Earthquake distribution is not random: very narrow deforming zones

(= plate boundaries) versus large areas with no earthquakes (= rigid

plate interiors)
Tectonic plates and their boundaries today -- continents
are embedded in the plates and move with them
Ocean-ocean
subduction
! island arc
Oceanic spreading
center
! creation of new
oceanic crust
Ocean-continent
subduction
! volcanism
Continental rift
! break-up of a
continent
Lithospheric plates float on a viscous mantle.
Deformation (e.g., earthquakes) occur at their boundaries: divergent
(spreading centers), convergent (subductions), or strike-slip
Transform
fault
! strike-slip
motion
lithosphere
viscous mantle
viscous mantle
lithosphere
The Global
Positioning System
Three steps:
1. Satellites broadcast a radio
signal towards the Earth
2. Receivers record the signal and
convert it into satellite-receiver
distances
3. Post-processing consist of
converting these distances into
positions
Precision:
! $100 receiver ! 100 m
! $10,000 receiver ! 1 mm
Principle of GPS positioning
satellite 1
Earth
"
1
satellite 3
"
3
"
2
You are here
x
"
2
satellite 2
Satellites broadcast signals on 1.2 GHz
and 1.5 GHz frequencies:
Satellite 1 sends a signal at time t
e1
Ground receiver receives it signal at time t
r
The range measurement !
1
to satellite 1 is:
!
1
= (t
r
-t
e1
) x speed of light
We are therefore located on a sphere
centered on satellite 1, with radius !
1
3 satellites => intersection of 3 spheres
Or use the mathematical model:
A! The receiver clocks are mediocre and
not synchronized with the satellite clocks
Time difference between the satellite clocks
and the receiver clock
Additional unknown => we need 4
observations = 4 satellites visible at the
same time
2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) (
r s r s r s
s
r
Z Z Y Y X X ! + ! + ! = "
Principle of GPS positioning
GPS data = satellite-receiver
range measurements (!)
Range can be measured in two
ways:
1. Measuring the propagation time of
the GPS signal:
Easy, cheap
Limited post-processing required
As precise as the time
measurements ~1-10 m
2. Counting the number of cycles of
the carrier frequency
More difficult
Requires significant post-processing
As precise as the phase detection ~1
mm
Earth
x
t
e
t
r
data = (t
r
-t
e
) x c
data = # x n
# ~ 20 cm
From codes:
From carrier:
(unit = meters)
(unit = cycles)
Principle of GPS positioning
! GPS phase equation (units of cycles):
! Range model:
! Phase equation linearized
! Form a system of n_data equations for n_unknowns (positions,
phase ambiguities, tropospheric parameters)
! Solve using weighted least squares (or other estimation
techniques)
! End product: position estimates + associated covariance
!
"
i
k
(t) = #
i
k
(t) $
f
c
+ h
k
(t) % h
i
(t)
( )
$ f + ion
i
k
(t) + trop
i
k
(t) % N
i
k
+&
!
"
i
k
= (X
k
# X
i
)
2
+ (Y
k
#Y
i
)
2
+ (Z
k
# Z
i
)
2
" = phase measurement = DATA
!
i
k
= geometric range = CONTAINS UNKNOWNS X
i
,Y
i
,Z
i
X
k
,Y
k
,Z
k
= satellite positions (GIVEN)
t = time of epoch
i = receiver, k = satellite
f = GPS frequency, c = speed of light
h
k
= satellite clock error, h
i
= receiver clock error
ion
i
k
= ionospheric delay, trop
i
k
= tropospheric delay
N
i
k
= phase ambiguity, $ = phase noise
Principle of GPS positioning
!Precise GPS positioning requires:
Dual-frequency equipment
Rigorous field procedures
Long (several days) observation sessions
Complex data post-processing
Magnitude Treatment Error source
~ 1 cm Use correction tables Antenna phase center
~ 0.5 m Choose good sites! Multipath
??? Choose good operators! Site setup
centimeters Precession, Nutation, UT, Polar motion Geodetic models
centimeters Tides (polar and solid Earth), Ocean loading Geophysical models
2 cm to 100 m Get precise (2-3 cm) orbits Satellite orbits
1-50 m Dual frequency measurements Ionospheric refraction
0.5-2 m External measurement or estimation of tropospheric
parameters
Tropospheric refraction
meters Double difference or direct estimation Receiver clock errors
~1 m Double difference or direct estimation Satellite clocks errors
< 1 mm None Phase measurement noise
Campaign measurements Continuous measurements
! Field strategy:
Network of geodetic benchmarks perfectly attached
to bedrock -- Separation typically 10-100 km
2 to 3 measurement sessions of 24 hours
! Advantages:
Large number/density of sites with few receivers
Relatively low cost
! Problems:
Transient deformation
Monumentation and antenna setup
! Typical setup:
Antenna mounted permanently on a stable geodetic
monument, measurements 24h/day, 365 days/year
Site protected and unattended
Data downloaded daily or more frequently if needed
(and if possible)
! Advantages:
Better long-term precision
Better detection of transient signals
! Problems:
Cost and number of sites
Power and communication
Continents show consistent
pattern of displacement
They move at speeds ~few
cm/yr = the speed your
fingernails grow
Repeated GPS measurements show that the longitude of Algonquin
(Canada) is changing at a rate of 1.5 cm/yr
Norabuena et al.
(1999): deceleration
back to at least 20
My, initiation of
Andes growth
Consequence of
construction of the
Andes?
Increased friction and
viscous drag as
leading edge of Sa
thickens?
Norabuena et al., Science, 1998
Hutton et al., GJI, 2001
Jalisco earthquake, October
1995, Mw=8.0
Episodic Tremors and Slip
Dragert et al., Science 2001
http://www.pgc.nrcan.gc.ca/seismo/ETS/ETS.htm
Juan de Fuca subduction
Typical interseismic strain accumulation
Episodes of aseismic slip every 13 to 16 months
Typically 10 day long, 5 mm surface displacement
Episodic Tremors and Slip
Modeling shows:
~ 2 cm slip on the subduction
Slip area ~50 km x 300 km
Depth of ~25 km to 45 km
Equivalent to a M6.7 earthquake (similar to 2001
Nisqually earthquake near Seattle)
Cause?
Consequences? (e.g. for future earthquakes)
Vertical motions:
post-glacial rebound, up to cm/yr
Sella et al., 2007
Time dependent vertical motions:
hydrological loading
VanDam et al., 2001
Bevis et al., 2005
Comparison between GPS observations at Manaus
(Amazonian basin, red dots) and the predicted flexure
of an elastic plate under water loading.
A model of the peak-to-peak amplitude of vertical motions
due to hydrological loading (=water + snow)