an ill child or can be part o0 a compound suc2 as trainsick,
carsick, airsick, seasick5 t2e term ill is not used in compounds HRtrainill,
3carillI1
,ords and p2rases can 2ave correlative s6non6mic relations5 t2at is t2e7
can be reciprocall7 related5 0or e6ample3
a1 :2rasal verbs can be replaced b7 sin#le 4ord verbs3
to #ive up M to distribute to #ive in M to surrender
b1 Idiomatic p2rases ma7 be s7non7ms o0 one or several 4ords3
to ta<e 0or #ranted M to assume
to ma<e a 2ole in a bottle o0 brand7 M to drin< a lot o0 brand7
c1 Correlative relations o0 s7non7m7 can also be establis2ed amon#
idiomatic e6pressions t2at use a common 4ord3
to be as blind as a batNbeetleNmole
to be as blac< as in<NcoalNmidni#2tNpitc2Nsoot
to be as 2ard as a roc<NboneN0lintNironNNnails
to be as drun< as a lordNa ne4tNan o4l1
Self7assessed test B."
%1 $rran#e t2e 0ollo4in# nouns into s7non7mic #roups1 :oint out t2e
semantic 0eatureHsI s2ared b7 t2em and indicate 42ic2 o0 t2e listed
s7non7ms ma7 be re#arded as t2e protot7pe3
lack, ghost, affair, absence, scandal, privation, business, spirit, slander,
!ant, defect, apparition, back-biting, concern, thing, detraction, phantom,
matter, phantasm, calumny1
31
Le6ical relations1 S7non7m7
% & ' (
#roup %3 +2e protot7pe is 111111 +2e 0eature s2ared in common b7 t2e
s7non7mic #roup is 11111111
#roup &3 +2e protot7pe is 11111111 +2e 0eature s2ared in common b7 t2e
s7non7mic #roup is 111111111
:lease provide t2e ans4er in t2e space above1 Su##ested ans4ers can be 0ound at t2e end
o0 t2e unit 1
B.8 To identif6 t3e sources of s6non6m6
+2e sources o0 t2e s7non7m7 are t2e 0ollo4in#3
$. Et6molog6
S7non7m7 can be approac2ed bot2 0rom a s7nc2ronic and 0rom a
diac2ronic point o0 vie45 t2e diac2ronic stud7 2avin# a certain si#ni0icance
bot2 in clari07in# t2e sources o0 s7non7m7 and t2e status o0 4ords in
contemporar7 "n#lis21
+2e relations2ip establis2ed amon# native and 0orei#n 4ords is seen in t2e
0ield o0 s7non7m71 In most cases5 t2e native 4ord is 0elt as neuter5 bein#
pre0erred to t2e 0orei#n 4ord in ever7da7 conversation1 Some ot2er times5
t2e native 4ord bears t2e mar< o0 spontaneit7 or o0 anot2er ps7c2olo#ical
state3
Saxon 4ords Latin e?uivalents
motherly and fatherly maternal and paternal
-2i#2er emotive potential -polite conversation
friendship amity
-sincere and intense 0eelin# -0ormal
+2e specialization o0 terms is made accordin# to t2e et7molo#ical criterion3
Latin3 righteous Ecorrect be2aviour 0rom t2e vie4point o0 reli#ious belie0sF
Sa6on3 %ust Eimposes a moral vie4pointF1
Frenc23 pork, beef, veal, venison 2ave specialized to denote t2e meat1
Sa6on3 s!ine, bull, co!, calf, deer denote animals1
Literar7 terms are o0 Frenc2 ori#in5 42ile scienti0ic /ar#on is ;ree< or
Latin1
32
Le6ical relations1 S7non7m7
S7non7mous 4ords 4it2 di00erent ori#ins are or#anized in a double or a
triple scale1 +2e lan#ua#e 0rom 42ic2 t2e 4ord 4as borro4ed is indicated
HFrenc2I but not t2e ori#in o0 t2e et7mon5 42ic2 ma7 be ;ree< or Latin3
0ouble scale in s6non6m6
!ative 1renc3 native Latin
ans4er repl7 2eart7 cordial
as< re8uest luc<7 0ortunate
bu7 purc2ase pla7er actor
2elp aid 4ire tele#ram
4orld universe
7earl7 annual
In "n#lis2 t2ere are countless pairs o0 s7non7ms in 42ic2 a native term co-
e6ists 4it2 a term o0 Latin5 Frenc2 or ;ree< ori#in1 +2e native 4ord is
in0ormal5 42ile t2e borro4ed term is learned1 *ative 4ords are 4armer5
2omelier t2an borro4ed 4ords in emotive meanin#1
Triple scale
!ative 1renc3 Latin
as< 8uestion interro#ate
end 0inis2 conclude
stren#t2 po4er ener#7
time a#e epoc2
0ear terror trepidation
+2e native terms are t2e simplest and most ordinar7 o0 t2e t2ree terms1 +2e
Latin term is t2e learned5 42ereas t2e Frenc2 term stands bet4een t2e
native 4ord and t2e Latin 4ord1 Latin borro4in#s are usuall7 boo<is25
42ile Frenc2 are more 0ormal t2an t2e "n#lis2 e8uivalents1
". !eologisms enric2 t2e lan#ua#e and o0ten lead to s7non7m73
earlier 4ord neolo#ism
#uerrilla commando
landin#-place airport
ne4spaperman reporter
8. Eup3emisms are a source o0 s7non7m71 "up2emisms are 4ords or
p2rases t2at avoid direct re0erence to taboo sub/ects1 In suc2 cases t2e
denotation remains t2e same but t2e connotations are di00erent3
standard 4ord eup3emism
c2aotic un0ormed
illiterate uneducated
mad mental case
poor underprivile#ed
$not2er 4a7 o0 concealin# t2e unpleasant trut2 is to use <argon1 ,2en
companies 4ant to dismiss an emplo7ee5 t2e7 use lan#ua#e t2at attempts to
tone do4n or even dis#uise t2e e00ects o0 t2eir actions3
33
Le6ical relations1 S7non7m7
to dismissNto sac< to dispense 4it2 somebod7Fs services
to o00er somebod7 a career c2an#e opportunit7
sac<in# destu00in#
do4nsizin#
outplacement
departure
4or<0orce ad/ustment
;overnments and industries are adept at usin# 4ords to conceal 42at t2e7
are up to1 In %?BS t2e nuclear po4er industr7 in US used instead o0
eplosion Ean ener#etic disassembl7F and instead o0 fire Ea rapid o6idationF1
A. Tec3nical terms compete 4it2 traditional 4ords and p2rases
contributin# to t2e development o0 pro0essional /ar#ons1 +2e tec2nical
terminolo#7 or t2e specialist vocabular7 includes 4ords speci0ic t2e to
scienti0ic or tec2nical 0ields3
standard tec3nical term
a lie detector pol7#rap2
c2ec<in# accounts audit
measure to 0orce a countr7 sanction
pa7ment o0 an account settlement
B. 2arieties of Englis31 -an7 4ords are connected 4it2 li0e in various
#eo#rap2ical areas3
Britis3 merican
autumn 0all
Forei#n -inister Secretar7 o0 State
insect bu#
lorr7 truc<
maize corn
reader associate pro0essor
tin can
Sometimes slang5 42ic2 includes dialectal 4ords5 is a ma/or source o0
s7non7m71
Standard Englis3 Slang
0riend c2apNc2um
tobacco 0un<
bad luc< ill speed
Slan# is t2e special vocabular7 used b7 members o0 a particular #roup o0
people Hsc2oolbo7 slan#5 student slan#5 etcI1 Slan# 4ords are sub/ect to
0as2ion3 4ords come and #o5 t2e7 are used b7 one #eneration and 0or#otten
b7 t2e ne6t1 +2us t2e ran#e o0 4ords t2at e6pressed approval in t2e past
included3 cool, brill, heavy, ace, triff, def, !icked, a!esome. +2e ric2
variet7 o0 slan# is illustrated in t2e 0ollo4in# 4ords applied to police
o00icers over t2e 7ears in t2e United Din#dom and t2e United States3 bobby,
bogey, busy, copper, filth, fuzz, grog, ha!ksha!, mug, peeler, pigs, plod,
34
Le6ical relations1 S7non7m7
rozzer, scuffer, shamus, s!eeney, the la!, the man.
E. 2arious language st6les can be a source o0 s7non7m71
standard poetic
evenin# eve
#irl maid
o0ten o0t
to remain to tarr7
S7non7m7 is a mar< o0 pro#ress in t2e lan#ua#e5 it enables us to e6press
t2e subtlest ideas in a st7le appropriate to t2e conte6t o0 t2e spo<en or
4ritten communication1
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
=ou 2ave 0inis2ed Unit )1
I recommend to 7ou t2at 7ou revise t2e main topics o0 t2is unit1 It is time
0or 7ou to do t2e send-a4a7 assi#nment and 2and it to 7our course
instructor1
Send7a4a6 assignment. -nit B
$rran#e t2e 0ollo4in# nouns into s7non7mic #roups1 :oint out t2e semantic
0eatureHsI s2ared b7 t2em and indicate 42ic2 o0 t2e listed s7non7ms ma7 be
re#arded as t2e protot7pe3
pain5 compassion5 va#abond5 an#uis25 report5 concern5 mob5 stri0e5
recreation5 discord5 cro4d5 solicitude5 amusement5 stor75 sorro45 2obo5 pit75
ac2e5 tramp5 commiseration5 #rie05 pan#5 diversion5 con0lict5 care5 account5
dissention5 t2ron#5 an6iet75 spar<5 c2ronicle5 entertainment5 4oe5 va#rant5
condolence5 t2roe5 dole5 s7mpat275 t4in#e5 variance5 version5 4orr71
% & ' ( ) A B >
ns4ers and comments to self7assessed ?uestions
35
Le6ical relations1 S7non7m7
ns4ers B.$
:rotot7pes3 %1 beauti0ul5 &1 to as<5 '1 smell5 (1 0ear5 )1 coura#e5 A1 po4er0ul5
B1 adult1
Reasons3 it is t2e #eneral 4ord5 it is neutral bot2 st7listicall7 and
emotionall7 and it can stand 0or eac2 o0 its s7non7ms in most uses1
ns4ers B."
% & ' (
lac<
absence
privation
4ant
de0ect
#2ost
spirit
apparition
p2antom
p2antasm
a00air
business
concern
t2in#
scandal
slander
bac<-bitin#
detraction
calumn7
;roup %3 +2e protot7pe is lack1 +2e 0eature s2ared in common b7 t2e
s7non7mic #roup is Esomet2in# 4anted 42at is insu00icient or absentF1

;roup &3 +2e protot7pe is ghost1 +2e 0eature s2ared in common b7 t2e
s7non7mic #roup is Ea supernatural disembodied bein#5 ima#ined as
appearin# in visual 0orm or 2auntin# livin#F1
;roup '3 +2e protot7pe is concern1 +2e 0eature s2ared in common b7 t2e
s7non7mic #roup is Esomet2in# to be dealt 4it21
;roup (3 +2e protot7pe is calumny1 +2e 0eature s2ared in common b7 t2e
s7non7mic #roup is Ema<in# o0 0alse statements t2at dama#e anot2er]s
reputationF1
Bibliograp36
%1 9auer Laurie5 0he 4ocabulary, Routled#e5 %??>1
&1 @ulban @oria5 )ynthesis in *nglish #eicology and )emantics5 "ditura
Spanda5 Iai5 &SS%1
'1 @ur0ord Q1R15 @easle7 915 Smit2 -1 915 )emantics+ ' coursebook5
Cambrid#e Universit7 :ress5 Cambrid#e5 *e4 =or<5 &SSB1
(1 Saeed Q15 )emantics5 9lac<4ell5 &SS'1
36
9iblio#rap27
-nit E
LE.+CL (ELT+%!S:
!T%!)&)5 ,%&%!)&)5 '(%!)&)
%BJECT+2ES of -nit E
+2e main ob/ectives o0 Unit A are3
to de0ine and identi07 t7pes o0 anton7msC
to distin#uis2 bet4een t7pes o0 2omon7msC
to reco#nize paron7ms1
E.$ To define and identif6 t6pes of anton6ms
$nton7m75 anton7ms5 anton7mic series5 anton7mous 4ords1
$nton7ms are t4o 4ords 42ic2 belon# to t2e same #rammatical cate#or7
but 42ic2 are opposed in meanin# to eac2 ot2er1 $nton7ms are or#anized
in pairs1
$nton7mic pairs can be placed on an ima#inar7 a6is on 42ic2 one o0 t2e
terms represents t2e positive and t2e ot2er one t2e ne#ative value1
$ccordin# to t2eir 0orm5 anton7ms are classi0ied as3
a1 Root anton7ms Halso called absolute or radical anton7msI1 "6amples
are3
nouns ad/ectives verbs
cause $ e00ect #ood $ evil to come $ to #o
0riend $ enem7 2ot $ cold to 0ind $ to lose
prepositions demonstratives adverbs
above $ belo4 t2is $ t2at 2ere $ t2ere
*ouns t2at denote persons or animals o0 opposite se6es are also
considered root anton7ms3
man - !oman
he-parrot - she-parrot
stallion - mare
b1 Derivational anton7ms Halso called a00i6al anton7msI ac2ieve t2e
opposition t2rou#2 various a00i6es attac2ed to a common stem1 +2ese
a00i6es are ne#ative pre0i6es and su00i6es3
37
9iblio#rap27
dis- Eopposite o0F V1 to appear - to disappear
*1 belie0 - disbelie0
un- EnotF5 Econtrar7 toF provides t2e counterterm in t2e pairs3
$1 clear - unclear
separable - unseparable
s<illed - uns<illed
+2e allomorp2s in-, il-, ir- appear in suc2 anton7mic pairs as3 accessible
$ inaccessible, mature $ immature, literate $ illiterate, reducible $
irreducible.
+2e c2oice o0 one o0 t2ese allomorp2s depends on t2e 0irst consonant in
t2e 4ord to 42ic2 t2e pre0i6 is attac2ed1
Sometimes t4o pre0i6es ma7 compete in providin# t2e counterterm3
replaceable U unreplaceable U irreplaceable
reproac2able U unreproac2able U irreproac2able
sanitar7 U unsanitar7 U insanitar7
Su00i6es ma7 also be used to 0orm anton7mic pairs3 hopeful - hopeless,
careful - careless, remorseful - remorseless5 etc1
Self7assessed test E.$
%1 ;ive t2e anton7ms o0 t2e 0ollo4in# 4ords3
male $ OOO1 married $ OO1 clean $ OOO
alive $ OOO1 7oun# $ OO1 bi# $ O1OO1
c2eap $ OOO /o7 $ OO1 correct $ OO
:lease provide t2e ans4er in t2e space above1 Su##ested ans4ers can be 0ound at t2e end
o0 t2e unit 1
E." To distinguis3 bet4een t6pes of 3omon6ms
De7 4ords 2omon7m75 2omon7ms5 2omon7mous 4ords
,omon6ms are t4o or more 4ords 2avin# di00erent meanin#s but bein#
identical in3
%1 pronunciation and spellin# Hper0ect 2omon7msI
&1 pronunciation H2omop2onesI
'1 spellin# H2omo#rap2sI
$. perfect 3omon6ms Halso called 3omon6ms properI are 4ords
identical in bot2 pronunciation and spellin#5 but di00erent in meanin#3
*1 base E0oundationF $1 base Elo4F5 EmeanF
*1 bill Emone7 o4ed 0or services or #oodsF *1 bill Ebea< o0 a birdF
38
9iblio#rap27
". 3omop3ones 2ave identical pronunciation5 but di00erent spellin#s and
meanin#s3
air5 2eir5 ere ascent5 assent bu75 b75 b7e
beat5 beet cent5 scent5 sent c2ec<5 Czec2
e7e5 I 0lour5 0lo4er 2air5 2are
2our5 our made5 maid
8. 3omograp3s 2ave di00erent meanin#s and pronunciations5 but use
identical #rap2s3
V1 tear JtL *1 tear JtiL
V1 4ind J4aindL *1 4ind J4indL
*1 4ound J4undL V1 4ound J4aundL
$ special t7pe o0 2omo#rap2s is t2at o0 capiton7sms1 $ capiton6m is a
4ord t2at c2an#es its meanin# Hand sometimes pronunciationI 42en it is
capitalized5 suc2 as march and 1arch, personal names H1arkNmarkI5
place-names H5hinaNchinaI5 compan7 names H6iatNfiatI5 names o0
publications H0imeNtimeI etc1
$ distinction ma7 be made bet4een EtrueF 2omon7ms5 42ic2 are unrelated
in ori#in5 suc2 as skate HE#lide on iceFI and skate HEt2e 0is2FI5 and
pol7semous 2omon7ms5 42ic2 2ave a s2ared ori#in5 suc2 as mouth Ho0 a
riverI and mouth Ho0 an animalI1
Self7assessed test E."
%1 Identi07 t2e 2omop2ones o0 t2e 0ollo4in# 4ords3 for, night, peace, to.
&1 Identi07 t2e di00erent meanin#s and indicate t2e pronunciation o0 t2e
0ollo4in# 2omo#rap2s3 so!, lead, rose.
:lease provide t2e ans4er in t2e space above1 Su##ested ans4ers can be 0ound at t2e end
o0 t2e unit 1
E.8 To recognize paron6ms
'aron6ms are 4ords similar in sound5 but di00erent in spellin# and
meanin# and derived 0rom one anot2er or 0rom t2e same root1 For
39
9iblio#rap27
e6ample3
sensible Eperceptible to t2e mindF H0rom t2e Latin 4ord sensibilisI
sensitive Erespondin# to stimulationFH0rom t2e Latin 4ord sensitivusI
centenar7 U centennial c2eer0ul $ c2eer7
c2ildis2 U c2ildli<e classic $ classical
comic U comical electric $ electrical
alternatel7 U alternativel7 continuous $ conti#uous
=ou 2ave 0inis2ed Unit A1
I recommend to 7ou t2at 7ou revise t2e main topics o0 t2is unit1 It is time
0or 7ou to do t2e send-a4a7 assi#nment and 2and it to 7our course
instructor1
Send7a4a6 assignment -nit E
%1 De0ine anton7ms and #ive e6amples1
&1 De0ine t2e t7pes o0 2omon7ms1
'1 ;ive t2e meanin#s o0 t2e 0ollo4in# paron7ms and provide a conte6t 0or
eac2 o0 t2em3 affect $ effect, alive $ live, alone $ lonely, childish $
childlike, historic $ historical, classic $ classical, comic $ comical,
comprehensive $ comprehensible, content $ contents, economic $
economical, !omanly $ !omanish.
ns4ers and comments to self7assessed ?uestions
ns4ers E.$
male $ 0emale married $ bac2elor clean $ dirt7
alive $ dead 7oun# $ old bi# $ small
c2eap $ e6pensive /o7 $ sorro4 correct $ 4ron#
ns4ers E."
7. for $ four, night $ knight, peace $ piece, to U t!o
8. )o!3NsauN E0emale pi#, - Eto plant seed 0or #ro4t2F
lead3 Nli3dN Eto #uide on a 4a7 especiall7 b7 #oin# in advanceF
NledN Ea bluis2-42ite 2eav7 metalF
!ind3 N4indN Enatural movement o0 airF
N4aindN Eto turn completel7 or repeatedl7 about an ob/ectF
40
9iblio#rap27
B+BL+%*(',):
%1 9auer L15 *nglish (ord 6ormation5 Cambrid#e +e6tboo<s in Lin#uistics5 Cambrid#e3
Cambrid#e Universit7 :ress5 %?>'1
&1 9auer Laurie5 0he 4ocabulary, Routled#e5 %??>1
'1 9ro4n Deit25 5oncise *ncyclopedia of )emantics5 "lsevier5 &SS?1
'1 C2ioran Dumitru5 *lements of *nglish )tructural )emantics5 9ucureti3 "D:5 %?B'1
(1 Cruse D1 $15 ' 9lossary of )emantics and :ragmatics5 "dinbur#2 Universit7 :ress5 &SSA1
)1 Cruse D1 $15 #eical )emantics5 Cambrid#e +e6tboo<s in Lin#uistics5 Cambrid#e3
Cambrid#e Universit7 :ress5 %?>A1
A1 @ulban @oria5 )ynthesis in *nglish #eicology and )emantics5 Iai3 "ditura Spanda5 &SS%1
A1 @ur0ord Q1 R15 @easle7 915 Smit2 -1 915 )emantics+ ' coursebook5 Cambrid#e3 Cambrid#e
Universit7 :ress5 &SSB1
>1 Datamba Francis5 *nglish (ords5 Routled#e5 London5 %??(1
B1 Dempson Rut25 )emantic 0heory5 Cambrid#e +e6tboo<s in Lin#uistics5 Cambrid#e3
Cambrid#e Universit7 :ress5 %?BB1
%S1 Levitc2i Leon5 #imba englez; contemporan;. #eicologie5 9ucureti3 "D:5 %?BS1
%%1 Le2rer5 $15 ESemantic cuisineF5 <ournal of #inguistics, )5 '?-))5 %?A?1
%%1 :la# In#o5 (ord-formation in *nglish5 Cambrid#e +e6tboo<s in Lin#uistics5 Cambrid#e3
Cambrid#e Universit7 :ress5 &SS&1
%&1 :la# In#o5 1orphological :roductivity1 )tructural 5onstraints in *nglish .erivation5
9erlin3 -outon de ;ru7ter5 %???1
%'1 Saeed Q15 )emantics5 9lac<4ell :ublis2ers5 &SS'1
%(1 Lip<a Leon2ard5 &SS&5 *nglish #eicology+ leical structure, !ord semantics and !ord
formation5 +Wbin#en3 *arr1
%)1 Qac<son @o4ard ^ "tienne X_ $mvela &SS&5 *nglish leicology+ leical structure, !ord
)emantics = !ord-formation. 'n -ntroduction to 1odern *nglish #eicology, London3
Cassell1
41