Breathing In

By Sam Edwards


4A Independent Research
Mrs. Alison Graves
June 9, 2014

BREATHING IN

2

BREATHING IN
By Sam Edwards
Introduction
When the earth was first formed billions of years ago, the air was literally unbreathable. Although
it might be difficult to describe the feeling of breathing with no oxygen in those prehistoric times, I find
the most analogous situation today to be drowning. Drowning, that is, in toxins and heavy gasses.
I find Virginia Beach to be a rather clean city as far as air quality goes. The beach rings of a salty
air current, and even the city doesnt cloud with exhaust as some might across the world. Probably the
worst experience Ive had with poor air quality dates back to a possible carbon monoxide leak at my
house. This year, one of the detectors in my room suddenly went off. This was especially dangerous
seeing as how my room was positioned near filtration systems and whatnot in the attic next to it and the
garage below. I warned the family. My parents tested the detector with mixed results, indicating that it
was possible that the alarm had been a response to a malfunction. Extensive examination by
professionals again proved inconclusive, although they assured that if there had been a prior issue with
the air conditioning units and ventilation then it had been fixed.
What if an issue like this was to happen on a much larger scale, such as a city or country? I know
people who would say that industry regulations are in place to stop atmospheric catastrophes, but that
doesnt help if the necessary people arent paying attention or are looking in the wrong direction. What
are the modern challenges of air pollution and how is something like this able to act as a malevolent force
for change?
What I Already Know, Assume and Imagine
My experience with air quality thins as the years go back. Ive had run-ins with smoking ovens,
wood-burning fires, and even the noxious odors released by the waste treatment facility near Ocean Lakes

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High School after hazy rains. Never have I felt the real pain of unsafe atmospheres- but I knew that other
people had. Offhand, I picked up that some places really struggled with smog and excess aerobic
pollution. I learned from class about green-house gases ruining ecosystems and destroying ozone. In
essence, I knew air wasnt just the solution of gasses that living organisms need, and that it was filled
with tiny particles, most of which are absolutely invisible. Much of the stuff released into the air by
humans is considered dangerous and unhealthy, or so it had appeared through intermittent climate updates
on the news.
I wanted to know what exactly was wrong with the air quality of the world, and how wrong it
really was. In my mind, atmospheric pollution placed dramatically lower than other kinds of
environmental degradation. What exactly is considered atmospheric pollution, and more importantly, why
does atmospheric pollution matter (if it in fact does matter at all)? My answers were about to veer far
from my expectations.
The Search
The research that helped me derive a thesis about my topic took about one month. I began a
search to find some introductory terms to use as a glossary to help me better understand air quality and
pollution from a scientific standpoint. A quick google searches provided me with low-level vocabulary I
found inadequate for the lexicon I was forming. I tore the descriptions of the Earths atmospheric layers
off of the NASA website, although this proved to be very un-helpful in my research later. I struck
figurative gold when passing along the ARB Glossary of Air Pollutant Terms. This resulted in me being a
more prepared researcher ready to engage with a professional.
After the initial exploration concluded, I began nervously searching for an individual to interview
who might be able to help explain pollutant phenomena or unanswered questions that I had been left with
at the end of my research. I briefly explored local colleges for experts, but found no practical applicant.

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Instead I turned my gaze to government websites. I was quick to spot the portion of the state government
that dealt with air quality concerns.
I clicked a link to a PDF that showed me a list of staff included in the 2013 Virginia State
Advisory Board for the government on all things air quality. I was hesitant to choose one out of many, but
I at last determined Mr. Michael F Kiss to be a fitting interviewee for the research project. Mr. Kiss is the
Director of the Office of Air Quality Assessment, Air Quality Division, Department of Environmental
Quality.
I developed my proposal under the guidelines established and formulated a letter which went
under major revisions requesting an interview with Michael Kiss. I put the letter on hold, so to speak, as
I began formulating sub-questions centered around my theme.
What cities, countries and continents experience great air pollution, and how have citizens been
effected by these changes?
When researching my first sub-question, I tried browsing through databases and Google scholar
for articles about air pollution that might lead me forward. When I found that this got me nowhere, I
searched for sources that might give me accurate and useful information on the topics that I was
researching. The epi.yale.edu website was able to help me greatly, as a lot of insightful facts that easily
pertained to my research could be found through the site. Instead of simply focusing in on the exact
question, I researched all info that could be useful. This took me to a couple of other good sources which
had more specific information, which I used in later questions.
What are the harmful aspects of specific pollutants?
Before researching my second sub-question, I strived to send my letter. I mailed the interview
request on the 27th, although this was later than I had previously intended, as I had been away that past
week. I was trying to catch up as far as research goes, and to do the research that day I decide to use a site

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from the World Health Organizations page on ambient air quality and health. I really had to use only this
one source, which I got from previous research that provided a lot of data that I needed.
What are governments doing to combat climate change on the global, Nation-wide, and local
scales?
When beginning my research for the third question, I approached with the idea that I would need
to examine government web pages in order to get the best primary sources for this sort of information. I
went to a website that contained links to government health related program web pages, which is where I
first learned about the Kyoto Protocol. From there, I went to the Kyoto Protocol webpage and then
directly to the government pages about United States Air Quality Regulation and then Virginia Air
Quality Regulation.
What is the modern situation concerning air quality and air pollution?
When approaching this question, my central plan was to browse recent news concerning global
air pollution. Any website would have to be scrutinized carefully to determine whether or not it was
biased in some way. I readily found a publication by WHO which I found not only to be a great source in
previous posts but a reliable one as well. After going on the World Health Organization page, I explored a
couple news outlets such as Time and The Guardian which told of recent events surrounding air quality.
These sources helped organize my thoughts for writing my ISearch Paper at an acceptable standard.
What I Discovered
Its difficult for Americans to imagine what intolerable air pollution feels like. Worldwide, we
place about 38th out of 178 countries monitored for air quality
1
. The worst and lowest ranked countries
in the world are located in Southern Asia, such as Bangladesh, Nepal, China, Pakistan, India and Laos.
These rankings are based off of several targets for standard or quality air, including interior and exterior
environments. For household air quality, The Environmental Performance Index measures the distance

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from established targets, such as 0 indoor solid fuel usages (i.e. firewood). Outdoor air pollution targets
are established in the contexts of fine particulate matter (PM
2.5
) in micrograms per cubic meter (g/m
3
).
The first target for outdoor pollution is the healthy quantity of 10 g/m
3
for Average Exposure to PM
2.5

and the second is an average of 0% of the population exposed to particulate densities exceeding the
healthy 10 g/m
3
.
Systems today are set to monitor substantial changes in air quality such as the one described
above for safety reasons. Poor air quality is known to cause stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, chronic
and acute respitory diseases, and asthma
2
.
Particulate Matter (PM) includes components such as sulfates, nitrates, ammonia, sodium
chloride, black carbon, mineral dust and water. Fine particulate matter is measured for several reasons.
Particulate Matter affects more people than any other pollutant. Concerning health, suspended particles
can contribute to acute lower respiratory infections and other diseases such as cancer
1
. They are known to
penetrate blood and human lung tissue, leading to higher incidences of cardiovascular and lung disease.
Most countries currently monitor and report coarse particulate pollution, or PM
10
(particles between 2.5
and 10 microns in diameter). However, fine particulates or PM
2.5
(2.5 microns and smaller) lodge deep in
lung tissue and are far more dangerous to health than coarser particulates.
The primary causes for fine particulate matter indoors rests generally with cooking. Cooking
using solid fuels over open fires or in basic stoves releases daily pollutant concentrations that are
analogous to second-hand smoke exposure in many countries.
Factory machines have historically held blame for airborne toxins. Solid fuel combustion is
currently associated with increased mortality from pneumonia and other acute lower respiratory diseases
among children due to fine particulate matter. Among adults it is connected to increased mortality from
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and, where coal is used, lung cancer.

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But not all ambient pollutants are solid particles. Most exist as gases, and can be just as deadly.
Ozone (O
3
), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO
2
) and Sulfur Dioxide (SO
2
) are all considered pollutants by the World
Health Organization
2
.
Ozone at ground layer is closely related with the components of photochemical smog, which is
formed when light reacts with industrial atmospheric waste products such as Nitrogen Oxides. Ozone
Pollution occurs most often in the summer. It has been linked to increased deaths in Europe and around
the world, as it may trigger breathing problems, asthma, lung disease, and poor lung function.
Nitrogen Dioxide mostly comes from industrial sources and combustion on ships, from cars, and
from heating and power generation. NO
2
can cause effects similar to bronchitis in asthmatic children who
are exposed to the pollutant for long periods of time, and poor lung function has been associated with the
gas. In recent news, actions by the European Union have led to a higher nitrogen dioxide levels for
London
3
. In fact, they've broken the Beijing rates in this field.
Sulfur Dioxide is believed to have adverse health effects at low levels, yet the degree, nature, and
amount of SO
2
is still uncertain
2
. Sulfur Dioxide is most commonly released into the atmosphere after
burning fossil fuels that contain the colorless and odored gas. Contact with the gas is often considered
serious and very harmful. Effects include irritation in the eyes, coughing, mucus secretion, inflammation
of adverse symptoms of asthma or bronchitis, increased infection rate, and higher mortality for those with
cardiac disease. SO
2
also can form acid rain, a leading component in deforestation.
The modern implications for these conditions appear most closely examined in China. Chinese smog is
believed to be inhibiting plant growth and development, as indicated by experiments testing whether or
not air pollutants adhere to greenhouse surfaces, cutting out light needed for photosynthesis
4
. These
developments are an example of harsh conditions spreading to rural areas from cities. Lately, China was
forced to decommission 6 million old cars in an effort to relieve pollution levels in Beijing
5
. Rapid

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economic development is seen as the largest threat to Chinese well-being currently, and they have
maintained that suppression of smog is the focus of policy.
This is by far not the first political action taken against degenerating air quality. The United
Nations previously launched the Kyoto Protocol, which aims to reduce global air pollution emissions by
setting global targets for developed nations, which the protocol states are primarily responsible for the
majority of emissions
6
. The protocol was established back in 2005 as an adaptation of a Japanese
initiative formed in 1997. The Protocol aims to restrict emissions through complicated strategies invented
by the United Nations such as International Emissions Trading, Clean Development Mechanism, and
Joint Implementation. These three are aimed at national governments in an effort to foster more clean-air
policies.
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency uses the Clean Air Act to administer
policy that will help limit air pollution in the United States
7
. Some of the things that the EPA does under
the Clean Air Act are
-Monitors breaking scientific developments in the fields of air quality in relation to health
-Sets goals for the levels of common air pollutants
-Cooperates with state governments to administer programs that will help the country meet the
goals set forth
-Issues federal emission standards for industrial machinery and motor vehicles
-develops policy that will limit sulfur content in fuels used in vehicles
-and more
Virginia's Department of Environmental Quality is in charge of air quality regulation and is
designed to issue programs to help protect and enhance public health and the environment by regulating

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current and future sources of air pollution
8
. Responsibilities include air monitoring, air quality plans and
assessments, air quality forecasting, assistance to small business, public notification, and legal action (and
more).
The World Health Organization published a release in May that cited many cities that have
established air quality monitoring stations have failed to reach previously established targets. These
stations are present in 1600 cities across 91 countries. WHO has stated that only 12% of all cities reach
the qualifications set by the organization for healthy air quality and roughly half of the global urban
population has been exposed to air pollution rates 2.5 times higher than deemed safe. Overall, air
pollution is increasing. Reasons for the worsening include "reliance on fossil fuels such as coal fired
power plants, dependence on private transport motor vehicles, inefficient use of energy in buildings, and
the use of biomass for cooking and heating."
Some cities have improved however through establishment of clean air policies
2
. The most
successful efforts have been functions that interact with industry, transport, urban planning, power
generation and waste disposal. For example, laws that encourage the use of clean technologies help limit
smokestack emissions in heavily industrialized cities. For wastes produced by manufacturing that are not
directly released into the atmosphere, different strategies must be used. The ideal situation for disposal of
unwanted material rests on using anaerobic waste digestion methods (where microorganisms break down
biodegradable substances without oxygen
9
) to create methane
2
. This system is viewed as beneficial
because of how the biogas product can be captured and combusted for electricity and heat generation.
This is viewed as cheap, feasible, and overall environmentally friendly. When solid waste cannot be
destroyed in such a way, the highest standards for controlled disposal are recommended.
The largest concern with urban transport is in the increasing volume of personal means of
transportation and the presence of heavy duty diesel vehicles on roadways. Most governments are trying
to phase out inefficiency in legal motorcars by shifting the market to favor rapid public transit, walking

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and cycling networks, low emission systems, and fuels with reduced sulfur content. One theory dictates
that in order for cities to improve efficiency, construction needs to be compact and economical.
The World Health Organization also advocates safe renewable energy usage. Although this is
especially difficult to integrate into an economic system based so heavily on fossil fuels, the impacts of
such resources have been well reviewed and found to be viable for world reliance.
The modern situation for air quality and pollution may be difficult to describe. Most evidence
indicates things getting worse throughout the world and especially in certain parts of Asia. Although
advocates are pushing for reformative action, it is often too much conceptualization and not enough
practice. It still remains difficult to advance the air quality when businesses and governments arent
comfortable modifying their position and putting themselves in danger. This is especially worrisome
mostly because air pollution is noticeably deadly not due to immediate disease or catastrophe, but because
of its totality and mystery. How much Sulfur Dioxide is in the air you breathing right now? Do you or
your family live in a region that experiences high PM
2.5
levels on windy days? These questions are
universal, and are a widespread part of the modern human condition, thus separating air pollution from
almost any other type in the world.
What Next?
My research has led me down an exciting path where I am allowed to look at a major issue not
normally prioritized in western culture. I found the information interesting enough. My biggest surprise,
however, was how easy research was. I never really crossed by an article that required an over-extensive
amount of background knowledge to understand. At most, I might have to review unfamiliar terms across
other websites, but besides that, the pages were fairly palpable. This led me to a revelation. The websites I
visited wanted me to learn and understand, or rather wanted the public to understand. Education is a key
requirement for successful advocacy. Without an informed constituency, most representatives remain
open for influence by businesses and other organizations.

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In the future I could possibly see more specific points for research, such as how specifically
harmful gasses lead to respiratory diseases in adults and children. This would be a more medical
inquisition, and thus be a whole new ball of yarn so to speak. I would also be interested in urban
planning, which was discussed briefly in context with energy efficiency. I might also want to understand
how the production of ambient chemicals, such as Nitrogen Dioxide, transpires. The political structure of
world health groups often popped up during research. It would be interesting to find out who the key
workers really were, and what the motivations for each are (besides general welfare). Lastly, I could look
into the history of different kinds of pollution. This topic would be an exploration into how different
sources of waste tended to appear and disappear as time progressed. It is my hope that I will find time to
look into some of these questions, even if it doesnt result in a blog post.
Cited References
1. Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy, Yale University . 2014. The 2014 Environmental
Performance Index [Internet]. New Haven(CT):Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy; [2014,
cited 2014 May 27] . Available from: http://epi.yale.edu/epi/issue-ranking/air-quality
2. WHO Media Center . 2014. Ambient (outdoor) air quality and health [Internet]. Geneva (Switzerland):
World Health Organization; [2014 Mar, cited 2014 May 27] . Available from:
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/
3. Liljas, Per . 2014. London is a Worse Nitrogen Dioxide Polluter than Beijing. Time [Internet]. [2014
May 28, cited 2014 June 3] . Available from: http://time.com/122283/china-pollution-london-beijing-
nitrogen-dioxide-no2/
4. Chen, Stephen . 2014. Agriculture feels the choke as China smog starts to foster disastrous conditions.
South China Morning Post [Internet]. [2014 Feb 26, cited 2014 May 27]. Available from:

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http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1434700/china-smog-threatens-agriculture-nuclear-fallout-
conditions-warn
5. Duggan, Jennifer . 2014. China to scrap millions of cars to ease pollution. The Guardian [Internet].
[2014 May 27, cited 2014 Jul 3]. Available from: http://www.theguardian.com/environment/chinas-
choice/2014/may/27/china-scrap-millions-cars-reduce-air-pollution
6. Kyoto Protocol [Internet]. 2014. Doha(Qatar):United Nations Framework Convention of Climate
Change; [2014, cited 2014 Jun 2] . Available from: http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php
7. Air Pollution: Current and Future Challenges [Internet]. 2012 Jul 16. Washington(DC):United States
Environmental Protection Agency; [2013 May 11, cited 2014 Jun 2] . Available from:
http://www.epa.gov/air/oarmail2.html
8. Air [Internet]. Richmand(VA):Virginia Department of Environmental Quality; cited 2014 Jun 2 .
Available from: http://www.deq.virginia.gov/Programs/Air.aspx
9. What is Anaerobic Digestion? [Internet]. Washigton(DC):American Biogas Council; [2014 Jun 3, cited
2014 Jun 6] . Available from: https://www.americanbiogascouncil.org/biogas_what.asp