Two Dogmas of Empiricism

Willard Van Orman Quine

Originally published in The Philosophical Review 60 (1951): 20-4! "eprin#ed in
W!V!O! Quine$ From a Logical Point of View (%ar&ard 'ni&ersi#y (ress$ 195) se*+nd$
re&ised$ edi#i+n 1961)$ ,i#h #he -+ll+,ing al#era#i+ns: ./he &ersi+n prin#ed here di&erges
-r+m #he +riginal in -++#n+#es and in +#her min+r respe*#s: 001 and 6 ha&e been abridged
,here #hey en*r+a*h +n #he pre*eding essay 1.On Wha# /here 2s.3$ and 00-4 ha&e been
e4panded a# p+in#s!.
54*ep# -+r min+r *hanges$ addi#i+ns and dele#i+ns are indi*a#ed in in#erspersed
#ables! 2 ,ish #+ #han6 /+rs#ein 7indaas -+r bringing #+ my a##en#i+n #he need #+
dis#inguish m+re *are-ully #he 1951 and #he 1961 &ersi+ns! 5ndn+#es ending ,i#h an .a.
are in #he 1951 &ersi+n) .b. in #he 1961 &ersi+n! (8ndre, 9hru*6y$ :eb! 15$ 2000)

;+dern empiri*ism has been *+ndi#i+ned in large par# by #,+ d+gmas! One is a
belie- in s+me -undamen#al *lea&age be#,een #ru#hs ,hi*h are analytic$ +r gr+unded in
meanings independen#ly +- ma##ers +- -a*# and #ru#hs ,hi*h are synthetic$ +r gr+unded
in -a*#! /he +#her d+gma is reductionism: #he belie- #ha# ea*h meaning-ul s#a#emen# is
e<ui&alen# #+ s+me l+gi*al *+ns#ru*# up+n #erms ,hi*h re-er #+ immedia#e e4perien*e!
=+#h d+gmas$ 2 shall argue$ are ill -+unded! One e--e*# +- aband+ning #hem is$ as ,e
shall see$ a blurring +- #he supp+sed b+undary be#,een spe*ula#i&e me#aphysi*s and
na#ural s*ien*e! 8n+#her e--e*# is a shi-# #+,ard pragma#ism!
1. BACKGROUND FOR ANALYTICITY
>an#?s *lea&age be#,een analy#i* and syn#he#i* #ru#hs ,as -+reshad+,ed in %ume?s
dis#in*#i+n be#,een rela#i+ns +- ideas and ma##ers +- -a*#$ and in 7eibni@?s dis#in*#i+n
be#,een #ru#hs +- reas+n and #ru#hs +- -a*#! 7eibni@ sp+6e +- #he #ru#hs +- reas+n as #rue
in all p+ssible ,+rlds! (i*#ures<ueness aside$ #his is #+ say #ha# #he #ru#hs +- reas+n are
#h+se ,hi*h *+uld n+# p+ssibly be -alse! 2n #he same &ein ,e hear analy#i* s#a#emen#s
de-ined as s#a#emen#s ,h+se denials are sel--*+n#radi*#+ry! =u# #his de-ini#i+n has small
e4plana#+ry &alue) -+r #he n+#i+n +- sel--*+n#radi*#+riness$ in #he <ui#e br+ad sense
needed -+r #his de-ini#i+n +- analy#i*i#y$ s#ands in e4a*#ly #he same need +- *lari-i*a#i+n
as d+es #he n+#i+n +- analy#i*i#y i#sel-!
1a
/he #,+ n+#i+ns are #he #,+ sides +- a single
dubi+us *+in!
>an# *+n*ei&ed +- an analy#i* s#a#emen# as +ne #ha# a##ribu#es #+ i#s subAe*# n+ m+re
#han is already *+n*ep#ually *+n#ained in #he subAe*#! /his -+rmula#i+n has #,+
sh+r#*+mings: i# limi#s i#sel- #+ s#a#emen#s +- subAe*#-predi*a#e -+rm$ and i# appeals #+ a
n+#i+n +- *+n#ainmen# ,hi*h is le-# a# a me#aph+ri*al le&el! =u# >an#?s in#en#$ e&iden#
m+re -r+m #he use he ma6es +- #he n+#i+n +- analy#i*i#y #han -r+m his de-ini#i+n +- i#$
*an be res#a#ed #hus: a s#a#emen# is analy#i* ,hen i# is #rue by &ir#ue +- meanings and
independen#ly +- -a*#! (ursuing #his line$ le# us e4amine #he *+n*ep# +- meaning ,hi*h
is presupp+sed!
(1951)
We mus# +bser&e #+ begin ,i#h #ha#
meaning is n+# #+ be iden#i-ied ,i#h
naming +r re-eren*e! 9+nsider :rege?s
e4ample +- ?5&ening B#ar? and ?;+rning
B#ar!? 'nders#++d n+# merely as a
re*urren# e&ening appari#i+n bu# as a
b+dy$ #he 5&ening B#ar is #he plane#
Venus$ and #he ;+rning B#ar is #he same!
(1961)
;eaning$ le# us remember$ is n+# #+ be
iden#i-ied ,i#h naming!
1b
:rege?s e4ample
+- ?5&ening B#ar? and ?;+rning B#ar? and
"ussell?s +- ?B*+##? and ?#he au#h+r +-
Waverly?$ illus#ra#e #ha# #erms *an name
#he same #hing bu# di--er in meaning! /he
dis#in*#i+n be#,een meaning and naming
is n+ less imp+r#an# a# #he le&el +- abs#ra*#
1 1 1 1 1
/he #,+ singular #erms name #he same
#hing! =u# #he meanings mus# be #rea#ed
as dis#in*#$ sin*e #he iden#i#y ?5&ening
B#ar C ;+rning B#ar? is a s#a#emen# +- -a*#
es#ablished by as#r+n+mi*al +bser&a#i+n!
2- ?5&ening B#ar? and ?;+rning B#ar? ,ere
ali6e in meaning$ #he iden#i#y ?5&ening
B#ar C ;+rning B#ar? ,+uld be analy#i*!
8gain #here is "ussell?s e4ample +-
?B*+##? and ?#he au#h+r +- Wa&erly!?
8nalysis +- #he meanings +- ,+rds ,as
by n+ means su--i*ien# #+ re&eal #+
De+rge 2V #ha# #he pers+n named by
#hese #,+ singular #erms ,as +ne and #he
same!
/he dis#in*#i+n be#,een meaning and
naming is n+ less imp+r#an# a# #he le&el +-
abs#ra*# #erms! /he #erms ?9? and ?#he
number +- plane#s? name +ne and #he
same abs#ra*# en#i#y bu# presumably mus#
be regarded as unli6e in meaning) -+r
as#r+n+mi*al +bser&a#i+n ,as needed$
and n+# mere re-le*#i+n +n meanings$ #+
de#ermine #he sameness +- #he en#i#y in
<ues#i+n!
/hus -ar ,e ha&e been *+nsidering
singular #erms!
#erms! /he #erms ?9? and ?#he number +- #he
plane#s? name +ne and #he same abs#ra*#
en#i#y bu# presumably mus# be regarded as
unli6e in meaning) -+r as#r+n+mi*al
+bser&a#i+n ,as needed$ and n+# mere
re-le*#i+n +n meanings$ #+ de#ermine #he
sameness +- #he en#i#y in <ues#i+n!
/he ab+&e e4amples *+nsis# +-
singular #erms$ *+n*re#e and abs#ra*#!
Wi#h general #erms$ +r predi*a#es$ #he si#ua#i+n is s+me,ha# di--eren# bu# parallel!
Whereas a singular #erm purp+r#s #+ name an en#i#y$ abs#ra*# +r *+n*re#e$ a general #erm
d+es n+#) bu# a general #erm is true of an en#i#y$ +r +- ea*h +- many$ +r +- n+ne!
2b
/he
*lass +- all en#i#ies +- ,hi*h a general #erm is #rue is *alled #he extension +- #he #erm!
E+, paralleling #he *+n#ras# be#,een #he meaning +- a singular #erm and #he en#i#y
named$ ,e mus# dis#inguish e<ually be#,een #he meaning +- a general #erm and i#s
e4#ensi+n! /he general #erms ?*rea#ure ,i#h a hear#? and ?*rea#ure ,i#h a 6idney$? e!g!$ are
perhaps ali6e in e4#ensi+n bu# unli6e in meaning!
9+n-usi+n +- meaning ,i#h e4#ensi+n$ in #he *ase +- general #erms$ is less *+mm+n
#han *+n-usi+n +- meaning ,i#h naming in #he *ase +- singular #erms! 2# is indeed a
*+mm+npla*e in phil+s+phy #+ +pp+se in#en#i+n (+r meaning) #+ e4#ensi+n$ +r$ in a
&arian# &+*abulary$ *+nn+#a#i+n #+ den+#a#i+n!
/he 8ris#+#elian n+#i+n +- essen*e ,as #he -+rerunner$ n+ d+ub#$ +- #he m+dern
n+#i+n +- in#ensi+n +r meaning! :+r 8ris#+#le i# ,as essen#ial in men #+ be ra#i+nal$
a**iden#al #+ be #,+-legged! =u# #here is an imp+r#an# di--eren*e be#,een #his a##i#ude
and #he d+*#rine +- meaning! :r+m #he la##er p+in# +- &ie, i# may indeed be *+n*eded (i-
+nly -+r #he sa6e +- argumen#) #ha# ra#i+nali#y is in&+l&ed in #he meaning +- #he ,+rd
?man? ,hile #,+-leggedness is n+#) bu# #,+-leggedness may a# #he same #ime be &ie,ed
as in&+l&ed in #he meaning +- ?biped? ,hile ra#i+nali#y is n+#! /hus -r+m #he p+in# +-
&ie, +- #he d+*#rine +- meaning i# ma6es n+ sense #+ say +- #he a*#ual indi&idual$ ,h+ is
a# +n*e a man and a biped$ #ha# his ra#i+nali#y is essen#ial and his #,+-leggedness
a**iden#al +r &i*e &ersa! /hings had essen*es$ -+r 8ris#+#le$ bu# +nly linguis#i* -+rms
2 2 2 2 2
ha&e meanings! ;eaning is ,ha# essen*e be*+mes ,hen i# is di&+r*ed -r+m #he +bAe*#
+- re-eren*e and ,edded #+ #he ,+rd!
:+r #he #he+ry +- meaning #he m+s# *+nspi*u+us <ues#i+n is as #+ #he na#ure +- i#s
+bAe*#s: ,ha# s+r# +- #hings are meaningsF
(1951)
/hey are e&iden#ly in#ended #+ be ideas$
s+meh+, -- men#al ideas -+r s+me
seman#i*is#s$ (la#+ni* ideas -+r +#hers!
ObAe*#s +- ei#her s+r# are s+ elusi&e$ n+#
#+ say deba#able$ #ha# #here seems li##le
h+pe +- ere*#ing a -rui#-ul s*ien*e ab+u#
#hem! 2# is n+# e&en *lear$ gran#ed
meanings$ ,hen ,e ha&e #,+ and ,hen
,e ha&e +ne) i# is n+# *lear ,hen
linguis#i* -+rms sh+uld be regarded as
synonymous$ +r ali6e in meaning$ and
,hen #hey sh+uld n+#! 2- a s#andard +-
syn+nymy sh+uld be arri&ed a#$ ,e may
reas+nably e4pe*# #ha# #he appeal #+
meanings as en#i#ies ,ill n+# ha&e played
a &ery use-ul par# in #he en#erprise!

8 -el# need -+r mean# en#i#ies may deri&e -r+m an earlier -ailure #+ appre*ia#e #ha#
meaning and re-eren*e are dis#in*#! On*e #he #he+ry +- meaning is sharply separa#ed
-r+m #he #he+ry +- re-eren*e$ i# is a sh+r# s#ep #+ re*+gni@ing as #he business +- #he
#he+ry +- meaning simply #he syn+nymy +- linguis#i* -+rms and #he analy#i*i#y +-
s#a#emen#s) meanings #hemsel&es$ as +bs*ure in#ermediary en#i#ies$ may ,ell be
aband+ned!
b

(1951)
/he des*rip#i+n +- analy#i*i#y as #ru#h
by &ir#ue +- meanings s#ar#ed us +-- in
pursui# +- a *+n*ep# +- meaning! =u# n+,
,e ha&e aband+ned #he #h+ugh# +- any
spe*ial realm +- en#i#ies *alled meanings!
B+ #he pr+blem +- analy#i*i#y *+n-r+n#s
us ane,!
(1961)
/he pr+blem +- analy#i*i#y *+n-r+n#s
us ane,!
B#a#emen#s ,hi*h are analy#i* by general phil+s+phi*al a**laim are n+#$ indeed$ -ar
#+ see6! /hey -all in#+ #,+ *lasses! /h+se +- #he -irs# *lass$ ,hi*h may be *alled
l+gi*ally #rue$ are #ypi-ied by:
(1) E+ unmarried man is married!
/he rele&an# -ea#ure +- #his e4ample is #ha# i# is n+# merely #rue as i# s#ands$ bu# remains
#rue under any and all rein#erpre#a#i+ns +- ?man? and ?married!? 2- ,e supp+se a pri+r
in&en#+ry +- logical par#i*les$ *+mprising ?n+$? ?un-? ?i-$? ?#hen$? ?and$? e#*!$ #hen in general
a l+gi*al #ru#h is a s#a#emen# ,hi*h is #rue and remains #rue under all rein#erpre#a#i+ns +-
i#s *+mp+nen#s +#her #han #he l+gi*al par#i*les!
=u# #here is als+ a se*+nd *lass +- analy#i* s#a#emen#s$ #ypi-ied by:
(2) E+ ba*hel+r is married!
/he *hara*#eris#i* +- su*h a s#a#emen# is #ha# i# *an be #urned in#+ a l+gi*al #ru#h by
pu##ing syn+nyms -+r syn+nyms) #hus (2) *an be #urned in#+ (1) by pu##ing ?unmarried
man? -+r i#s syn+nym ?ba*hel+r!? We s#ill la*6 a pr+per *hara*#eri@a#i+n +- #his se*+nd

*lass +- analy#i* s#a#emen#s$ and #here,i#h +- analy#i*i#y generally$ inasmu*h as ,e ha&e
had in #he ab+&e des*rip#i+n #+ lean +n a n+#i+n +- ?syn+nymy? ,hi*h is n+ less in need
+- *lari-i*a#i+n #han analy#i*i#y i#sel-!
2n re*en# years 9arnap has #ended #+ e4plain analy#i*i#y by appeal #+ ,ha# he *alls
s#a#e-des*rip#i+ns!
2a

4b
8 s#a#e-des*rip#i+n is any e4haus#i&e assignmen# +- #ru#h &alues #+
#he a#+mi*$ +r n+n*+mp+und$ s#a#emen#s +- #he language! 8ll +#her s#a#emen#s +- #he
language are$ 9arnap assumes$ buil# up +- #heir *+mp+nen# *lauses by means +- #he
-amiliar l+gi*al de&i*es$ in su*h a ,ay #ha# #he #ru#h &alue +- any *+mple4 s#a#emen# is
-i4ed -+r ea*h s#a#e-des*rip#i+n by spe*i-iable l+gi*al la,s! 8 s#a#emen# is #hen
e4plained as analy#i* ,hen i# *+mes +u# #rue under e&ery s#a#e-des*rip#i+n! /his a**+un#
is an adap#a#i+n +- 7eibni@?s .#rue in all p+ssible ,+rlds!. =u# n+#e #ha# #his &ersi+n +-
analy#i*i#y ser&es i#s purp+se +nly i- #he a#+mi* s#a#emen#s +- #he language are$ unli6e
?G+hn is a ba*hel+r? and ?G+hn is married$? mu#ually independen#! O#her,ise #here ,+uld
be a s#a#e-des*rip#i+n ,hi*h assigned #ru#h #+ ?G+hn is a ba*hel+r? and -alsi#y #+ ?G+hn is
married$? and *+nse<uen#ly ?8ll ba*hel+rs are married? ,+uld #urn +u# syn#he#i* ra#her
#han analy#i* under #he pr+p+sed *ri#eri+n! /hus #he *ri#eri+n +- analy#i*i#y in #erms +-
s#a#e-des*rip#i+ns ser&es +nly -+r languages de&+id +- e4#ral+gi*al syn+nym-pairs$ su*h
as ?ba*hel+r? and ?unmarried man?: syn+nym-pairs +- #he #ype ,hi*h gi&e rise #+ #he
.se*+nd *lass. +- analy#i* s#a#emen#s! /he *ri#eri+n in #erms +- s#a#e-des*rip#i+ns is a
re*+ns#ru*#i+n a# bes# +- l+gi*al #ru#h!
2 d+ n+# mean #+ sugges# #ha# 9arnap is under any illusi+ns +n #his p+in#! %is
simpli-ied m+del language ,i#h i#s s#a#e-des*rip#i+ns is aimed primarily n+# a# #he
general pr+blem +- analy#i*i#y bu# a# an+#her purp+se$ #he *lari-i*a#i+n +- pr+babili#y
and indu*#i+n! Our pr+blem$ h+,e&er$ is analy#i*i#y) and here #he maA+r di--i*ul#y lies
n+# in #he -irs# *lass +- analy#i* s#a#emen#s$ #he l+gi*al #ru#hs$ bu# ra#her in #he se*+nd
*lass$ ,hi*h depends +n #he n+#i+n +- syn+nymy!
II. DEFINITION
/here are #h+se ,h+ -ind i# s++#hing #+ say #ha# #he analy#i* s#a#emen#s +- #he se*+nd
*lass redu*e #+ #h+se +- #he -irs# *lass$ #he l+gi*al #ru#hs$ by definition) ?ba*hel+r$? -+r
e4ample$ is defined as ?unmarried man!? =u# h+, d+ ,e -ind #ha# ?ba*hel+r? is de-ined as
?unmarried man?F Wh+ de-ined i# #hus$ and ,henF 8re ,e #+ appeal #+ #he neares#
di*#i+nary$ and a**ep# #he le4i*+grapher?s -+rmula#i+n as la,F 9learly #his ,+uld be #+
pu# #he *ar# be-+re #he h+rse! /he le4i*+grapher is an empiri*al s*ien#is#$ ,h+se business
is #he re*+rding +- an#e*eden# -a*#s) and i- he gl+sses ?ba*hel+r? as ?unmarried man? i# is
be*ause +- his belie- #ha# #here is a rela#i+n +- syn+nymy be#,een #hese -+rms$ impli*i#
in general +r pre-erred usage pri+r #+ his +,n ,+r6! /he n+#i+n +- syn+nymy
presupp+sed here has s#ill #+ be *lari-ied$ presumably in #erms rela#ing #+ linguis#i*
beha&i+r! 9er#ainly #he .de-ini#i+n. ,hi*h is #he le4i*+grapher?s rep+r# +- an +bser&ed
syn+nymy *ann+# be #a6en as #he gr+und +- #he syn+nymy!
He-ini#i+n is n+#$ indeed$ an a*#i&i#y e4*lusi&ely +- phil+l+gis#s! (hil+s+phers and
s*ien#is#s -re<uen#ly ha&e +**asi+ns #+ .de-ine. a re*+ndi#e #erm by paraphrasing i# in#+
#erms +- a m+re -amiliar &+*abulary! =u# +rdinarily su*h a de-ini#i+n$ li6e #he
phil+l+gis#?s$ is pure le4i*+graphy$ a--irming a rela#i+nship +- syn+nymy an#e*eden# #+
#he e4p+si#i+n in hand!
Gus# ,ha# i# means #+ a--irm syn+nymy$ Aus# ,ha# #he in#er*+nne*#i+ns may be ,hi*h
are ne*essary and su--i*ien# in +rder #ha# #,+ linguis#i* -+rms be pr+perly des*ribable as
syn+nym+us$ is -ar -r+m *lear) bu#$ ,ha#e&er #hese in#er*+nne*#i+ns may be$ +rdinarily
#hey are gr+unded in usage! He-ini#i+ns rep+r#ing sele*#ed ins#an*es +- syn+nymy *+me
#hen as rep+r#s up+n usage!
4 4 4 4 4
/here is als+$ h+,e&er$ a &arian# #ype +- de-ini#i+nal a*#i&i#y ,hi*h d+es n+# limi#
i#sel- #+ #he rep+r#ing +- pre-e4is#ing syn+nymies! 2 ha&e in mind ,ha# 9arnap *alls
explication -- an a*#i&i#y #+ ,hi*h phil+s+phers are gi&en$ and s*ien#is#s als+ in #heir
m+re phil+s+phi*al m+men#s! 2n e4pli*a#i+n #he purp+se is n+# merely #+ paraphrase #he
de-iniendum in#+ an +u#righ# syn+nym$ bu# a*#ually #+ impr+&e up+n #he de-iniendum
by re-ining +r supplemen#ing i#s meaning! =u# e&en e4pli*a#i+n$ #h+ugh n+# merely
rep+r#ing a pre-e4is#ing syn+nymy be#,een de-iniendum and de-iniens$ d+es res#
ne&er#heless +n other pre-e4is#ing syn+nymies! /he ma##er may b* &ie,ed as -+ll+,s!
8ny ,+rd ,+r#h e4pli*a#ing has s+me *+n#e4#s ,hi*h$ as ,h+les$ are *lear and pre*ise
en+ugh #+ be use-ul) and #he purp+se +- e4pli*a#i+n is #+ preser&e #he usage +- #hese
-a&+red *+n#e4#s ,hile sharpening #he usage +- +#her *+n#e4#s! 2n +rder #ha# a gi&en
de-ini#i+n be sui#able -+r purp+ses +- e4pli*a#i+n$ #here-+re$ ,ha# is re<uired is n+# #ha#
#he de-iniendum in i#s an#e*eden# usage be syn+nym+us ,i#h #he de-iniens$ bu# Aus# #ha#
ea*h +- #hese -a&+red *+n#e4#s +- #he de-iniendum #a6en as a ,h+le in i#s an#e*eden#
usage$ be syn+nym+us ,i#h #he *+rresp+nding *+n#e4# +- #he de-iniens!
/,+ al#erna#i&e de-inien#ia may be e<ually appr+pria#e -+r #he purp+ses +- a gi&en
#as6 +- e4pli*a#i+n and ye# n+# be syn+nym+us ,i#h ea*h +#her) -+r #hey may ser&e
in#er*hangeably ,i#hin #he -a&+red *+n#e4#s bu# di&erge else,here! =y *lea&ing #+ +ne
+- #hese de-inien#ia ra#her #han #he +#her$ a de-ini#i+n +- e4pli*a#i&e 6ind genera#es$ by
-ia#$ a rela#i+nship +- syn+nymy be#,een de-iniendum and de-iniens ,hi*h did n+# h+ld
be-+re! =u# su*h a de-ini#i+n s#ill +,es i#s e4pli*a#i&e -un*#i+n$ as seen$ #+ pre-e4is#ing
syn+nymies!
/here d+es$ h+,e&er$ remain s#ill an e4#reme s+r# +- de-ini#i+n ,hi*h d+es n+# har6
ba*6 #+ pri+r syn+nymies a# all) namely$ #he e4pli*i#ly *+n&en#i+nal in#r+du*#i+n +-
n+&el n+#a#i+ns -+r purp+ses +- sheer abbre&ia#i+n! %ere #he de-iniendum be*+mes
syn+nym+us ,i#h #he de-iniens simply be*ause i# has been *rea#ed e4pressly -+r #he
purp+se +- being syn+nym+us ,i#h #he de-iniens! %ere ,e ha&e a really #ransparen# *ase
+- syn+nymy *rea#ed by de-ini#i+n) ,+uld #ha# all spe*ies +- syn+nymy ,ere as
in#elligible! :+r #he res#$ de-ini#i+n res#s +n syn+nymy ra#her #han e4plaining i#!
/he ,+rd .de-ini#i+n. has *+me #+ ha&e a danger+usly reassuring s+und$ due n+
d+ub# #+ i#s -re<uen# +**urren*e in l+gi*al and ma#hema#i*al ,ri#ings! We shall d+ ,ell
#+ digress n+, in#+ a brie- appraisal +- #he r+le +- de-ini#i+n in -+rmal ,+r6!
2n l+gi*al and ma#hema#i*al sys#ems ei#her +- #,+ mu#ually an#ag+nis#i* #ypes +-
e*+n+my may be s#ri&en -+r$ and ea*h has i#s pe*uliar pra*#i*al u#ili#y! On #he +ne hand
,e may see6 e*+n+my +- pra*#i*al e4pressi+n: ease and bre&i#y in #he s#a#emen# +-
mul#i-ari+us rela#i+nships! /his s+r# +- e*+n+my *alls usually -+r dis#in*#i&e *+n*ise
n+#a#i+ns -+r a ,eal#h +- *+n*ep#s! Be*+nd$ h+,e&er$ and +pp+si#ely$ ,e may see6
e*+n+my in grammar and &+*abulary) ,e may #ry #+ -ind a minimum +- basi* *+n*ep#s
su*h #ha#$ +n*e a dis#in*#i&e n+#a#i+n has been appr+pria#ed #+ ea*h +- #hem$ i# be*+mes
p+ssible #+ e4press any desired -ur#her *+n*ep# by mere *+mbina#i+n and i#era#i+n +- +ur
basi* n+#a#i+ns! /his se*+nd s+r# +- e*+n+my is impra*#i*al in +ne ,ay$ sin*e a p+&er#y
in basi* idi+ms #ends #+ a ne*essary leng#hening +- dis*+urse! =u# i# is pra*#i*al in
an+#her ,ay: i# grea#ly simpli-ies #he+re#i*al dis*+urse about #he language$ #hr+ugh
minimi@ing #he #erms and #he -+rms +- *+ns#ru*#i+n ,herein #he language *+nsis#s!
=+#h s+r#s +- e*+n+my$ #h+ugh prima -a*ie in*+mpa#ible$ are &aluable in #heir
separa#e ,ays! /he *us#+m has *+nse<uen#ly arisen +- *+mbining b+#h s+r#s +- e*+n+my
by -+rging in e--e*# #,+ languages$ #he +ne a par# +- #he +#her! /he in*lusi&e language$
#h+ugh redundan# in grammar and &+*abulary$ is e*+n+mi*al in message leng#hs$ ,hile
#he par#$ *alled primitive notation$ is e*+n+mi*al in grammar and &+*abulary! Wh+le and
par# are *+rrela#ed by rules +- #ransla#i+n ,hereby ea*h idi+m n+# in primi#i&e n+#a#i+n
is e<ua#ed #+ s+me *+mple4 buil# up +- primi#i&e n+#a#i+n! /hese rules +- #ransla#i+n are
5 5 5 5 5
#he s+-*alled definitions ,hi*h appear in -+rmali@ed sys#ems! /hey are bes# &ie,ed n+#
as adAun*#s #+ +ne language bu# as *+rrela#i+ns be#,een #,+ languages$ #he +ne a par# +-
#he +#her!
=u# #hese *+rrela#i+ns are n+# arbi#rary! /hey are supp+sed #+ sh+, h+, #he
primi#i&e n+#a#i+ns *an a**+mplish all purp+ses$ sa&e bre&i#y and *+n&enien*e$ +- #he
redundan# language! %en*e #he de-iniendum and i#s de-iniens may be e4pe*#ed$ in ea*h
*ase$ #+ b* rela#ed in +ne +r an+#her +- #he #hree ,ays la#ely n+#ed! /he de-iniens may be
a -ai#h-ul paraphrase +- #he de-iniendum in#+ #he narr+,er n+#a#i+n$ preser&ing a dire*#
syn+nymy
5b
as +- an#e*eden# usage) +r #he de-iniens may$ in #he spiri# +- e4pli*a#i+n$
impr+&e up+n #he an#e*eden# usage +- #he de-iniendum) +r -inally$ #he de-iniendum may
be a ne,ly *rea#ed n+#a#i+n$ ne,ly end+,ed ,i#h meaning here and n+,!
2n -+rmal and in-+rmal ,+r6 ali6e$ #hus$ ,e -ind #ha# de-ini#i+n -- e4*ep# in #he
e4#reme *ase +- #he e4pli*i#ly *+n&en#i+nal in#r+du*#i+n +- ne, n+#a#i+n -- hinges +n
pri+r rela#i+nships +- syn+nymy! "e*+gni@ing #hen #ha# #he n+#a#i+n +- de-ini#i+n d+es
n+# h+ld #he 6ey #+ syn+nymy and analy#i*i#y$ le# us l++6 -ur#her in#+ syn+nymy and say
n+ m+re +- de-ini#i+n!
III. INTERCHANGEABILITY
8 na#ural sugges#i+n$ deser&ing *l+se e4amina#i+n$ is #ha# #he syn+nymy +- #,+
linguis#i* -+rms *+nsis#s simply in #heir in#er*hangeabili#y in all *+n#e4#s ,i#h+u#
*hange +- #ru#h &alue) in#er*hangeabili#y$ in 7eibni@?s phrase$ salva veritate!
5

6b
E+#e #ha#
syn+nyms s+ *+n*ei&ed need n+# e&en be -ree -r+m &agueness$ as l+ng as #he
&aguenesses ma#*h!
=u# i# is n+# <ui#e #rue #ha# #he syn+nyms ?ba*hel+r? and ?unmarried man? are
e&ery,here in#er*hangeable salva veritate! /ru#hs ,hi*h be*+me -alse under
subs#i#u#i+n +- ?unmarried man? -+r ?ba*hel+r? are easily *+ns#ru*#ed ,i#h help +-
?ba*hel+r +- ar#s? +r ?ba*hel+r?s bu##+ns!? 8ls+ ,i#h help +- <u+#a#i+n$ #hus:
?=a*hel+r? has less #han #en le##ers!
Bu*h *+un#erins#an*es *an$ h+,e&er$ perhaps be se# aside by #rea#ing #he phrases
?ba*hel+r +- ar#s? and ?ba*hel+r?s bu##+ns? and #he <u+#a#i+n .ba*hel+r. ea*h as a single
indi&isible ,+rd and #hen s#ipula#ing #ha# #he in#er*hangeabili#y salva veritate ,hi*h is
#+ be #he #+u*hs#+ne +- syn+nymy is n+# supp+sed #+ apply #+ -ragmen#ary +**urren*es
inside +- a ,+rd! /his a**+un# +- syn+nymy$ supp+sing i# a**ep#able +n +#her *+un#s$
has indeed #he dra,ba*6 +- appealing #+ a pri+r *+n*ep#i+n +- .,+rd. ,hi*h *an be
*+un#ed +n #+ presen# di--i*ul#ies +- -+rmula#i+n in i#s #urn! Ee&er#heless s+me pr+gress
migh# be *laimed in ha&ing redu*ed #he pr+blem +- syn+nymy #+ a pr+blem +-
,+rdh++d! 7e# us pursue #his line a bi#$ #a6ing .,+rd. -+r gran#ed!
/he <ues#i+n remains ,he#her in#er*hangeabili#y salva veritate (apar# -r+m
+**urren*es ,i#hin ,+rds) is a s#r+ng en+ugh *+ndi#i+n -+r syn+nymy$ +r ,he#her$ +n
#he *+n#rary$ s+me n+n-syn+nym+us e4pressi+ns migh# be #hus in#er*hangeable! E+, le#
us be *lear #ha# ,e are n+# *+n*erned here ,i#h syn+nymy in #he sense +- *+mple#e
iden#i#y in psy*h+l+gi*al ass+*ia#i+ns +r p+e#i* <uali#y) indeed n+ #,+ e4pressi+ns are
syn+nym+us in su*h a sense! We are *+n*erned +nly ,i#h ,ha# may be *alled cognitive
synonymy! Gus# ,ha# #his is *ann+# be said ,i#h+u# su**ess-ully -inishing #he presen#
s#udy) bu# ,e 6n+, s+me#hing ab+u# i# -r+m #he need ,hi*h ar+se -+r i# in *+nne*#i+n
,i#h analy#i*i#y in Be*#i+n 1! /he s+r# +- syn+nymy needed #here ,as merely su*h #ha#
any analy#i* s#a#emen# *+uld be #urned in#+ a l+gi*al #ru#h by pu##ing syn+nyms -+r
syn+nyms! /urning #he #ables and assuming analy#i*i#y$ indeed$ ,e *+uld e4plain
*+gni#i&e syn+nymy +- #erms as -+ll+,s (6eeping #+ #he -amiliar e4ample): #+ say #ha#
?ba*hel+r? and ?unmarried man? are *+gni#i&ely syn+nym+us is #+ say n+ m+re n+r less
#han #ha# #he s#a#emen#:
6 6 6 6 6
() 8ll and +nly ba*hel+rs are unmarried men
is analy#i*!
a

Ib

Wha# ,e need is an a**+un# +- *+gni#i&e syn+nymy n+# presupp+sing analy#i*i#y --
i- ,e are #+ e4plain analy#i*i#y *+n&ersely ,i#h help +- *+gni#i&e syn+nymy as
under#a6en in Be*#i+n 1! 8nd indeed su*h an independen# a**+un# +- *+gni#i&e
syn+nymy is a# presen# up -+r *+nsidera#i+n$ namely$ in#er*hangeabili#y salva veritate
e&ery,here e4*ep# ,i#hin ,+rds! /he <ues#i+n be-+re us$ #+ resume #he #hread a# las#$ is
,he#her su*h in#er*hangeabili#y is a su--i*ien# *+ndi#i+n -+r *+gni#i&e syn+nymy! We
*an <ui*6ly assure +ursel&es #ha# i# is$ by e4amples +- #he -+ll+,ing s+r#! /he s#a#emen#:
(4) Ee*essarily all and +nly ba*hel+rs are ba*hel+rs
is e&iden#ly #rue$ e&en supp+sing ?ne*essarily? s+ narr+,ly *+ns#rued as #+ be #ruly
appli*able +nly #+ analy#i* s#a#emen#s! /hen$ if ?ba*hel+r? and ?unmarried man? are
in#er*hangeable salva veritate$ #he resul#
(5) Ee*essarily$ all and +nly ba*hel+rs are unmarried men
+- pu##ing ?unmarried man? -+r an +**urren*e +- ?ba*hel+r? in (4) mus#$ li6e (4)$ be #rue!
=u# #+ say #ha# (5) is #rue is #+ say #ha# () is analy#i*$ and hen*e #ha# ?ba*hel+r? and
?unmarried man? are *+gni#i&ely syn+nym+us!
7e# us see ,ha# #here is ab+u# #he ab+&e argumen# #ha# gi&es i# i#s air +- h+*us-
p+*us! /he *+ndi#i+n +- in#er*hangeabili#y salva veritate &aries in i#s -+r*e ,i#h
&aria#i+ns in #he ri*hness +- #he language a# hand! /he ab+&e argumen# supp+ses ,e are
,+r6ing ,i#h a language ri*h en+ugh #+ *+n#ain #he ad&erb ?ne*essarily$? #his ad&erb
being s+ *+ns#rued as #+ yield #ru#h ,hen and +nly ,hen applied #+ an analy#i*
s#a#emen#! =u# *an ,e *+nd+ne a language ,hi*h *+n#ains su*h an ad&erbF H+es #he
ad&erb really ma6e senseF /+ supp+se #ha# i# d+es is #+ supp+se #ha# ,e ha&e already
made sa#is-a*#+ry sense +- ?analy#i*!? /hen ,ha# are ,e s+ hard a# ,+r6 +n righ# n+,F
Our argumen# is n+# -la#ly *ir*ular$ bu# s+me#hing li6e i#! 2# has #he -+rm$ -igura#i&ely
spea6ing$ +- a *l+sed *ur&e in spa*e!
2n#er*hangeabili#y salva veritate is meaningless un#il rela#i&i@ed #+ a language
,h+se e4#en# is spe*i-ied in rele&an# respe*#s! Bupp+se n+, ,e *+nsider a language
*+n#aining Aus# #he -+ll+,ing ma#erials! /here is an inde-ini#ely large s#+*6 +- +ne- and
many-pla*e predi*a#es$
(1951)
/here is an inde-ini#ely large s#+*6 +-
+ne- and many-pla*e predi*a#es$
(1961)
/here is an inde-ini#ely large s#+*6 +- +ne-
pla*e predi*a#es$ (-+r e4ample$ ?:? ,here
?:4? means #ha# 4 is a man) and many-
pla*ed predi*a#es (-+r e4ample$ ?D? ,here
?D4y? means #ha# 4 l+&es y$
m+s#ly ha&ing #+ d+ ,i#h e4#ral+gi*al subAe*# ma##er! /he res# +- #he language is l+gi*al!
/he a#+mi* sen#en*es *+nsis# ea*h +- a predi*a#e -+ll+,ed by +ne +r m+re &ariables ?4?$
?y?$ e#*!) and #he *+mple4 sen#en*es are buil# up +- a#+mi* +nes by #ru#h -un*#i+ns (?n+#?$
?and?$ ?+r?$ e#*!) and <uan#i-i*a#i+n!
Jb
2n e--e*# su*h a language enA+ys #he bene-i#s als+ +-
des*rip#i+ns and *lass names and indeed singular #erms generally$ #hese being
*+n#e4#ually de-inable in 6n+,n ,ays!
4a

9b


(1961)
5&en abs#ra*# singular #erms naming
*lasses$ *lasses +- *lasses$ e#*!$ are
*+n#e4#ually de-inable in *ase #he
assumed s#+*6 +- predi*a#es in*ludes #he
#,+-pla*e predi*a#e +- *lass
I I I I I
membership!
10b

(1951)
Bu*h a language *an be ade<ua#e #+
*lassi*al ma#hema#i*s and indeed #+
s*ien#i-i* dis*+urse generally$ e4*ep# in
s+ -ar as #he la##er in&+l&es deba#able
de&i*es su*h as m+dal ad&erbs and
*+n#rary-#+--a*# *+ndi#i+nals!
(1961)
Bu*h a language *an be ade<ua#e #+
*lassi*al ma#hema#i*s and indeed #+
s*ien#i-i* dis*+urse generally$ e4*ep# in s+
-ar as #he la##er in&+l&es deba#able de&i*es
su*h as *+n#rary-#+--a*# *+ndi#i+nals +r
m+dal ad&erbs li6e ?ne*essarily?!
11b

E+, a language +- #his #ype is extensional$ in #his sense: any #,+ predi*a#es ,hi*h
agree extensionally (i!e!$ are #rue +- #he same +bAe*#s) are in#er*hangeable salva
veritate!
12b

2n an e4#ensi+nal language$ #here-+re$ in#er*hangeabili#y salva veritate is n+
assuran*e +- *+gni#i&e syn+nymy +- #he desired #ype! /ha# ?ba*hel+r? and ?unmarried
man? are in#er*hangeable salva veritate in an e4#ensi+nal language assures us +- n+ m+re
#han #ha# () is #rue! /here is n+ assuran*e here #ha# #he e4#ensi+nal agreemen# +-
?ba*hel+r? and ?unmarried man? res#s +n meaning ra#her #han merely +n a**iden#al
ma##ers +- -a*#$ as d+es e4#ensi+nal agreemen# +- ?*rea#ure ,i#h a hear#? and ?*rea#ure
,i#h a 6idney!?
:+r m+s# purp+ses e4#ensi+nal agreemen# is #he neares# appr+4ima#i+n #+ syn+nymy
,e need *are ab+u#! =u# #he -a*# remains #ha# e4#ensi+nal agreemen# -alls -ar sh+r# +-
*+gni#i&e syn+nymy +- #he #ype re<uired -+r e4plaining analy#i*i#y in #he manner +-
Be*#i+n 2! /he #ype +- *+gni#i&e syn+nymy re<uired #here is su*h as #+ e<ua#e #he
syn+nymy +- ?ba*hel+r? and ?unmarried man? ,i#h #he analy#i*i#y +- ()$ n+# merely ,i#h
#he #ru#h +- ()!
B+ ,e mus# re*+gni@e #ha# in#er*hangeabili#y salva veritate$ i- *+ns#rued in rela#i+n
#+ an e4#ensi+nal language$ is n+# a su--i*ien# *+ndi#i+n +- *+gni#i&e syn+nymy in #he
sense needed -+r deri&ing analy#i*i#y in #he manner +- Be*#i+n 2! 2- a language *+n#ains
an in#ensi+nal ad&erb ?ne*essarily? in #he sense la#ely n+#ed$ +r +#her par#i*les #+ #he
same e--e*#$ #hen in#er*hangeabili#y salva veritate in su*h a language d+es a--+rd a
su--i*ien# *+ndi#i+n +- *+gni#i&e syn+nymy) bu# su*h a language is in#elligible +nly i-
#he n+#i+n +- analy#i*i#y is already *learly unders#++d in ad&an*e!
/he e--+r# #+ e4plain *+gni#i&e syn+nymy -irs#$ -+r #he sa6e +- deri&ing analy#i*i#y
-r+m i# a-#er,ard as in Be*#i+n 2$ is perhaps #he ,r+ng appr+a*h! 2ns#ead ,e migh# #ry
e4plaining analy#i*i#y s+meh+, ,i#h+u# appeal #+ *+gni#i&e syn+nymy! 8-#er,ard ,e
*+uld d+ub#less deri&e *+gni#i&e syn+nymy -r+m analy#i*i#y sa#is-a*#+rily en+ugh i-
desired! We ha&e seen #ha# *+gni#i&e syn+nymy +- ?ba*hel+r? and ?unmarried man? *an be
e4plained as analy#i*i#y +- ()! /he same e4plana#i+n ,+r6s -+r any pair +- +ne-pla*e
predi*a#es$ +- *+urse$ and i# *an be e4#ended in +b&i+us -ashi+n #+ many-pla*e
predi*a#es! O#her syn#a*#i*al *a#eg+ries *an als+ he a**+mm+da#ed in -airly parallel
-ashi+n! Bingular #erms may be said #+ be *+gni#i&ely syn+nym+us ,hen #he s#a#emen#
+- iden#i#y -+rmed by pu##ing ?C? be#,een #hem is analy#i*! B#a#emen#s may be said
simply #+ be *+gni#i&ely syn+nym+us ,hen #heir bi*+ndi#i+nal (#he resul# +- A+ining
#hem by ?i- and +nly i-?) is analy#i*!
5a

1b
2- ,e *are #+ lump all *a#eg+ries in#+ a single
-+rmula#i+n$ a# #he e4pense +- assuming again #he n+#i+n +- .,+rd. ,hi*h ,as appealed
#+ early in #his se*#i+n$ ,e *an des*ribe any #,+ linguis#i* -+rms as *+gni#i&ely
syn+nym+us ,hen #he #,+ -+rms are in#er*hangeable (apar# -r+m +**urren*es ,i#hin
.,+rds.) salva (n+ l+nger veritate bu#) analyticitate! 9er#ain #e*hni*al <ues#i+ns arise$
indeed$ +&er *ases +- ambigui#y +r h+m+nymy) le# us n+# pause -+r #hem$ h+,e&er$ -+r
J J J J J
,e are already digressing! 7e# us ra#her #urn +ur ba*6s +n #he pr+blem +- syn+nymy and
address +ursel&es ane, #+ #ha# +- analy#i*i#y!
I. !E"ANTICAL RULE!
8naly#i*i#y a# -irs# seemed m+s# na#urally de-inable by appeal #+ a realm +-
meanings! On re-inemen#$ #he appeal #+ meanings ga&e ,ay #+ an appeal #+ syn+nymy
+r de-ini#i+n! =u# de-ini#i+n #urned +u# #+ be a ,ill-+?-#he-,isp$ and syn+nymy #urned
+u# #+ be bes# unders#++d +nly by din# +- a pri+r appeal #+ analy#i*i#y i#sel-! B+ ,e are
ba*6 a# #he pr+blem +- analy#i*i#y!
2 d+ n+# 6n+, ,he#her #he s#a#emen# ?5&ery#hing green is e4#ended? is analy#i*! E+,
d+es my inde*isi+n +&er #his e4ample really be#ray an in*+mple#e unders#anding$ an
in*+mple#e grasp +- #he .meanings$. +- ?green? and ?e4#ended?F 2 #hin6 n+#! /he #r+uble is
n+# ,i#h ?green? +r ?e4#ended$? bu# ,i#h ?analy#i*!?
2# is +-#en hin#ed #ha# #he di--i*ul#y in separa#ing analy#i* s#a#emen#s -r+m syn#he#i*
+nes in +rdinary language is due #+ #he &agueness +- +rdinary language and #ha# #he
dis#in*#i+n is *lear ,hen ,e ha&e a pre*ise ar#i-i*ial language ,i#h e4pli*i# .seman#i*al
rules!. /his$ h+,e&er$ as 2 shall n+, a##emp# #+ sh+,$ is a *+n-usi+n!
/he n+#i+n +- analy#i*i#y ab+u# ,hi*h ,e are ,+rrying is a purp+r#ed rela#i+n
be#,een s#a#emen#s and languages: a s#a#emen# B is said #+ be analytic for a language 7$
and #he pr+blem is #+ ma6e sense +- #his rela#i+n generally$ -+r e4ample$ -+r &ariable ?B?
and ?7!? /he p+in# #ha# 2 ,an# #+ ma6e is #ha# #he gra&i#y +- #his pr+blem is n+#
per*ep#ibly less -+r ar#i-i*ial languages #han -+r na#ural +nes! /he pr+blem +- ma6ing
sense +- #he idi+m ?B is analytic for 7$? ,i#h &ariable ?B? and ?7$? re#ains i#s s#ubb+rnness
e&en i- ,e limi# #he range +- #he &ariable ?7? #+ ar#i-i*ial languages! 7e# me n+, #ry #+
ma6e #his p+in# e&iden#!
:+r ar#i-i*ial languages and seman#i*al rules ,e l++6 na#urally #+ #he ,ri#ings +-
9arnap! %is seman#i*al rules #a6e &ari+us -+rms$ and #+ ma6e my p+in# 2 shall ha&e #+
dis#inguish *er#ain +- #he -+rms! 7e# us supp+se$ #+ begin ,i#h$ an ar#i-i*ial language 7
0
,h+se seman#i*al rules ha&e #he -+rm e4pli*i#ly +- a spe*i-i*a#i+n$ by re*ursi+n +r
+#her,ise$ +- all #he analy#i* s#a#emen#s +- 7
0
! /he rules #ell us #ha# su*h and su*h
s#a#emen#s$ and +nly #h+se$ are #he analy#i* s#a#emen#s +- 7
0
! E+, here #he di--i*ul#y is
simply #ha# #he rules *+n#ain #he ,+rd ?analy#i*$? ,hi*h ,e d+ n+# unders#andK We
unders#and ,ha# e4pressi+ns #he rules a##ribu#e analy#i*i#y #+$ bu# ,e d+ n+# unders#and
,ha# #he rules a##ribu#e #+ #h+se e4pressi+ns! 2n sh+r#$ be-+re ,e *an unders#and a rule
,hi*h begins .8 s#a#emen# B is analy#i* -+r language 7
0
i- and +nly i- ! ! ! $. ,e mus#
unders#and #he general rela#i&e #erm ?analy#i* -+r?) ,e mus# unders#and ?B is analy#i* -+r
7? ,here ?B? and ?7? are &ariables!
8l#erna#i&ely ,e may$ indeed$ &ie, #he s+-*alled rule as a *+n&en#i+nal de-ini#i+n +-
a ne, simple symb+l ?analy#i*--+r-7
0
$? ,hi*h migh# be##er be ,ri##en un#enden#i+usly as
?>? s+ as n+# #+ seem #+ #hr+, ligh# +n #he in#eres#ing ,+rd .analy#i*!. Ob&i+usly any
number +- *lasses >$ ;$ E$ e#*!$ +- s#a#emen#s +- 7
0
*an be spe*i-ied -+r &ari+us
purp+ses +r -+r n+ purp+se) ,ha# d+es i# mean #+ say #ha# >$ as agains# ;$ E$ e#*!$ is #he
*lass +- #he ?analy#i*? s#a#emen#s +- 7
0
F
=y saying ,ha# s#a#emen#s are analy#i* -+r 7
0
,e e4plain ?analy#i*--+r 7
0
? bu# n+#
?analy#i* -+r!? We d+ n+# begin #+ e4plain #he idi+m ?B is analy#i* -+r 7? ,i#h &ariable ?B?
and ?7$? e&en #h+ugh ,e be *+n#en# #+ limi# #he range +- ?7? #+ #he realm +- ar#i-i*ial
languages!
8*#ually ,e d+ 6n+, en+ugh ab+u# #he in#ended signi-i*an*e +- ?analy#i*? #+ 6n+,
#ha# analy#i* s#a#emen#s are supp+sed #+ be #rue! 7e# us #hen #urn #+ a se*+nd -+rm +-
seman#i*al rule$ ,hi*h says n+# #ha# su*h and su*h s#a#emen#s are analy#i* bu# simply
9 9 9 9 9
#ha# su*h and su*h s#a#emen#s are in*luded am+ng #he #ru#hs! Bu*h a rule is n+# subAe*#
#+ #he *ri#i*ism +- *+n#aining #he un-unders#++d ,+rd ?analy#i*?) and ,e may gran# -+r
#he sa6e +- argumen# #ha# #here is n+ di--i*ul#y +&er #he br+ader #erm ?#rue!? 8 seman#i*al
rule +- #his se*+nd #ype$ a rule +- #ru#h$ is n+# supp+sed #+ spe*i-y all #he #ru#hs +- #he
language) i# merely s#ipula#es$ re*ursi&ely +r +#her,ise$ a *er#ain mul#i#ude +-
s#a#emen#s ,hi*h$ al+ng ,i#h +#hers unspe*i-ied$ are #+ *+un# as #rue! Bu*h a rule may
be *+n*eded #+ be <ui#e *lear! Heri&a#i&ely$ a-#er,ard$ analy#i*i#y *an be demar*a#ed
#hus: a s#a#emen# is analy#i* i- i# is (n+# merely #rue bu#) #rue a**+rding #+ #he seman#i*al
rule!
B#ill #here is really n+ pr+gress! 2ns#ead +- appealing #+ an une4plained ,+rd
?analy#i*$? ,e are n+, appealing #+ an une4plained phrase ?seman#i*al rule!? E+# e&ery
#rue s#a#emen# ,hi*h says #ha# #he s#a#emen#s +- s+me *lass are #rue *an *+un# as a
seman#i*al rule -- +#her,ise all #ru#hs ,+uld be .analy#i*. in #he sense +- being #rue
a**+rding #+ seman#i*al rules! Beman#i*al rules are dis#inguishable$ apparen#ly$ +nly by
#he -a*# +- appearing +n a page under #he heading ?Beman#i*al "ules?) and #his heading is
i#sel- #hen meaningless!
We *an say indeed #ha# a s#a#emen# is analytic-for-L

i- and +nly i- i# is #rue

a**+rding #+ su*h and su*h spe*i-i*ally appended .seman#i*al rules$. bu# #hen ,e -ind
+ursel&es ba*6 a# essen#ially #he same *ase ,hi*h ,as +riginally dis*ussed: ?B is
analy#i*--+r-7
0
i- and +nly i-! ! ! !? On*e ,e see6 #+ e4plain ?B is analy#i* -+r 7? generally
-+r &ariable ?7? ( e&en all+,ing limi#a#i+n +- ?7? #+ ar#i-i*ial languages )$ #he e4plana#i+n
?#rue a**+rding #+ #he seman#i*al rules +- 7? is una&ailing) -+r #he rela#i&e #erm
?seman#i*al rule +-? is as mu*h in need +- *lari-i*a#i+n$ a# leas#$ as ?analy#i* -+r!?

(1961)
2# may be ins#ru*#i&e #+ *+mpare #he
n+#i+n +- seman#i*al rule ,i#h #ha# +-
p+s#ula#e! "ela#i&e #+ #he gi&en se# +-
p+s#ula#es$ i# is easy #+ say #ha# ,ha# a
p+s#ula#e is: i# is a member +- #he se#!
"ela#i&e #+ a gi&en se# +- seman#i*al rules$
i# is e<ually easy #+ say ,ha# a seman#i*al
rule is! =u# gi&en simply a n+#a#i+n$
ma#hema#i*al +r +#her,ise$ and indeed as
#h+r+ughly unders#++d a n+#a#i+n as y+u
please in p+in# +- #he #ransla#i+n +r #ru#h
*+ndi#i+ns +- i#s s#a#emen#s$ ,h+ *an say
,hi*h +- i#s #rue s#a#emen#s ran6 as
p+s#ula#esF Ob&i+usly #he <ues#i+n is
meaningless -- as meaningless as as6ing
,hi*h p+in#s in Ohi+ are s#ar#ing p+in#s!
8ny -ini#e (+r e--e*#i&ely spe*i-iable
in-ini#e) sele*#i+n +- s#a#emen#s
(pre-erably #rue +nes$ perhaps) is as mu*h
a se# +- p+s#ula#es as any +#her! /he ,+rd
?p+s#ula#e? is signi-i*an# +nly rela#i&e #+ an
a*# +- in<uiry) ,e apply #he ,+rd #+ a se#
+- s#a#emen#s Aus# in s+ -ar as ,e happen$
-+r #he year +r #he argumen#$ #+ be
#hin6ing +- #h+se s#a#emen#s ,hi*h *an be
rea*hed -r+m #hem by s+me se# +-
#ras-+rma#i+ns #+ ,hi*h ,e ha&e seen -i#
10 10 10 10 10
#+ dire*# +ur a##en#i+n! E+, #he n+#i+n +-
seman#i*al rule is as sensible and
meaning-ul as #ha# +- p+s#ula#e$ i-
*+n*ei&ed in a similarly rela#i&e spiri# --
rela#i&e$ #his #ime$ #+ +ne +r an+#her
par#i*ular en#erprise +- s*h++ling
un*+n&ersan# pers+ns in su--i*ien#
*+ndi#i+ns -+r #ru#h +- s#a#emen#s +- s+me
na#ural +r ar#i-i*ial language 7! =u# -r+m
#his p+in# +- &ie, n+ +ne signali@a#i+n +-
a sub*lass +- #he #ru#hs +- 7 is in#rinsi*ally
m+re a seman#i*al rule #han an+#her) and$
i- ?analy#i*? means ?#rue by seman#i*al
rules?$ n+ +ne #ru#h +- 7 is analy#i* #+ #he
e4*lusi+n +- an+#her!
14b

2# migh# *+n*ei&ably be pr+#es#ed #ha# an ar#i-i*ial language 7 (unli6e a na#ural +ne)
is a language in #he +rdinary sense plus a se# +- e4pli*i# seman#i*al rules -- #he ,h+le
*+ns#i#u#ing$ le# us say$ an +rdered pair) and #ha# #he seman#i*al rules +- 7 #hen are
spe*i-iable simply as #he se*+nd *+mp+nen# +- #he pair 7! =u#$ by #he same #+6en and
m+re simply$ ,e migh# *+ns#rue an ar#i-i*ial language 7 +u#righ# as an +rdered pair
,h+se se*+nd *+mp+nen# is #he *lass +- i#s analy#i* s#a#emen#s) and #hen #he analy#i*
s#a#emen#s +- 7 be*+me spe*i-iable simply as #he s#a#emen#s in #he se*+nd *+mp+nen# +-
7! Or be##er s#ill$ ,e migh# Aus# s#+p #ugging a# +ur b++#s#raps al#+ge#her!
E+# all #he e4plana#i+ns +- analy#i*i#y 6n+,n #+ 9arnap and his readers ha&e been
*+&ered e4pli*i#ly in #he ab+&e *+nsidera#i+ns$ bu# #he e4#ensi+n #+ +#her -+rms is n+#
hard #+ see! Gus# +ne addi#i+nal -a*#+r sh+uld be men#i+ned ,hi*h s+me#imes en#ers:
s+me#imes #he seman#i*al rules are in e--e*# rules +- #ransla#i+n in#+ +rdinary language$
in ,hi*h *ase #he analy#i* s#a#emen#s +- #he ar#i-i*ial language are in e--e*# re*+gni@ed
as su*h -r+m #he analy#i*i#y +- #heir spe*i-ied #ransla#i+ns in +rdinary language! %ere
*er#ainly #here *an be n+ #h+ugh# +- an illumina#i+n +- #he pr+blem +- analy#i*i#y -r+m
#he side +- #he ar#i-i*ial language!
:r+m #he p+in# +- &ie, +- #he pr+blem +- analy#i*i#y #he n+#i+n +- an ar#i-i*ial
language ,i#h seman#i*al rules is a feu follet par ercellence! Beman#i*al rules
de#ermining #he analy#i* s#a#emen#s +- an ar#i-i*ial language are +- in#eres# +nly in s+ -ar
as ,e already unders#and #he n+#i+n +- analy#i*i#y) #hey are +- n+ help in gaining #his
unders#anding!
8ppeal #+ hyp+#he#i*al languages +- an ar#i-i*ially simple 6ind *+uld *+n*ei&ably b*
use-ul in *lari-ying analy#i*i#y$ i- #he men#al +r beha&i+ral +r *ul#ural -a*#+rs rele&an# #+
analy#i*i#y -- ,ha#e&er #hey may be -- ,ere s+meh+, s6e#*hed in#+ #he simpli-ied
m+del! =u# a m+del ,hi*h #a6es analy#i*i#y merely as an irredu*ible *hara*#er is
unli6ely #+ #hr+, ligh# +n #he pr+blem +- e4pli*a#ing analy#i*i#y!
2# is +b&i+us #ha# #ru#h in general depends +n b+#h language and e4#ra-linguis#i* -a*#!
/he s#a#emen# ?=ru#us 6illed 9aesar? ,+uld be -alse i- #he ,+rld had been di--eren# in
*er#ain ,ays$ bu# i# ,+uld als+ be -alse i- #he ,+rd ?6illed? happened ra#her #+ ha&e #he
sense +- ?bega#!? %en*e #he #emp#a#i+n #+ supp+se in general #ha# #he #ru#h +- a s#a#emen#
is s+meh+, analy@able in#+ a linguis#i* *+mp+nen# and a -a*#ual *+mp+nen#! Di&en #his
supp+si#i+n$ i# ne4# seems reas+nable #ha# in s+me s#a#emen#s #he -a*#ual *+mp+nen#
sh+uld be null) and #hese are #he analy#i* s#a#emen#s! =u#$ -+r all i#s a priori
reas+nableness$ a b+undary be#,een analy#i* and syn#he#i* s#a#emen# simply has n+#
been dra,n! /ha# #here is su*h a dis#in*#i+n #+ be dra,n a# all is an unempiri*al d+gma
+- empiri*is#s$ a me#aphysi*al ar#i*le +- -ai#h!
11 11 11 11 11
. THE ERIFICATION THEORY AND REDUCTIONI!"
2n #he *+urse +- #hese s+mber re-le*#i+ns ,e ha&e #a6en a dim &ie, -irs# +- #he
n+#i+n +- meaning$ #hen +- #he n+#i+n +- *+gni#i&e syn+nymy: and -inally +- #he n+#i+n
+- analy#i*i#y! =u# ,ha#$ i# may be as6ed$ +- #he &eri-i*a#i+n #he+ry +- meaningF /his
phrase has es#ablished i#sel- s+ -irmly as a *a#*h,+rd +- empiri*ism #ha# ,e sh+uld be
&ery uns*ien#i-i* indeed n+# #+ l++6 benea#h i# -+r a p+ssible 6ey #+ #he pr+blem +-
meaning and #he ass+*ia#ed pr+blems!
/he &eri-i*a#i+n #he+ry +- meaning$ ,hi*h has been *+nspi*u+us in #he li#era#ure
-r+m (eir*e +n,ard$ is #ha# #he meaning +- a s#a#emen# is #he me#h+d +- empiri*ally
*+n-irming +r in-irming i#! 8n analy#i* s#a#emen# is #ha# limi#ing *ase ,hi*h is
*+n-irmed n+ ma##er ,ha#!
8s urged in Be*#i+n 2$ ,e *an as ,ell pass +&er #he <ues#i+n +- meanings as en#i#ies
and m+&e s#raigh# #+ sameness +- meaning$ +r syn+nymy! /hen ,ha# #he &eri-i*a#i+n
#he+ry says is #ha# s#a#emen#s are syn+nym+us i- and +nly i- #hey are ali6e in p+in# +-
me#h+d +- empiri*al *+n-irma#i+n +r in-irma#i+n!
/his is an a**+un# +- *+gni#i&e syn+nymy n+# +- linguis#i* -+rms generally$ bu# +-
s#a#emen#s!
6a

15b
%+,e&er$ -r+m #he *+n*ep# +- syn+nymy +- s#a#emen#s ,e *+uld deri&e
#he *+n*ep# +- syn+nymy -+r +#her linguis#i* -+rms$ by *+nsidera#i+ns s+me,ha# similar
#+ #h+se a# #he end +- Be*#i+n 222! 8ssuming #he n+#i+n +- .,+rd$. indeed$ ,e *+uld
e4plain any #,+ -+rms as syn+nym+us ,hen #he pu##ing +- #he +ne -+rm -+r an
+**urren*e +- #he +#her in any s#a#emen# (apar# -r+m +**urren*es ,i#hin .,+rds.) yields
a syn+nym+us s#a#emen#! :inally$ gi&en #he *+n*ep# +- syn+nymy #hus -+r linguis#i*
-+rms generally$ ,e *+uld de-ine analy#i*i#y in #erms +- syn+nymy and l+gi*al #ru#h as
in Be*#i+n 2! :+r #ha# ma##er$ ,e *+uld de-ine analy#i*i#y m+re simply in #erms +- Aus#
syn+nymy +- s#a#emen#s #+ge#her ,i#h l+gi*al #ru#h) i# is n+# ne*essary #+ appeal #+
syn+nymy +- linguis#i* -+rms +#her #han s#a#emen#s! :+r a s#a#emen# may be des*ribed
as analy#i* simply ,hen i# is syn+nym+us ,i#h a l+gi*ally #rue s#a#emen#!
B+$ i- #he &eri-i*a#i+n #he+ry *an be a**ep#ed as an ade<ua#e a**+un# +- s#a#emen#
syn+nymy$ #he n+#i+n +- analy#i*i#y is sa&ed a-#er all! %+,e&er$ le# us re-le*#! B#a#emen#
syn+nymy is said #+ be li6eness +- me#h+d +- empiri*al *+n-irma#i+n +r in-irma#i+n! Gus#
,ha# are #hese me#h+ds ,hi*h are #+ be *+mpared -+r li6enessF Wha#$ in +#her ,+rds$ is
#he na#ure +- #he rela#i+nship be#,een a s#a#emen# and #he e4perien*es ,hi*h *+n#ribu#e
#+ +r de#ra*# -r+m i#s *+n-irma#i+nF
/he m+s# nai&e &ie, +- #he rela#i+nship is #ha# i# is +ne +- dire*# rep+r#! /his is
radical reductionism! 5&ery meaning-ul s#a#emen# is held #+ be #ransla#able in#+ a
s#a#emen# (#rue +r -alse) ab+u# immedia#e e4perien*e! "adi*al redu*#i+nism$ in +ne -+rm
+r an+#her$ ,ell an#eda#es #he &eri-i*a#i+n #he+ry +- meaning e4pli*i#ly s+ *alled! /hus
7+*6e and %ume held #ha# e&ery idea mus# ei#her +rigina#e dire*#ly in sense e4perien*e
+r else be *+mp+unded +- ideas #hus +rigina#ing) and #a6ing a hin# -r+m /++6e
Ia
,e
migh# rephrase #his d+*#rine in seman#i*al Aarg+n by saying #ha# a #erm$ #+ be signi-i*an#
a# all$ mus# be ei#her a name +- a sense da#um +r a *+mp+und +- su*h names +r an
abbre&ia#i+n +- su*h a *+mp+und! B+ s#a#ed$ #he d+*#rine remains ambigu+us as be#,een
sense da#a as sens+ry e&en#s and sense da#a as sens+ry <uali#ies) and i# remains &ague as
#+ #he admissible ,ays +- *+mp+unding! ;+re+&er$ #he d+*#rine is unne*essarily and
in#+lerably res#ri*#i&e in #he #erm-by-#erm *ri#i<ue ,hi*h i# imp+ses! ;+re reas+nably$
and ,i#h+u# ye# e4*eeding #he limi#s +- ,ha# 2 ha&e *alled radi*al redu*#i+nism$ ,e may
#a6e -ull s#a#emen#s as +ur signi-i*an# uni#s -- #hus demanding #ha# +ur s#a#emen#s as
,h+les be #ransla#able in#+ sense-da#um language$ bu# n+# #ha# #hey be #ransla#able #erm
by #erm!
(1951) (1961)
12 12 12 12 12
/his emenda#i+n ,+uld
un<ues#i+nably ha&e been ,el*+me #+
7+*6e and %ume and /++6e$ bu#
his#+ri*ally i# had #+ a,ai# #,+
in#ermedia#e de&el+pmen#s! One +- #hese
de&el+pmen#s ,as #he in*reasing
emphasis +n &eri-i*a#i+n +r *+n-irma#i+n$
,hi*h *ame ,i#h #he e4pli*i#ly s+-*alled
&eri-i*a#i+n #he+ry +- meaning! /he
+bAe*#s +- &eri-i*a#i+n +r *+n-irma#i+n
being s#a#emen#s$ #his emphasis ga&e #he
s#a#emen# an as*endan*y +&er #he ,+rd +r
#erm as uni# +- signi-i*an# dis*+urse! /he
+#her de&el+pmen#$ *+nse<uen# up+n #he
-irs#$ ,as "ussell?s dis*+&ery +- #he
*+n*ep# +- in*+mple#e symb+ls de-ined in
use!
/his emenda#i+n ,+uld
un<ues#i+nably ha&e been ,el*+me #+
7+*6e and %ume and /++6e$ bu#
his#+ri*ally i# had #+ a,ai# an imp+r#an#
re+rien#a#i+n in seman#i*s -- #he
re+rien#a#i+n ,hereby #he primary &ehi*le
+- meaning *ame #+ be seen n+ l+nger in
#he #erm bu# in #he s#a#emen#! /his
re+rien#a#i+n$ e4pli*i# in :rege (D+##lieb
:rege$ :+unda#i+ns +- 8ri#hme#i* (Ee,
L+r6: (hil+s+phi*al 7ibrary$ 1950)!
"eprin#ed in Drundlagen der 8ri#hme#i6
(=reslau$ 1JJ4) ,i#h 5nglish #ransla#i+ns
in parallel! Be*#i+n 60)$ underlies
"ussell?a *+n*ep# +- in*+mple#e symb+ls
de-ined in use)
16b
als+ i# is impli*i# in #he
&eri-i*a#i+n #he+ry +- meaning$ sin*e #he
+bAe*#s +- &eri-i*a#i+n are s#a#emen#s!
"adi*al redu*#i+nism$ *+n*ei&ed n+, ,i#h s#a#emen#s as uni#s$ se#s i#sel- #he #as6 +-
spe*i-ying a sense-da#um language and sh+,ing h+, #+ #ransla#e #he res# +- signi-i*an#
dis*+urse$ s#a#emen# by s#a#emen#$ in#+ i#! 9arnap embar6ed +n #his pr+Ae*# in #he
!ufbau!
Ja

/he language ,hi*h 9arnap ad+p#ed as his s#ar#ing p+in# ,as n+# a sense-da#um
language in #he narr+,es# *+n*ei&able sense$ -+r i# in*luded als+ #he n+#a#i+ns +- l+gi*$
up #hr+ugh higher se# #he+ry! 2n e--e*# i# in*luded #he ,h+le language +- pure
ma#hema#i*s! /he +n#+l+gy impli*i# in i# (i!e!$ #he range +- &alues +- i#s &ariables)
embra*ed n+# +nly sens+ry e&en#s bu# *lasses$ *lasses +- *lasses$ and s+ +n! 5mpiri*is#s
#here are ,h+ ,+uld b+ggle a# su*h pr+digali#y! 9arnap?s s#ar#ing p+in# is &ery
parsim+ni+us$ h+,e&er$ in i#s e4#ral+gi*al +r sens+ry par#! 2n a series +- *+ns#ru*#i+ns in
,hi*h he e4pl+i#s #he res+ur*es +- m+dern l+gi* ,i#h mu*h ingenui#y$ 9arnap su**eeds
in de-ining a ,ide array +- imp+r#an# addi#i+nal sens+ry *+n*ep#s ,hi*h$ bu# -+r his
*+ns#ru*#i+ns$ +ne ,+uld n+# ha&e dreamed ,ere de-inable +n s+ slender a basis! 9arnap
,as #he -irs# empiri*is# ,h+$ n+# *+n#en# ,i#h asser#ing #he redu*ibili#y +- s*ien*e #+
#erms +- immedia#e e4perien*e$ #++6 seri+us s#eps #+,ard *arrying +u# #he redu*#i+n!
5&en supp+sing 9arnap?s s#ar#ing p+in# sa#is-a*#+ry$ his *+ns#ru*#i+ns ,ere$ as he
himsel- s#ressed$ +nly a -ragmen# +- #he -ull pr+gram! /he *+ns#ru*#i+n +- e&en #he
simples# s#a#emen#s ab+u# #he physi*al ,+rld ,as le-# in a s6e#*hy s#a#e! 9arnap?s
sugges#i+ns +n #his subAe*# ,ere$ despi#e #heir s6e#*hiness$ &ery sugges#i&e! %e
e4plained spa#i+-#emp+ral p+in#-ins#an#s as <uadruples +- real numbers and en&isaged
assignmen# +- sense <uali#ies #+ p+in#-ins#an#s a**+rding #+ *er#ain *an+ns! "+ughly
summari@ed$ #he plan ,as #ha# <uali#ies sh+uld be assigned #+ p+in#-ins#an#s in su*h a
,ay as #+ a*hie&e #he la@ies# ,+rld *+mpa#ible ,i#h +ur e4perien*e! /he prin*iple +-
leas# a*#i+n ,as #+ be +ur guide in *+ns#ru*#ing a ,+rld -r+m e4perien*e!
9arnap did n+# seem #+ re*+gni@e$ h+,e&er$ #ha# his #rea#men# +- physi*al +bAe*#s
-ell sh+r# +- redu*#i+n n+# merely #hr+ugh s6e#*hiness$ bu# in prin*iple! B#a#emen#s +-
#he -+rm ?Quali#y " is a# p+in#-ins#an# x# y# $# t% ,ere$ a**+rding #+ his *an+ns$ #+ be
app+r#i+ned #ru#h &alues in su*h a ,ay as #+ ma4imi@e and minimi@e *er#ain +&er-all
-ea#ures$ and ,i#h gr+,#h +- e4perien*e #he #ru#h &alues ,ere #+ be pr+gressi&ely
re&ised in #he same spiri#! 2 #hin6 #his is a g++d s*hema#i@a#i+n (delibera#ely
+&ersimpli-ied$ #+ be sure) +- ,ha# s*ien*e really d+es) bu# i# pr+&ides n+ indi*a#i+n$ n+#
e&en #he s6e#*hies#$ +- h+, a s#a#emen# +- #he -+rm ?Quali#y " is a# x# y# $# t% *+uld e&er
1 1 1 1 1
be #ransla#ed in#+ 9arnap?s ini#ial language +- sense da#a and l+gi*! /he *+nne*#i&e ?is a#?
remains an added unde-ined *+nne*#i&e) #he *an+ns *+unsel us in i#s use bu# n+# in i#s
elimina#i+n!
9arnap seems #+ ha&e appre*ia#ed #his p+in# a-#er,ard) -+r in his la#er ,ri#ings he
aband+ned all n+#i+n +- #he #ransla#abili#y +- s#a#emen#s ab+u# #he physi*al ,+rld in#+
s#a#emen#s ab+u# immedia#e e4perien*e! "edu*#i+nism in i#s radi*al -+rm has l+ng sin*e
*eased #+ -igure in 9arnap?s phil+s+phy!
=u# #he d+gma +- redu*#i+nism has$ in a sub#ler and m+re #enu+us -+rm$ *+n#inued
#+ in-luen*e #he #h+ugh# +- empiri*is#s! /he n+#i+n lingers #ha# #+ ea*h s#a#emen#$ +r ea*h
syn#he#i* s#a#emen#$ #here is ass+*ia#ed a uni<ue range +- p+ssible sens+ry e&en#s su*h
#ha# #he +**urren*e +- any +- #hem ,+uld add #+ #he li6elih++d +- #ru#h +- #he s#a#emen#$
and #ha# #here is ass+*ia#ed als+ an+#her uni<ue range +- p+ssible sens+ry e&en#s ,h+se
+**urren*e ,+uld de#ra*# -r+m #ha# li6elih++d! /his n+#i+n is +- *+urse impli*i# in #he
&eri-i*a#i+n #he+ry +- meaning!
/he d+gma +- redu*#i+nism sur&i&es in #he supp+si#i+n #ha# ea*h s#a#emen#$ #a6en in
is+la#i+n -r+m i#s -ell+,s$ *an admi# +- *+n-irma#i+n +r in-irma#i+n a# all! ;y
*+un#ersugges#i+n$ issuing essen#ially -r+m 9arnap?s d+*#rine +- #he physi*al ,+rld in
#he !ufbau$ is #ha# +ur s#a#emen#s ab+u# #he e4#ernal ,+rld -a*e #he #ribunal +- sense
e4perien*e n+# indi&idually bu# +nly as a *+rp+ra#e b+dy!
1Ib

/he d+gma +- redu*#i+nism$ e&en in i#s a##enua#ed -+rm$ is in#ima#ely *+nne*#ed
,i#h #he +#her d+gma: #ha# #here is a *lea&age be#,een #he analy#i* and #he syn#he#i*!
We ha&e -+und +ursel&es led$ indeed$ -r+m #he la##er pr+blem #+ #he -+rmer #hr+ugh #he
&eri-i*a#i+n #he+ry +- meaning! ;+re dire*#ly$ #he +ne d+gma *learly supp+r#s #he +#her
in #his ,ay: as l+ng as i# is #a6en #+ be signi-i*an# in general #+ spea6 +- #he
*+n-irma#i+n and in-irma#i+n +- a s#a#emen#$ i# seems signi-i*an# #+ spea6 als+ +- a
limi#ing 6ind +- s#a#emen# ,hi*h is &a*u+usly *+n-irmed$ ipso facto$ *+me ,ha# may)
and su*h a s#a#emen# is analy#i*!
/he #,+ d+gmas are$ indeed$ a# r++# iden#i*al! We la#ely re-le*#ed #ha# in general #he
#ru#h +- s#a#emen#s d+es +b&i+usly depend b+#h up+n e4#ra-linguis#i* -a*#) and ,e n+#ed
#ha# #his +b&i+us *ir*ums#an*e *arries in i#s #rain$ n+# l+gi*ally bu# all #++ na#urally$ a
-eeling #ha# #he #ru#h +- a s#a#emen# is s+meh+, analy@able in#+ a linguis#i* *+mp+nen#
and a -a*#ual *+mp+nen#! /he -a*#ual *+mp+nen# mus#$ i- ,e are empiri*is#s$ b+il d+,n
#+ a range +- *+n-irma#+ry e4perien*es! 2n #he e4#reme *ase ,here #he linguis#i*
*+mp+nen# is all #ha# ma##ers$ a #rue s#a#emen# is analy#i*! =u# 2 h+pe ,e are n+,
impressed ,i#h h+, s#ubb+rnly #he dis#in*#i+n be#,een analy#i* and syn#he#i* has
resis#ed any s#raigh#-+r,ard dra,ing! 2 am impressed als+$ apar# -r+m pre-abri*a#ed
e4amples +- bla*6 and ,hi#e balls in an urn$ ,i#h h+, ba--ling #he pr+blem has al,ays
been +- arri&ing a# any e4pli*i# #he+ry +- #he empiri*al *+n-irma#i+n +- a syn#he#i*
s#a#emen#! ;y presen# sugges#i+n is #ha# i# is n+nsense$ and #he r++# +- mu*h n+nsense$
#+ spea6 +- a linguis#i* *+mp+nen# and a -a*#ual *+mp+nen# in #he #ru#h +- any
indi&idual s#a#emen#! /a6en *+lle*#i&ely$ s*ien*e has i#s d+uble dependen*e up+n
language and e4perien*e) bu# #his duali#y is n+# signi-i*an#ly #ra*eable in#+ #he
s#a#emen#s +- s*ien*e #a6en +ne by +ne!
(1951)
"ussell?s *+n*ep# +- de-ini#i+n in use
,as$ as remar6ed$ an ad&an*e +&er #he
imp+ssible #erm-by-#erm empiri*ism +-
7+*6e and %ume! /he s#a#emen#$ ra#her
#han #he #erm$ *ame ,i#h "ussell #+ be
re*+gni@ed as #he uni# a**+un#able #+ an
(1961)
/he idea +- de-ining a symb+l in use
,as$ as remar6ed$ an ad&an*e +&er #he
imp+ssible #erm-by-#erm empiri*ism +-
7+*6e and %ume! /he s#a#emen#$ ra#her
#han #he #erm$ *ame ,i#h :rege #+ be
re*+gni@ed as #he uni# a**+un#able #+ an
14 14 14 14 14
empiri*is# *ri#i<ue! empiri*is# *ri#i<ue!
=u# ,ha# 2 am n+, urging is #ha# e&en in #a6ing #he s#a#emen# as uni# ,e ha&e dra,n +ur
grid #++ -inely! /he uni# +- empiri*al signi-i*an*e is #he ,h+le +- s*ien*e!
I. E"#IRICI!" $ITHOUT THE DOG"A!
/he #+#ali#y +- +ur s+-*alled 6n+,ledge +r belie-s$ -r+m #he m+s# *asual ma##ers +-
ge+graphy and his#+ry #+ #he pr+-+undes# la,s +- a#+mi* physi*s +r e&en +- pure
ma#hema#i*s and l+gi*$ is a man-made -abri* ,hi*h impinges +n e4perien*e +nly al+ng
#he edges! Or$ #+ *hange #he -igure$ #+#al s*ien*e is li6e a -ield +- -+r*e ,h+se b+undary
*+ndi#i+ns are e4perien*e! 8 *+n-li*# ,i#h e4perien*e a# #he periphery +**asi+ns
readAus#men#s in #he in#eri+r +- #he -ield! /ru#h &alues ha&e #+ be redis#ribu#ed +&er s+me
+- +ur s#a#emen#s! "e-e&alua#i+n +- s+me s#a#emen#s en#ails re-e&alua#i+n +- +#hers$
be*ause +- #heir l+gi*al in#er*+nne*#i+ns -- #he l+gi*al la,s being in #urn simply *er#ain
-ur#her s#a#emen#s +- #he sys#em$ *er#ain -ur#her elemen#s +- #he -ield! %a&ing re-
e&alua#ed +ne s#a#emen# ,e mus# re-e&alua#e s+me +#hers$ ,he#her #hey be s#a#emen#s
l+gi*ally *+nne*#ed ,i#h #he -irs# +r ,he#her #hey be #he s#a#emen#s +- l+gi*al
*+nne*#i+ns #hemsel&es! =u# #he #+#al -ield is s+ unde#ermined by i#s b+undary
*+ndi#i+ns$ e4perien*e$ #ha# #here is mu*h la#i#ude +- *h+i*e as #+ ,ha# s#a#emen#s #+ re-
e&alua#e in #he ligh# +- any single *+n#rary e4perien*e! E+ par#i*ular e4perien*es are
lin6ed ,i#h any par#i*ular s#a#emen#s in #he in#eri+r +- #he -ield$ e4*ep# indire*#ly
#hr+ugh *+nsidera#i+ns +- e<uilibrium a--e*#ing #he -ield as a ,h+le!
2- #his &ie, is righ#$ i# is misleading #+ spea6 +- #he empiri*al *+n#en# +- an
indi&idual s#a#emen# -- espe*ially i- i# be a s#a#emen# a# all rem+#e -r+m #he e4perien#ial
periphery +- #he -ield! :ur#herm+re i# be*+mes -+lly #+ see6 a b+undary be#,een
syn#he#i* s#a#emen#s$ ,hi*h h+ld *+n#ingen#ly +n e4perien*e$ and analy#i* s#a#emen#s
,hi*h h+ld *+me ,ha# may! 8ny s#a#emen# *an be held #rue *+me ,ha# may$ i- ,e ma6e
dras#i* en+ugh adAus#men#s else,here in #he sys#em! 5&en a s#a#emen# &ery *l+se #+ #he
periphery *an be held #rue in #he -a*e +- re*al*i#ran# e4perien*e by pleading
hallu*ina#i+n +r by amending *er#ain s#a#emen#s +- #he 6ind *alled l+gi*al la,s!
9+n&ersely$ by #he same #+6en$ n+ s#a#emen# is immune #+ re&isi+n! "e&isi+n e&en +-
#he l+gi*al la, +- #he e4*luded middle has been pr+p+sed as a means +- simpli-ying
<uan#um me*hani*s) and ,ha# di--eren*e is #here in prin*iple be#,een su*h a shi-# and
#he shi-# ,hereby >epler superseded (#+lemy$ +r 5ins#ein Ee,#+n$ +r Har,in 8ris#+#leF
:+r &i&idness 2 ha&e been spea6ing in #erms +- &arying dis#an*es -r+m a sens+ry
periphery! 7e# me #ry n+, #+ *lari-y #his n+#i+n ,i#h+u# me#aph+r! 9er#ain s#a#emen#s$
#h+ugh ab+u# physi*al +bAe*#s and n+# sense e4perien*e$ seem pe*uliarly germane #+
sense e4perien*e -- and in a sele*#i&e ,ay: s+me s#a#emen#s #+ s+me e4perien*es$ +#hers
#+ +#hers! Bu*h s#a#emen#s$ espe*ially germane #+ par#i*ular e4perien*es$ 2 pi*#ure as
near #he periphery! =u# in #his rela#i+n +- .germaneness. 2 en&isage n+#hing m+re #han a
l++se ass+*ia#i+n re-le*#ing #he rela#i&e li6elih++d$ in pra*#i*e$ +- +ur *h++sing +ne
s#a#emen# ra#her #han an+#her -+r re&isi+n in #he e&en# +- re*al*i#ran# e4perien*e! :+r
e4ample$ ,e *an imagine re*al*i#ran# e4perien*es #+ ,hi*h ,e ,+uld surely be in*lined
#+ a**+mm+da#e +ur sys#em by re-e&alua#ing Aus# #he s#a#emen# #ha# #here are bri*6
h+uses +n 5lm B#ree#$ #+ge#her ,i#h rela#ed s#a#emen#s +n #he same #+pi*! We *an
imagine +#her re*al*i#ran# e4perien*es #+ ,hi*h ,e ,+uld be in*lined #+ a**+mm+da#e
+ur sys#em by re-e&alua#ing Aus# #he s#a#emen# #ha# #here are n+ *en#aurs$ al+ng ,i#h
6indred s#a#emen#s! 8 re*al*i#ran# e4perien*e *an$ 2 ha&e already urged$ b*
a**+mm+da#ed by any +- &ari+us al#erna#i&e re-e&alua#i+ns in &ari+us al#erna#i&e
<uar#ers +- #he #+#al sys#em) bu#$ in #he *ases ,hi*h ,e are n+, imagining$ +ur na#ural
#enden*y #+ dis#urb #he #+#al sys#em as li##le as p+ssible ,+uld lead us #+ -+*us +ur
re&isi+ns up+n #hese spe*i-i* s#a#emen#s *+n*erning bri*6 h+uses +r *en#aurs! /hese
s#a#emen#s are -el#$ #here-+re$ #+ ha&e a sharper empiri*al re-eren*e #han highly
15 15 15 15 15
#he+re#i*al s#a#emen#s +- physi*s +r l+gi* +r +n#+l+gy! /he la##er s#a#emen#s may be
#h+ugh# +- as rela#i&ely *en#rally l+*a#ed ,i#hin #he #+#al ne#,+r6$ meaning merely #ha#
li##le pre-eren#ial *+nne*#i+n ,i#h any par#i*ular sense da#a +b#rudes i#sel-!
8s an empiri*is# 2 *+n#inue #+ #hin6 +- #he *+n*ep#ual s*heme +- s*ien*e as a #++l$
ul#ima#ely$ -+r predi*#ing -u#ure e4perien*e in #he ligh# +- pas# e4perien*e! (hysi*al
+bAe*#s are *+n*ep#ually imp+r#ed in#+ #he si#ua#i+n as *+n&enien# in#ermediaries -- n+#
by de-ini#i+n in #erms +- e4perien*e$ bu# simply as irredu*ible p+si#s
1Jb
*+mparable$
epis#em+l+gi*ally$ #+ #he g+ds +- %+mer! 7e# me in#erAe*# #ha# -+r my par# 2 d+$ <ua lay
physi*is#$ belie&e in physi*al +bAe*#s and n+# in %+mer?s g+ds) and 2 *+nsider i# a
s*ien#i-i* err+r #+ belie&e +#her,ise! =u# in p+in# +- epis#em+l+gi*al -++#ing #he physi*al
+bAe*#s and #he g+ds di--er +nly in degree and n+# in 6ind! =+#h s+r#s +- en#i#ies en#er
+ur *+n*ep#i+n +nly as *ul#ural p+si#s! /he my#h +- physi*al +bAe*#s is epis#em+l+gi*ally
superi+r #+ m+s# in #ha# i# has pr+&ed m+re e--i*a*i+us #han +#her my#hs as a de&i*e -+r
,+r6ing a manageable s#ru*#ure in#+ #he -lu4 +- e4perien*e!
(1951)
2magine$ -+r #he sa6e +- anal+gy$ #ha#
,e are gi&en #he ra#i+nal numbers! We
de&el+p an algebrai* #he+ry -+r reas+ning
ab+u# #hem$ bu# ,e -ind i# in*+n&enien#ly
*+mple4$ be*ause *er#ain -un*#i+ns su*h
as s<uare r++# la*6 &alues -+r s+me
argumen#s! /hen i# is dis*+&ered #ha# #he
rules +- +ur algebra *an be mu*h
simpli-ied by *+n*ep#ually augmen#ing
+ur +n#+l+gy ,i#h s+me my#hi*al en#i#ies$
#+ be *alled irra#i+nal numbers! 8ll ,e
*+n#inue #+ be really in#eres#ed in$ -irs#
and las#$ are ra#i+nal numbers) bu# ,e
-ind #ha# ,e *an *+mm+nly ge# -r+m +ne
la, ab+u# ra#i+nal numbers #+ an+#her
mu*h m+re <ui*6ly and simply by
pre#ending #ha# #he irra#i+nal numbers are
#here #++!
2 #hin6 #his a -air a**+un# +- #he
in#r+du*#i+n +- irra#i+nal numbers and
+#her e4#ensi+ns +- #he number sys#em!
/he -a*# #ha# #he my#hi*al s#a#us +-
irra#i+nal numbers e&en#ually ga&e ,ay
#+ #he Hede6ind- "ussell &ersi+n +- #hem
as *er#ain in-ini#e *lasses +- ra#i+s is
irrele&an# #+ my anal+gy! /ha# &ersi+n is
imp+ssible any,ay as l+ng as reali#y is
limi#ed #+ #he ra#i+nal numbers and n+#
e4#ended #+ *lasses +- #hem!
E+, 2 sugges# #ha# e4perien*e is
anal+g+us #+ #he ra#i+nal numbers and
#ha# #he physi*al +bAe*#s$ in anal+gy #+
#he irra#i+nal numbers$ are p+si#s ,hi*h
ser&e merely #+ simpli-y +ur #rea#men# +-
e4perien*e! /he physi*al +bAe*#s are n+
m+re redu*ible #+ e4perien*e #han #he

16 16 16 16 16
irra#i+nal numbers #+ ra#i+nal numbers$
bu# #heir in*+rp+ra#i+n in#+ #he #he+ry
enables us #+ ge# m+re easily -r+m +ne
s#a#emen# ab+u# e4perien*e #+ an+#her!
/he salien# di--eren*es be#,een #he
p+si#ing +- physi*al +bAe*#s and #he
p+si#ing +- irra#i+nal numbers are$ 2 #hin6$
Aus# #,+! :irs#$ #he -a*#+r +- simpli*a#i+n
is m+re +&er,helming in #he *ase +-
physi*al +bAe*#s #han in #he numeri*al
*ase! Be*+nd$ #he p+si#ing +- physi*al
+bAe*#s is -ar m+re ar*hai*$ being indeed
*+e&al$ 2 e4pe*#$ ,i#h language i#sel-! :+r
language is s+*ial and s+ depends -+r i#s
de&el+pmen# up+n in#ersubAe*#i&e
re-eren*e!
(+si#ing d+es n+# s#+p ,i#h ma*r+s*+pi* physi*al +bAe*#s! ObAe*#s a# #he a#+mi*
le&el and bey+nd are p+si#ed #+ ma6e #he la,s +- ma*r+s*+pi* +bAe*#s$ and ul#ima#ely
#he la,s +- e4perien*e$ simpler and m+re manageable) and ,e need n+# e4pe*# +r
demand -ull de-ini#i+n +- a#+mi* and suba#+mi* en#i#ies in #erms +- ma*r+s*+pi* +nes$
any m+re #han de-ini#i+n +- ma*r+s*+pi* #hings in #erms +- sense da#a! B*ien*e is a
*+n#inua#i+n +- *+mm+n sense$ and i# *+n#inues #he *+mm+n-sense e4pedien# +-
s,elling +n#+l+gy #+ simpli-y #he+ry!
(hysi*al +bAe*#s$ small and large$ are n+# #he +nly p+si#s! :+r*es are an+#her
e4ample) and indeed ,e are #+ld n+,adays #ha# #he b+undary be#,een energy and
ma##er is +bs+le#e! ;+re+&er$ #he abs#ra*# en#i#ies ,hi*h are #he subs#an*e +-
ma#hema#i*s -- ul#ima#ely *lasses and *lasses +- *lasses and s+ +n up -- are an+#her p+si#
in #he same spiri#! 5pis#em+l+gi*ally #hese are my#hs +n #he same -++#ing ,i#h physi*al
+bAe*#s and g+ds$ nei#her be##er n+r ,+rse e4*ep# -+r di--eren*es in #he degree #+ ,hi*h
#hey e4pedi#e +ur dealings ,i#h sense e4perien*es!
/he +&er-all algebra +- ra#i+nal and irra#i+nal numbers is underde#ermined by #he
algebra +- ra#i+nal numbers$ bu# is sm++#her and m+re *+n&enien#) and i# in*ludes #he
algebra +- ra#i+nal numbers as a Aagged +r gerrymandered par#!
19b
/+#al s*ien*e$
ma#hema#i*al and na#ural and human$ is similarly bu# m+re e4#remely underde#ermined
by e4perien*e! /he edge +- #he sys#em mus# be 6ep# s<uared ,i#h e4perien*e) #he res#$
,i#h all i#s elab+ra#e my#hs +r -i*#i+ns$ has as i#s +bAe*#i&e #he simpli*i#y +- la,s!
On#+l+gi*al <ues#i+ns$ under #his &ie,$ are +n a par ,i#h <ues#i+ns +- na#ural
s*ien*e!
20b
9+nsider #he <ues#i+n ,he#her #+ *+un#enan*e *lasses as en#i#ies! /his$ as 2
ha&e argued else,here$
9a21b
is #he <ues#i+n ,he#her #+ <uan#i-y ,i#h respe*# #+ &ariables
,hi*h #a6e *lasses as &alues! E+, 9arnap 1.5mpiri*ism$ seman#i*s$ and +n#+l+gy$.
Revue internationale de philosophie 4 (1950)$ 20-40!3 has main#ained
10a
#ha# #his is a
<ues#i+n n+# +- ma##ers +- -a*# bu# +- *h++sing a *+n&enien# language -+rm$ a
*+n&enien# *+n*ep#ual s*heme +r -rame,+r6 -+r s*ien*e! Wi#h #his 2 agree$ bu# +nly +n
#he pr+&is+ #ha# #he same be *+n*eded regarding s*ien#i-i* hyp+#heses generally! 9arnap
has re*+gni@ed
11a
#ha# he is able #+ preser&e a d+uble s#andard -+r +n#+l+gi*al <ues#i+ns
and s*ien#i-i* hyp+#heses +nly by assuming an abs+lu#e dis#in*#i+n be#,een #he analy#i*
and #he syn#he#i*) and 2 need n+# say again #ha# #his is a dis#in*#i+n ,hi*h 2 reAe*#!
22b

(1951)
B+me issues d+$ 2 gran#$ seem m+re a

1I 1I 1I 1I 1I
<ues#i+n +- *+n&enien# *+n*ep#ual
s*heme and +#hers m+re a <ues#i+n +-
bru#e -a*#!
/he issue +&er #here being *lasses seems m+re a <ues#i+n +- *+n&enien# *+n*ep#ual
s*heme) #he issue +&er #here being *en#aurs$ +r bri*6 h+uses +n 5lm B#ree#$ seems m+re
a <ues#i+n +- -a*#! =u# 2 ha&e been urging #ha# #his di--eren*e is +nly +ne +- degree$ and
#ha# i# #urns up+n +ur &aguely pragma#i* in*lina#i+n #+ adAus# +ne s#rand +- #he -abri* +-
s*ien*e ra#her #han an+#her in a**+mm+da#ing s+me par#i*ular re*al*i#ran# e4perien*e!
9+nser&a#ism -igures in su*h *h+i*es$ and s+ d+es #he <ues# -+r simpli*i#y!
9arnap$ 7e,is$ and +#hers #a6e a pragma#i* s#and +n #he <ues#i+n +- *h++sing
be#,een language -+rms$ s*ien#i-i* -rame,+r6s) bu# #heir pragma#ism lea&es +-- a# #he
imagined b+undary be#,een #he analy#i* and #he syn#he#i*! 2n repudia#ing su*h a
b+undary 2 esp+use a m+re #h+r+ugh pragma#ism! 5a*h man is gi&en a s*ien#i-i*
heri#age plus a *+n#inuing barrage +- sens+ry s#imula#i+n) and #he *+nsidera#i+ns ,hi*h
guide him in ,arping his s*ien#i-i* heri#age #+ -i# his *+n#inuing sens+ry pr+mp#ings are$
,here ra#i+nal$ pragma#i*!

No%&s
1a! Bee Whi#e$ ./he 8naly#i* and #he Byn#he#i*: 8n 'n#enable Hualism$. &ohn 'ewey(
Philosopher of )cience and Freedom (Ee, L+r6: 1950)$ p! 24! 1=a*63
1b! Bee .On Wha# /here 2s.$ p! 9! 1=a*63
2a! "! 9arnap$ *eaning and +ecessity (9hi*ag+$ 194I)$ pp! 9 --!) Logical Foundations
of Probability (9hi*ag+$ 1950)$ pp! I0 --! 1=a*63
2b! Bee .On Wha# /here 2s.$ p! 10! 1=a*63
a! /his is *+gni#i&e syn+nymy in a primary$ br+ad sense! 9arnap (*eaning and
+ecessity$ pp! 56 --!) and 7e,is (!nalysis of ,nowledge and Valuation 17a Balle$ 2ll!$
19463$ pp! J --!) ha&e sugges#ed h+,$ +n*e #his n+#i+n is a# hand$ a narr+,er sense +-
*+gni#i&e syn+nymy ,hi*h is pre-erable -+r s+me purp+ses *an in #urn be deri&ed! =u#
#his spe*ial rami-i*a#i+n +- *+n*ep#-building lies aside -r+m #he presen# purp+ses and
mus# n+# be *+n-used ,i#h #he br+ad s+r# +- *+gni#i&e syn+nymy here *+n*erned! 1=a*63
b! Bee .On Wha# /here 2s.$ p! 11-$ and ./he (r+blem +- ;eaning in 7inguis#i*s$. p!
4J-!1=a*63
4a! Bee$ -+r e4ample my *athematical Logic (Ee, L+r6$ 1949) 9ambridge$ ;ass!$
194I)$ se*! 24$ 26$ 2I) +r *ethods of Logic (Ee, L+r6$ 1950)$ se*! I --! 1=a*63
4b! "ud+l- 9arnap$ *eaning and +ecessity (9hi*ag+: 'ni&ersi#y +- 9hi*ag+ (ress$
194I)$ pp! 9--) Logical Foundations of Probability (9hi*ag+: 'ni&ersi#y +- 9hi*ag+
(ress$ 1950)!1=a*63
5a! /he ?i- and +nly i-? i#sel- is in#ended in #he #ru#h -un*#i+nal sense! Bee 9arnap$
*eaning and +ecessity$ p! 14! 1=a*63
5b! 8**+rding #+ an imp+r#an# &arian# sense +- ?de-ini#i+n?$ #he rela#i+n preser&ed may be
#he ,ea6er rela#i+n +- mere agreemen# in re-eren*e) see .E+#es +n #he /he+ry +-
"e-eren*e$. p! 12! =u#$ de-ini#i+n in #his sense is be##er ign+red in #he presen#
*+nne*#i+n$ being irrele&an# #+ #he <ues#i+n +- syn+nymy!1=a*63
6a! /he d+*#rine *an indeed be -+rmula#ed ,i#h #erms ra#her #han s#a#emen#s as #he uni#s!
/hus 9! 2! 7e,is des*ribes #he meaning +- a #erm as .a *ri#eri+n in mind$ by re-eren*e #+
,hi*h +ne is able #+ apply +r re-use #+ apply #he e4pressi+n in <ues#i+n in #he *ase +-
presen#ed$ +r imagined #hings +r si#ua#i+ns. (9arnap$ *eaning and +ecessity$ p! 1!)!
1=a*63
1J 1J 1J 1J 1J
6b! 9-! 9!2! 7e,is$ 8 Bur&ey +- Bymb+li* 7+gi* (=er6eley$ 191J)$ p! I!1=a*63
Ia! G+hn %+rne /++6e$ The 'iversions of Purely (7+nd+n$ 1II6) =+s#+n$ 1J06)$ 2$ *h! ii!
1=a*63
Ib! /his is *+gni#i&e syn+nymy in a primary$ br+ad sense! 9arnap (*eaning and
+ecessity$ pp! 56 --!) and 7e,is (!nalysis of ,nowledge and Valuation 17a Balle$ 2ll!$
19463$ pp! J --!) ha&e sugges#ed h+,$ +n*e #his n+#i+n is a# hand$ a narr+,er sense +-
*+gni#i&e syn+nymy ,hi*h is pre-erable -+r s+me purp+ses *an in #urn be deri&ed! =u#
#his spe*ial rami-i*a#i+n +- *+n*ep#-building lies aside -r+m #he presen# purp+ses and
mus# n+# be *+n-used ,i#h #he br+ad s+r# +- *+gni#i&e syn+nymy here *+n*erned! 1=a*63
Ja! "! 9arnap$ 'er logische !ufbau der Welt (=erlin$ 192J)! 1=a*63
Jb! (p! J1--$ .Ee, :+unda#i+ns -+r ;a#hema#i*al 7+gi*$. *+n#ains a des*rip#i+n +- Aus#
su*h a language$ e4*ep# #ha# #here happens #+ be Aus# +ne predi*a#e$ #he #,+-pla*e
predi*a#e ?e?! 1=a*63
9a! :+r e4ample$ in .E+#es +n 54is#en*e and Ee*essi#y$. &ournal of Philosophy$ 11
(194)$ 11-12I! 1=a*63
9b! Bee .On Wha# /here 2s$. pp! 5-J) see als+ .Ee, :+unda#i+ns -+r ;a#hema#i*al
7+gi*$. p! J5-) .;eaning and 54is#en#ial 2n-eren*e$. p! 166-! 1=a*63
10a! 9arnap$ .5mpiri*ism$ Beman#i*s$ and On#+l+gy$. Revue internationale de
philosophie$ 4 (1950)$ 20-40! 1=a*63
10b! Bee .Ee, :+unda#i+ns -+r ;a#hema#i*al 7+gi*$. p! JI!1=a*63
11a! 9arnap$ .5mpiri*ism$ Beman#i*s$ and On#+l+gy$. p! 2! 1=a*63
11b! On su*h de&i*es see als+ ."e-eren*e and ;+dali#y!.1=a*63
12b! /his is #he subs#an*e +- Quine$ ;a#hema#i*al 7+gi* (1940) re&! ed!$ 1951)!1=a*63
1b! /he ?i- and +nly i-? i#sel- is in#ended in #he #ru#h -un*#i+nal sense! Bee "! 9arnap$
*eaning and +ecessity (194I)$ p! 14!1=a*63
14b! /he -+reg+ing paragraph ,as n+# par# +- #he presen# essay as +riginally published!
2# ,as pr+mp#ed by ;ar#in$ ("! ;! ;ar#in$ .On ?analy#i*?$. Philosophical )tudies
(1952)$ 42-4I! 1=a*63

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