British Forum for Ethnomusicology

Forever Red: The Invention of Solo dizi Music in Post-1949 China

Author(s): Frederick Lau
Source: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 5 (1996), pp. 113-131
Published by: British Forum for Ethnomusicology
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3060869
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BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY
Fo r e v e r Re d : t h e inv e nt io n o f s o l o
d iz i m u s ic in
po s t -1949
Ch ina
Fr e d e r ic k La u
Th e s o l o
r e pe r t o r y
f o r t h e t r a d it io na l Ch ine s e ba m bo o f l u t e d iz i c o ns is t s
m o s t l y
o f
pie c e s
c o m po s e d
in t h e
po s t -1949 pe r io d
in t h e
Pe o pl e 's Re pu bl ic
o f Ch ina .
De s pit e
it s
r e l a t iv e l y
r e c e nt
o r igin,
t h is m u s ic is c o ns id e r e d
by m a ny
Ch ine s e m u s ic ia ns t o be a c e nt u r ie s -o l d
t r a d it io n.
Fo c u s s ing
o n t h e c o nt r ibu t io ns o f d iz i m u s ic ia ns , t h is
pa pe r
e xa m ine s t h e
pr o c e s s e s by
wh ic h t h is m u s ic h a s be c o m e c a no nis e d a nd t h e r e a s o ns be h ind it s
e m e r ge nc e .
In
pa r t ic u l a r ,
it d e s c r ibe s t h e t r a ns f o r m a t io n o f d iz i
pe r f o r m e r s ' s t a t u s , m u s ic a l
s t yl e
a nd
r e pe r t o r y a ga ins t
t h e
ba c kd r o p
o f t h e
po s t
1949
s o c io -po l it ic a l
c o nt e xt .
IHt E 1949 CHINESE COMMUNIST REVOLUTION m a r ke d a
s ignif ic a nt
m
t u r ning po int
in t h e
h is t o r y
o f m o d e m Ch ina . Th e
a t t e m pt
t o e s t a bl is h a
po pu l is t id e o l o gy
ba s e d o n t h e
t h o u gh t s
o f
Ma r x,
Le nin a nd Ma o h a s l e d t o
m a s s iv e r e f o r m s in a l l d o m a ins o f
s o c ie t y.
Es s e nt ia l t o t h e e s t a bl is h m e nt o f
im a ge s
o f na t io na l
u nit y
in s o c ia l is t Ch ina wa s t h e u s e o f e m bl e m a t ic c u l t u r a l
f o r m s int e nd e d t o a r t ic u l a t e a nd m a int a in l inks be t we e n t h e
pa r t y
a nd t h e m a s s e s .
Co ns e qu e nt l y,
t r a d it io na l c u l t u r a l f o r m s a nd
s t yl e s
a s s o c ia t e d wit h t h e "c o m m o n
pe o pl e "
we r e
pr o m o t e d l a r ge l y by
t h e c r e a t io n a nd
l e git im iz a t io n
o f ne w c u l t u r a l
ge nr e s by
t h e St a t e a f t e r 1949
(Pe r r is 1983, Mc Do u ga l l 1984).
Onc e ne w
s t yl e s
in
d o m a ins s u c h a s m u s ic , l it e r a t u r e , pa int ing
a nd d a nc e we r e d e f ine d a nd
m a t e r ia l iz e d in
pr a c t ic e , t h e y c l e a r l y
f u nc t io ne d a s e m bl e m s f o r t h e St a t e in
r e pr e s e nt ing
it s e l f a nd ind e e d
c r e a t ing
it s e l f in t h e
po pu l a r pe r c e pt io n.
Th is
c u l t u r a l
im a ge r y, pr o je c t e d by
t h e
St a t e , s e e m s t o h a v e h a d s o m e
im pa c t
pa r t ic u l a r l y
o n t h e r e c e nt
ge ne r a t io n
in
d ir e c t ing
t h e int e r na l iz e d
s ys t e m s
o f
m e a ning t h r o u gh
wh ic h
pe o pl e
u nd e r s t a nd a nd
r e s po nd
t o t h e ir c o nd it io ns o f
e xis t e nc e
(Ha l l 1985).
It is in t h is
int e ns e l y po l it ic iz e d
e nv ir o nm e nt t h a t ne w
id e a s
e m e r ge d ,
f u s e d wit h , a nd a t t im e s e v e n
r e pl a c e d
t r a d it io na l o ne s , giv ing
r is e
t o ne w s o c ia l a nd
po l it ic a l
f o r m s . Th is t r e nd
u nd o u bt e d l y
a f f e c t e d m u s ic a l
pr a c t ic e
a nd
ga v e
ne w
m e a ning
t o t h e d e f init io n o f "t r a d it io na l m u s ic "
(c h u a nt o ng yinyu e ).
1
Wh a t f o l l o ws is a n a c c o u nt o f t h e
m a jo r
t r a ns f o r m a t io ns o f
t h e s o l o d iz i t r a d it io n s inc e t h e 1950s .
Th r o u gh
a s e r ie s o f c a s e s t u d ie s ,
I
h o pe
t o
1
Fo r a m o r e d e t a il e d d is c u s s io n o f t h e t e r m
c h u a nt o ng yinyu e
in t h e
po s t -1949
Ch ine s e c o nt e xt ,
s e e
Fa ng 1981, Pr o v ine 1981 a nd Re e s 1997. As in t h e
Bu l ga r ia n
s it u a t io n d e s c r ibe d
by
Ric e
(1994),
t h e d e f init io n o f t h e t e r m "t r a d it io n" a l s o
po s e s
a s e r io u s d il e m m a f o r
m a ny
Ch ine s e
m u s ic ia ns wh o wo r k
pr im a r il y
in t h e a r e a o f m inz u
yinyu e -na t io na l
o r t r a d it io na l m u s ic .
113
VOL. 5 1996
114 Br it is h Jo u r na l
o f Et h no m u s ic o l o gy,
v o l . (1996)
il l u s t r a t e t h e
im pa c t
o f a n im m e ns e s o c ie t a l
c h a nge
o n t h e m u s ic ia ns , d e s c r ibe t h e
c r ys t a l l iz a t io n
o f a
s ingl e
m u s ic
ge nr e ,
a nd o f f e r s o m e
int e r pr e t a t io ns
o n t h e
s it u a t io n.
In m o s t
e t h no m u s ic o l o gic a l l it e r a t u r e , m u s ic a l
c h a nge
is v ie we d in c o nne c t io n
wit h a s h if t in t h e e xt e r na l e nv ir o nm e nt
(e .g.
Me r r ia m 1977, Bl a c king 1978,
Ka r t o m i 1981, Ne t t l
1983).
In r e c e nt
ye a r s , h o we v e r , wit h t h e a d v e nt o f
pr a c t ic e
t h e o r y
in t h e s o c ia l s c ie nc e s , s o m e r e c e nt
e t h no m u s ic o l o gis t s
a r e r e l u c t a nt t o s e e
m u s ic a l
c h a nge s im pl y
a s c a u s e a nd e f f e c t . Ins t e a d , t h e y
h a v e
be gu n,
o n t h e o ne
h a nd , t o f o c u s o n ind iv id u a l s a nd t h e ir a c t io ns a nd o n t h e o t h e r h a nd t o
e xpl o r e
t h e d ia l e c t ic
r e l a t io ns h ip
be t we e n t h e m a nd t h e ir s o c io c u l t u r a l m il ie u
(Co pl a n
1991, Wa t e r m a n
1991, Tu r ino 1991, Er l m a nn 1991, 1996). Mu s ic a l
c h a nge ,
in
t h is v ie w, is a t o nc e a
pr o d u c t
o f s o c ie t a l
c h a nge
a nd a n a r t ic u l a t io n o f t h e s o c ia l
a ge nt s ' po s it io n
in t h e ne w s o c ia l
c o nf igu r a t io n.
In t h e wo r d s o f Ve it Er l m a nn,
c h a nge
is a
pr o d u c t
o f a n "ind e t e r m ina t e
c o ngl o m e r a t e
o f f o r c e s -bo t h
im pe r s o na l
a nd
gr o u nd e d
in ind iv id u a l
a ge nc y-int e r a c t ing
wit h e a c h o t h e r o n a
s t a ge
o f m u c h
l a r ge r
d im e ns io ns "
(1996: 306).
Th is t h e o r e t ic a l s h if t h a s d r a wn
o u r a t t e nt io n t o t h e
pe o pl e
wh o
c a r r y
o u t t h e
c h a nge s
r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e m o no l it h ic
d o m ina nc e o f t h e e xt e r na l e nv ir o nm e nt . It is in t h is
l igh t
t h a t I v ie w
c h a nge
a s a
r e s u l t o f bo t h s o c ie t a l
c h a nge s
a nd c h o ic e s m a d e
by
m u s ic ia ns in
r e s po ns e
t o
t h e m .
Us ing pr e v io u s
t h e o r ie s o f m u s ic a l
c h a nge
a s a
po int
o f
d e pa r t u r e ,
I
s u gge s t
t h a t t h e na t u r e o f
c h a nge
c a n
o nl y
be
f u l l y
u nd e r s t o o d wh e n h u m a n m o t iv a t io ns
a nd a c t io ns a r e t a ke n int o c o ns id e r a t io n.
Th e r e s u l t o f m u s ic a l
c h a nge
h a s be e n d e s c r ibe d
pr im a r il y
in a d u a l is t ic
pe r s pe c t iv e by c o nt r a s t ing a s pe c t s
o f t h e "o l d " wit h t h e "ne w".
Co nc e pt u a l
l a be l s
s u c h a s We s t e r niz a t io n, u r ba nis a t io n, m o d e r nis a t io n a nd a c c u l t u r a t io n a r e bu t
s o m e o f t h e
wa ys
o f
e xpl a ining
t h e na t u r e a nd c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f d if f e r e nt
t ype s
o f
c h a nge s (Ne t t l 1983, 1992:
381-6).
A m o r e r e c e nt
a ppr o a c h , e xa m ining c h a nge
f r o m a d ia c h r o nic s o c io c u l t u r a l
pe r s pe c t iv e , s u gge s t s
t h a t
m a ny
t r a d it io ns a r e in
f a c t "inv e nt e d "
(Ho bs ba wm 1983). Ch a l l e nging
t h e
po pu l a r
be l ie f t h a t "t r a d it io n"
is t im e l e s s a nd
u nc h a nging,
Ho bs ba wm s h o ws h o w l inks t o t h e
pa s t
c a n be
f a c t it io u s a nd
a r bit r a r y.
He d e f ine s "inv e nt e d t r a d it io n" a s "a s e t o f
pr a c t ic e s ,
no r m a l l y go v e r ne d by o v e r t l y
o r
t a c it l y a c c e pt e d
r u l e s a nd o f a r it u a l o r
s ym bo l ic
na t u r e ,
wh ic h s e e k t o inc u l c a t e c e r t a in v a l u e s a nd no r m s o f be h a v io u r
by
r e pe t it io n,
wh ic h
a u t o m a t ic a l l y im pl ie s c o nt inu it y
wit h t h e
pa s t " (1983: 1).
Th e t e r m "inv e nt io n" in
m y t it l e -ins pir e d by
Ho bs ba wm -is u s e d a s a
po e t ic
im a ge
t o u nd e r s c o r e t h e
im po r t a nc e
a nd
u biqu it o u s
r o l e o f s o c ia l
a ge nt s . Bu il d ing
o n Ho bs ba wm 's
id e a ,
I wa nt t o
e m ph a s is e
t h a t "inv e nt io n" is a r e s u l t o f h u m a n
a c t io ns a nd it is
pe o pl e
wh o a r e inv o l v e d in t h e a c t o f
m a king
a nd
r e m a king.
Ho we v e r ,
I a m h e s it a nt t o u s e t h e t e r m "inv e nt e d t r a d it io n" in t h e Ho bs ba wm ia n
s e ns e be c a u s e it c r e a t e s a n
u nne c e s s a r y
d is t inc t io n be t we e n t wo kind s o f
t r a d it io ns , s o m e
ne wl y f o r m e d , o t h e r s
"ge nu ine "
o r "o l d ". Wh e n d o e s a n
"inv e nt e d t r a d it io n"
s t o p be ing
s u c h a nd t r a ns f o r m int o a
"ge nu ine
t r a d it io n"?
Th e f a c t t h a t s o m e t r a d it io ns h a v e be e n a r o u nd
l o nge r
t h a n o t h e r s d o e s no t
a u t o m a t ic a l l y
be a r
a ny
r e l e v a nc e t o
pr e s e nt -d a y e f f ic a c y
a nd v a l u e . Like wis e ,
La u : So l o d iz i m u s ic in
po s t -1949 Ch ina 115
wh a t
a ppe a r s
t o h a v e
c h a nge d
in
pr a c t ic e t h r o u gh
t im e
m a y s im pl y
be a n
a t t e m pt
t o m a int a in a
l o ngs t a nd ing
f u nc t io n
a ga ins t
a
s h if t ing
s o c ia l a nd
po l it ic a l
c o nt e xt .
Al l t r a d it io ns a r e t o s o m e e xt e nt "c r e a t e d " o r "inv e nt e d " a t s o m e
po int
in
t im e ,
wit h
d if f e r ing d e gr e e s
o f c o ns c io u s ne s s a nd m o t iv a t io n.
Th e y
a r e a t ba s e a s e t o f
c o m m u na l l y a c c e pt e d pr a c t ic e s
t h a t s e r v e s a
s ym bo l ic
o r
pr a c t ic a l pu r po s e .
To
c h a r a c t e r is e o ne a s "inv e nt e d " a nd t h e o t h e r no t is
m is l e a d ing
a nd
d o d ging
t h e
e s s e nt ia l is s u e s . Ra t h e r t h a n
c a s t ing
t h e m wit h in
r igid bo u nd a r ie s ,
it is m o r e
f r u it f u l t o
pl a c e
t h e m
a l o ng
a c o nt inu u m a nd t o f o c u s o n t h e
wa ys
e a c h o f t h e m
h a s be e n
s h a pe d by
ind iv id u a l s wit h in a
s pe c if ic
h is t o r ic a l m o m e nt a nd c o nt e xt .
In t h is v e in, a nu m be r o f s t u d ie s h a v e
pr o bl e m a t is e d
t h e no t io ns o f
"t r a d it io na l ",
"inv e nt e d " o r "m o d e r n"
by d e m o ns t r a t ing
t h e ir
f l u id it y
a nd c o nt r a d ic t io n
(Fe int u c h 1993, Co pl a n 1991, Wa t e r m a n 1991, Sc h u yl e r 1990, Er l m a nn
1996).
It
wa s
a r gu e d
t h a t "t r a d it io n
[c a n be ]
a
h igh l y
a r t ic u l a t e
e xpr e s s io n
o f a h is t o r ic a l
c o ns c io u s ne s s "
t h r o u gh
wh ic h "h u m a n a c t o r s
d e pl o y h is t o r ic a l l y
s a l ie nt c u l t u r a l
c a t e go r ie s
t o c o ns t r u c t t h e ir s e l f -a wa r e ne s s "
(Er l m a nn 1996:
139). Su bje c t
po s it io ning
c a n be a
po we r f u l
f o r c e in
ge ne r a t ing pr a c t ic e
a nd in
a l t e r ing
t h e
d e f init io n o f "t r a d it io n".2
Cr it ic is m a s id e , Ho bs ba wm 's
wa r ning
t h a t "t r a d it io ns wh ic h
a ppe a r
o r c l a im t o
be o l d a r e o f t e n
qu it e
r e c e nt in
o r igin
a nd s o m e t im e s inv e nt e d "
(1983: 1)
is we l l
t a ke n. I a l s o
a gr e e
t h a t
c h a nge s
in a t r a d it io n o c c u r
f r e qu e nt l y
"wh e n a
r a pid
t r a ns f o r m a t io n o f
s o c ie t y
we a ke ns o r
d e s t r o ys
t h e s o c ia l
pa t t e r ns
f o r wh ic h 'o l d '
t r a d it io ns h a d be e n
d e s igne d , pr o d u c ing
ne w o ne s t o wh ic h
t h e y
we r e no t
a ppl ic a bl e ..." (ibid .: 4). Vie wing
t h e
pr o bl e m
f r o m a
s l igh t l y
d if f e r e nt
a ngl e , m y
pa pe r
f o c u s e s o n t h e
pr o c e s s e s
o f inv e nt io n a nd t h e ir
r e l a t io ns h ip
t o t h e
pe o pl e
wh o h a v e c r e a t e d t h e m . In o t h e r wo r d s , h o w d o
pe o pl e
d e a l wit h
t h ings
l ike
"t r a d it io ns ", a nd wh a t d o
t h e y br ing
t o t h e e s t a bl is h e d
pr a c t ic e s
a nd ins t it u t io ns
wh e n t h e ir s o c ia l c o nd it io ns a nd d e m a nd s h a v e be e n t r a ns f o r m e d ?
Wh y
d o
pe o pl e
be h a v e t h e
wa y t h e y
d o in a
s pe c if ic
s o c io c u l t u r a l f o r m a t io n? In t h is
pa pe r ,
I wa nt
t o
s u gge s t
a
wa y
o f
t h inking
a bo u t t r a d it io n a nd
c h a nge
f r o m t h e
v a nt a ge po int
o f
h u m a n
a ge nt s
a nd t o
h igh l igh t
t h e ne e d t o
a na l ys e
t h e s e a c t o r s in t e r m s o f t h e ir
po s it io n
wit h in
pa r t ic u l a r t im e s , s pa c e s ,
a nd f ie l d s o f h u m a n be h a v io u r . Th e c a s e
s t u d ie s wil l il l u s t r a t e t h a t t h e
e m e r ge nc e
o f a ne w m u s ic t r a d it io n c a nno t be
u nd e r s t o o d
s im pl y
a s "inv e nt e d t r a d it io n" wit h o u t
c o ns id e r ing
t h e c o nc e r ns ,
m o t iv a t io ns a nd be h a v io u r s o f t h e m u s ic ia ns in c o nt e xt .
Fo l l o wing
Cl if f o r d Ge e r t z 's no t io n o f c u l t u r e
(1973),
I v ie w t r a d it io n a s "we bs
o f
s ignif ic a nc e
a nd
m e a nings " s pu n by
s o c ia l a c t o r s wh ic h in t u r n
h e l p
t h e m t o
d e f ine
r e a l it y
(ibid .: 5).
Tr a d it io n is f l u id a nd
t r a ns f o r m a bl e , bu t it c a n
o nl y
be
c h a nge d by pe o pl e ,
no t
by
it s e l f . As Ed wa r d Sh il s
a r gu e s s u c c inc t l y, "no t h ing
c a l l e d a t r a d it io n is a
s ingl e t h ing:
e a c h o f it s e l e m e nt s is
o pe n
t o
a c c e pt a nc e ,
m o d if ic a t io n, o r
r e je c t io n" (1981: 45).
Th e d is c u s s io n be l o w r e v o l v e s a r o u nd t h e
2
I d o no t wis h t o e v o ke t h e d e ba t e o n t h e t e r m "t r a d it io n".
Al t h o u gh
u s e d in
m a ny
d if f e r e nt
c o nt e xt s ,
it is
h igh l y c o nt e s t e d a nd
s l ippe r y
a nd t h u s a l m o s t t o o br o a d t o be
m e a ningf u l .
Fo r a
r a nge
o f it s
m e a ning
a nd
u s a ge
a s we l l a s d is c u s s io ns o n t h e v a r io u s
pr o c e s s e s
o f it s m a int e na nc e
a nd t r a ns f o r m a t io n, s e e Bo h l m a n 1988: 134-5; Wa t e r m a n 1990: 12; Gl a s s ie 1995; Ric e 1994:
12-15; Du a r a 1995: 86-90; And e r s o n 1983: 11-16.
116 Br it is h Jo u r na l
o f Et h no m u s ic o l o gy,
v o l . 5
(1996)
t r a d it io na l Ch ine s e f l u t e , d i o r d iz i-a t r a ns v e r s e ba m bo o f l u t e o f Ha n
o r igin
wit h
s ix
f inge r
h o l e s a nd a bl o wh o l e . Th e m o s t d is t inc t iv e
qu a l it y
o f t h e d iz i is it s na s a l
a nd
bu z z ing
t o ne
qu a l it y,
c a u s e d
by
a
v ibr a t ing
m e m br a ne
c o v e r ing
a h o l e
s it u a t e d be t we e n t h e bl o wh o l e a nd t h e ne a r e s t
f inge r
h o l e .
(Se e f igs . 1-2.)
In
r e s e a r c h ing
t h e s o l o d iz i
r e pe r t o r y
in t h e
po s t -1949 c o nt e xt , I h a v e
c o nf r o nt e d is s u e s c e nt r a l t o t h e m a int e na nc e a nd f o r m a t io n o f t r a d it io ns
(1991).
Th e s e inc l u d e t h e s o u r c e a nd
o r igin
o f t h e
c o nt e m po r a r y r e pe r t o r y, pe r f o r m a nc e
pr a c t ic e ,
a nd t h e s t a t u s o f d iz i
pe r f o r m e r s
in a
l a r ge r
s o c ia l c o nt e xt . I f o u nd t h a t
pr e s e nt -d a y
d iz i s o l o s be a r l it t l e r e s e m bl a nc e t o
m a ny pie c e s d a t ing
f r o m t h e
e a r l y
pa r t
o f t h e
c e nt u r y
a nd t h a t a d is t inc t s o l o
r e pe r t o r y
d id no t
r e a l l y
e xis t be f o r e t h e
Re v o l u t io n
(La u 1995).
Sim il a r t o t h a t o f t h e e r h u a s d e s c r ibe d
by
St o c k
(1992),
e a r l ie r d iz i
pe r f o r m a nc e
wa s c h a r a c t e r is e d
by
d iv e r s if ie d
r e gio na l r e pe r t o r ie s
a nd
s t yl e s ,
wit h no c l e a r
s t yl is t ic
d is t inc t io n be t we e n s o l o
pl a ying
a nd e ns e m bl e
t r a d it io ns
(Th r a s h e r 1978).
Th is r e c e nt s o l o d iz i
r e pe r t o r y
is
f r e qu e nt l y po r t r a ye d
a s
c o nt inu ing
a n
u nbr o ke n s o l o d iz i t r a d it io n
d a t ing
f r o m t h e
pr e -1949 pe r io d (Jia ng 1957, Zh a o
1983, 1985, Li 1982, 1987, Ga o 1981, Yu a n 1987, Ye
1996). De v e l o pe d
o v e r t h e
l a s t f iv e d e c a d e s , t h is
c o r pu s
o f r e c e nt
c o m po s e d pie c e s
h a s be e n c o ns id e r e d t h e
c o r e
r e pe r t o r y
f o r t h e d iz i
d e s pit e
it s
l o ng h is t o r y
a s a s o l o ins t r u m e nt a nd it s
im po r t a nt
r o l e in
m a ny r e gio na l
ins t r u m e nt a l m u s ic s a nd
o pe r a s (ibid .).
Th is
v ie w, pr o m o t e d
a nd r e inf o r c e d
by
t h e St a t e -r u n
r e c o r d ing ind u s t r y,
m a s s m e d ia ,
c o nc e r t s , a nd m u s ic c o ns e r v a t o ir e s , is
d e e pl y
e nt r e nc h e d in bo t h t h e a c a d e m ic
s e t t ing
a nd
po pu l a r pe r c e pt io n. Ma ny
d iz i
pe r f o r m e r s
a nd s c h o l a r s wh o m I
int e r v ie we d c a n
e f f o r t l e s s l y
na m e s e v e r a l o f t h e f a m o u s m o d e m d iz i
c o m po s it io ns
a nd
pl a ye r s
s u c h a s Lu
Ch u nl ing, Fe ng Zic u n, a nd
Wa ng
Tie c h u i.
Int e r e s t ingl y,
m o s t wo u l d a d m it t h a t
t h e y
kno w
v e r y
l it t l e a bo u t
e a r l y
s o l o d iz i m u s ic . Th is is
c o m m o n
a m o ng
bo t h d iz i
pl a ye r s
a nd no n-d iz i
s pe c ia l is t s
a l ike a t t h e
c o ns e r v a t o ir e s a nd in c a s u a l c o nv e r s a t io n.3 In o t h e r
wo r d s , a f e w f a m o u s
pl a ye r s
h a v e a c h ie v e d
s u pe r s t a r s t a t u s , a nd t h e ir
r e pr e s e nt a t iv e c o m po s it io ns
a r e
wid e l y
kno wn.
Fu r t h e r m o r e , a l o ng
wit h
c h a nging
m u s ic a e s t h e t ic s a nd
c o m po s it io na l pr a c t ic e ,
t h e t r e a t m e nt o f d iz i m u s ic ia ns h a s a l s o
im pr o v e d .
In c o nt r a s t t o t h e u nf a v o u r a bl e
a t t it u d e t o wa r d s t h e d iz i a nd it s
pl a ye r s
be f o r e 1949, t h e
pr e s t ige
a nd
c e nt r a l it y
t h e y
e njo y
t o d a y c l e a r l y
r e f l e c t a f u nd a m e nt a l
c h a nge
in a t t it u d e s t o wa r d s
m u s ic ia ns in
ge ne r a l .
Al l t h e s e
c h a nge s
in
s u bje c t po s it io n
no d o u bt
pr e s e nt
m u s ic a l
c h a l l e nge s
t o t h e m u s ic ia ns -h o w t o m a ke s e ns e o f t h e m u s ic a l
pa s t
a nd
s e t t h e c o u r s e f o r t h e f u t u r e .
Aga ins t
t h e
c h a nging
c o nt e xt a nd
po l it ic a l d e m a nd s ,
t h e y
h a v e t o
ne go t ia t e
a nd d e c id e o n t h e
wa y
o f
h a nd l ing
t h e a v a il a bl e m u s ic a l
3
Al t h o u gh
ba s e d
pr inc ipa l l y
a t t h e
Sh a ngh a i Co ns e r v a t o r y
o f Mu s ic
d u r ing m y f ie l d wo r k, I
f r e qu e nt l y
t r a v e l l e d t o o t h e r c o ns e r v a t o ir e s f o r int e r v ie ws a nd a r c h iv a l r e s e a r c h . I h a v e v is it e d
t h o s e in
Be ijing, Gu a ngd o ng,
Xia n,
Siqu a n, Sh e nya ng
a nd Wu h a n, m e e t ing
wit h m o s t o f t h e ir
d iz i t e a c h e r s . In a d d it io n, I h a v e a l s o int e r v ie we d
m a ny pr o f e s s io na l
d iz i
pl a ye r s
in
m a jo r
pe r f o nning t r o u pe s .
L.a u : So l o d iz i m u s ic in
po s t -1949
Ch ina 117
Fig.
1: A d iz i
r k
~ ~
N,
I~
Fig.
2: Th e we l l -kno wn
Jia ngna n
s iz h u m u s ic ia n
Jing
Zu l i
pl a ying
a d iz i,
Sh a ngh a i,
1986
p -
.1
I

)It ....
..A-
,
118 Br it is h Jo u r na l
f Et h no m u s ic o l o gy,
v o l . 5 (1996)
r e s o u r c e s .4
By
t h e
v e r y
na t u r e o f t h e ir
pr e s c r ibe d
m u s ic a l
a u t h o r it y
a nd s o c ia l
s t a t u s , d iz i
c o m po s e r s
a r e a bl e t o l ink t h e m s e l v e s t o a n
im a gina r y pa s t d e s pit e
t h e
a bs e nc e o f a u nif o r m a nd s t a nd a r d is e d s o l o d iz i
s t yl e
f r o m t h e
pr e -1949 pe r io d .
Th u s wh a t is no w
r e c o gnis e d by m a ny
a s t r a d it io na l s o l o d iz i
m u s ic ,
a nd t h e
no t io n o f a
pr o f e s s io na l
d iz i s o l o is t ,
in f a c t h a v e be e n
d e v e l o pe d
in r e c e nt
ye a r s ,
c o nt r a r y
t o wh a t is
c o m m o nl y
a s s u m e d .
Diz i
pl a ye r s
Th e d r a s t ic s o c ia l a nd
po l it ic a l
t r a ns f o r m a t io ns o f t h e Co m m u nis t Re v o l u t io n
h a v e u nd e r m ine d t r a d it io na l a t t it u d e s a nd v a l u e s t o wa r d s m u s ic ia ns a nd m u s ic -
m a king.
Th e
pr im a r y
f u nc t io n o f v a r io u s f o r m s o f c u l t u r a l
e xpr e s s io ns ,
a s s t a t e d
e xpl ic it l y by
Ma o in t h e 1937 Ta l k a t t h e Ya n'a n Fo r u m o f Ar t a nd Lit e r a t u r e , is
t o s e r v e t h e ne e d s o f wo r ke r s , pe a s a nt s
a nd s o l d ie r s .
Re gio na l
f o l k m u s ic
t r a d it io ns , be c a u s e o f t h e ir c l a s s a s s o c ia t io n, a r e
r e ga r d e d by m a ny
c r it ic s a s
"po l it ic a l l y
c o r r e c t "
(ZYX 1959;
ZYY
1960;
He
1957). Co ns e qu e nt l y, m a ny
r e gio na l
f o l k a r t is t s a nd t h e ir a r t is t ic t r a d it io ns
be ga n
t o be
gr a nt e d
ne w
pr e s t ige
be c a u s e o f t h e ir
po l it ic a l s ignif ic a nc e
a s
r e pr e s e nt a t iv e s
o f t h e m a s s e s a nd
e m bl e m s o f
po pu l is t id e o l o gy. Equ a l l y im po r t a nt , po pu l is t
m u s ic a l e m bl e m s we r e
u s e d t o d is c r e d it o r
ne ga t e
t h e
id e o l o gy
o f t h e e l it e o f t h e
pr e v io u s
e r a
(Jo ne s
1995:
45).
Tr a d it io na l f o l k m u s ic a l a c t iv it ie s , u s e d in v a r io u s kind s o f
po pu l a r
s o c ia l r it e s , f e s t iv a l s a nd l o c a l f o r m s o f
e nt e r t a inm e nt ,
c a m e t o be
l e git im is e d
a s
t h e
h e r it a ge
o f t h e m a s s e s a nd t h u s t r e a s u r e d a nd
pr o m o t e d by
t h e Co m m u nis t
go v e r nm e nt
s inc e t h e 1950s .
Du r ing
t h is t im e , m a ny r e gio na l
m u s ic ia ns we r e
e nc o u r a ge d
t o t a ke
pa r t
in t h is
ne w m u s ic a l m o v e m e nt . Ac t iv it ie s , u s u a l l y
u nd e r t h e r u br ic s o f
we nyi
we nh u i
(e v e ning
c u l t u r a l
e v e nt s )
a nd
m injia n
yinyu e
wu d a o
h u iya n (v a r ie t y
c o nc e r t s o f
f o l k m u s ic a nd
d a nc e ),
we r e
o r ga nis e d by
v a r io u s br a nc h e s o f t h e
go v e r nm e nt
in
a n
a t t e m pt
t o d ir e c t a nd
pr o m u l ga t e
t h e ne w
id e o l o gy t h r o u gh
t h e r e d e f init io n o f
c u l t u r a l
pr o d u c t io n.
Ne w
pe r f o r m ing t r o u pe s
we r e f o r m e d u nd e r a
v a r ie t y
o f
na m e s s u c h a s
we ngo ng
t u a n
(c u l t u r a l
wo r k
t r o u pe s ), ge wu n
t u a n
(s o ng
a nd
d a nc e
t r o u pe s )
a nd m inz u
yu e t u a n (t r a d it io na l
m u s ic
t r o u pe s ) (Jo ne s
1995:
48).
It
is u nd e r s u c h c ir c u m s t a nc e s t h a t a nu m be r o f
r e gio na l
f o l k d iz i
pl a ye r s ga ine d
pr o m ine nc e
in t h e
e a r l y ye a r s
o f t h e
Re pu bl ic . Al t h o u gh
d iz i m u s ic h a d be e n a
l o w-pr e s t ige po pu l a r
f o r m in t h e
pr e -1949 pe r io d , t h r o u gh o u t
t h e 1950s
m a ny
r e gio na l
d iz i
pl a ye r s
we r e inv it e d t o
pe r f o r m
in v a r io u s
St a t e -s po ns o r e d pu bl ic
c o nc e r t s a nd
v a r ie t y
s h o ws in t h e
c a pit a l
a nd
m a jo r pr o v inc ia l
c it ie s .
Am o ng
t h e
m o s t
pr o m ine nt
a nd
h igh l y pu bl ic is e d
a c t iv it ie s o f t h is kind we r e t h e 1953
Na t io na l Fo l k Da nc e a nd Mu s ic Co nc e r t a nd t h e 1956 Na t io na l Mu s ic We e k,
in
wh ic h
m a ny
r e no wne d f o l k d iz i
pl a ye r s
we r e f e a t u r e d .
4
Th e
qu e s t io n
o f h o w t o h a nd l e m u s ic a l
h e r it a ge
in s o c ia l is t Ch ina h a s be e n a c o nt r o v e r s ia l
s u bje c t . Al t h o u gh
t h e r e is no c o ns e ns u s a s t o h o w t o r e s o l v e t h is is s u e , v a r io u s
po s it io ns
h a v e
d e v e l o pe d
o v e r t h e
ye a r s ;
s e e
e .g. Fa ng 1981, Pe r r is 1983, Ma 1957, He 1957, Li Y. 1983, ZYX
1960, ZYY 1960.
La u : So l o d iz i m u s ic in
po s t -1949 Ch ina 119
Sh o r t l y
a f t e r t h e ir c o nc e r t
a ppe a r a nc e s ,
t h e s a m e
gr o u p
o f f o l k m u s ic ia ns we r e
inv it e d
by
t h e
Minis t r y
o f Cu l t u r e t o be m e m be r s o f v a r io u s o f f ic ia l
pe r f o r m ing
t r o u pe s
a nd m u s ic a l ins t it u t io ns . Und e r t h e ne w
a d m inis t r a t io n, t h e t e r m
m injia n
yir e n (f o l k a r t is t ),
wh ic h wa s u s e d
c u s t o m a r il y
t o r e f e r t o l o w-c l a s s f o l k a r t is t s in
t h e
pr e -Re v o l u t io na r y pe r io d ,
wa s
d r o ppe d
a nd
r e pl a c e d by
t h e h o no u r a bl e t it l e
z h u a nye ya nz o u yu a n (pr o f e s s io na l pe r f o r m e r ), im pl ying
a
s pe c ia l is e d , s kil l e d ,
pr o f e s s io na l
m u s ic ia n. As
go v e r nm e nt e m pl o ye e s ,
t h e s e
pl a ye r s
r e c e iv e d a
s iz e a bl e
m o nt h l y s a l a r y, h o u s ing, be ne f it s , jo b s e c u r it y,
a nd a bo v e a l l t h e s o c ia l
pr e s t ige
o f wh ic h
t h e y
h a d be e n
d e pr iv e d
be f o r e 1949. Th e r a m if ic a t io ns o f s u c h
a t r a ns f o r m a t io n l ie no t
o nl y
in t h e
c h a nging
s o c ia l s t a t u s o f d iz i
pl a ye r s :
m o r e
im po r t a nt l y,
it c r e a t e d a n
o ppo r t u nit y
a nd f o r u m f o r t h e m t o
e xpr e s s
a nd
int e r pr e t
t h e ir
c o nc e pt io ns
o f m u s ic in r e l a t io n t o t h e St a t e 's
po l it ic a l
ne e d s .
Of t h e
m a ny
f o l k d iz i
pl a ye r s
wh o we r e
gr a nt e d pr e s t ige by
t h e
St a t e ,
I wa s
a bl e t o int e r v ie w s e v e r a l
l e a d ing f igu r e s
s u c h a s
Fe ng
Zic u n, Lu
Ch u nl ing,
Liu
Gu a nyu e ,
Zh a o
So ngt ing,
Ch e n
Zh o ng,
a nd
Wa ng
Tie c h u i. Like
m a ny
c a d r e s a nd
c u l t u r a l wo r ke r s wh o we r e r e c r u it e d
by
t h e
go v e r nm e nt
a t t h e t im e , t h e s e d iz i
pl a ye r s
we r e o f h u m bl e
f a m il y ba c kgr o u nd
a nd
wo r king
c l a s s
o r igin.
As l o w-
s t a t u s m u s ic ia ns
m a king
a
m e a gr e
l iv ing
f r o m
pl a ying
t h e d iz i be f o r e t h e
Re v o l u t io n, t h e y
we r e s e e n a s
be l o nging
t o t h e
o ppr e s s e d m a jo r it ie s
wh o h a d
s u f f e r e d in
pr e -Libe r a t io n
"f e u d a l is t ic " Ch ine s e
s o c ie t y.
Th e s u c c e s s s t o r ie s o f
h o w Lu
Ch u nl ing
a nd
Fe ng
Zic u n, a f t e r
ye a r s
o f
h a r d s h ip
in t h e h a nd s o f t h e
"l a nd l o r d s ", e v e nt u a l l y jo ine d
t h e
pa r t y
a nd d e v o t e d t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e Re v o l u t io n
h a v e be e n we l l d o c u m e nt e d
(Hs ia o 1962, Hu o
1984, Wa ng 1985).
Th e f a c t t h a t
bo t h Lu a nd
Fe ng,
a f o r m e r r ic ks h a wm a n a nd a
po o r
r u r a l
pe a s a nt ,
be c a m e d iz i
s pe c ia l is t s r ic h l y
il l u s t r a t e s a nd
pe r s o nif ie s f a ns h e n-a
t e r m
a d o pt e d wid e l y
a f t e r
1949 t o d e no t e t h e
pr o c e s s
o f
"t u r ning
o v e r " t h e o l d
s o c ie t y, s t a nd ing u p a ga ins t
f e u d a l is m a nd
e nt e r ing
int o a ne w
s o c ie t y (Hint o n
1966:
v ii).
Th e ir s u c c e s s a nd
c o nt r ibu t io n d r iv e h o m e t h e
po int
t h a t t h e m a s s e s c a n
r e a l l y
m a ke a d if f e r e nc e in
t h e ne w
s o c ie t y.
Ac c o r d ing
t o t h e d iz i
pe r f o r m e r
Liu
Gu a nyu e (1956),
t h e m o s t
e xc it ing c h a nge
f o r
m a ny
l o c a l f o l k d iz i
pl a ye r s
in t h e l a t e 1950s wa s t h e a d d it io n o f t h e t it l e
z h u a nye
ya nz o u yu a n.
Wh il e
e nga ging
in f u l l -t im e
pe r f o r m ing
a nd
t e a c h ing
c a r e e r s f o r
St a t e -s po ns o r e d
m u s ic
ins t it u t io ns , t h e s e d iz i
pe r f o r m e r s
we r e
e nc o u r a ge d
t o
c o m po s e
ne w
pie c e s pr im a r il y d e s igne d
f o r m a s s
c o ns u m pt io n (v ia
c a s s e t t e s , f o r
e xa m pl e ;
s e e
f igs . 3-4).
As a r e s u l t o f t h e ir e l e v a t e d s o c ia l
s t a t u s ,
t h e f o r m e r f o l k d iz i
pl a ye r s be ga n
t o
d e v e l o p
a d if f e r e nt v is io n o f t h e ir t r a d it io n.
In t h e wo r d s o f Lu
Ch u nl ing:
"Sinc e t r a d it io na l d iz i m u s ic wa s s o d iv e r s if ie d a nd
ba c kwa r d , t h e r e wa s a ne e d in t h e
e a r l y ye a r s
a f t e r t h e Re v o l u t io n t o e s t a bl is h a nd
d e v e l o p
a m o r e
s ys t e m a t is e d
a nd
s o ph is t ic a t e d
s o l o d iz i
pr a c t ic e
a nd
r e pe r t o r y."
Lu 's wo r d s
e nc a ps u l a t e d
t h e a t t it u d e o f
m a ny
d iz i
pl a ye r s
o f t h e t im e wh o h a d
int e r na l is e d a v is io n o f t h e
inf e r io r it y
o f t h e ir
r e gio na l
m u s ic a l t r a d it io ns . In
c o nju nc t io n
wit h t h e ir ne w s o c ia l
po s it io n,
t h e s e m u s ic ia ns
a d o pt e d
t h e no t io ns o f
pr o gr e s s , d e v e l o pm e nt
a nd r e f ine m e nt , wh ic h in t u r n be c o m e
po we r f u l im pe t u s e s
f o r t h e f o r m a t io n o f a ne w s o l o d iz i
pe r f o r m a nc e
a nd
c o m po s it io na l pr a c t ic e .
In
s h o r t , by r e d e f ining
t h e s o c ia l s t a t u s o f t h e f o l k d iz i
pl a ye r s ,
t h e St a t e h a s
t a c it l y
120 Br it is h Jo u r na l
f Et h no m u s ic o l o gy,
v o l . 5 (1996)
c r e a t e d a
bo d y
o f
s pe c ia l is t s
wh o s e a t t it u d e s a nd v is io ns a r e in t u r n
s h a pe d by
t h is
c h a nge .
Th e
s t yl e o f e a r l y
d iz i m u s ic
Mo s t o f t h e
e a r l y
s o l o d iz i
c o m po s it io ns
t h a t
e m e r ge d
in t h e 1950s a r e v a r ia t io ns
o n t h e d iz i
pa r t
e xt r a c t e d f r o m v a r io u s
r e gio na l
ins t r u m e nt a l e ns e m bl e m u s ic s .
Th is is d o ne
s im pl y by t a king
t h e
e xis t ing
d iz i
pa r t
o u t o f it s
o r igina l
c o nt e xt a nd
bu il d ing u po n
it . Two o f t h e m o s t inf l u e nt ia l a nd o f t e n c it e d d iz i
s t yl e s
a r e
il l u s t r a t e d in
Fe ng
Zic u n's f a m o u s
a r r a nge m e nt
o f
Xixia ngf e ng
(Ha ppy Re u nio n)
a nd Lu
Ch u nl ing's
v e r s io n o f
Zh e gu f e i
(Th e Fl igh t
o f t h e
Pa r t r id ge s ).
Th e s e t wo
1950s
a r r a nge m e nt s
a r e
f r e qu e nt l y pr e s e nt e d
in r e c e nt Ch ine s e m u s ic t e xt bo o ks
a s
pio ne e r
m o d e l s f o r t h e m o d e r n s o l o d iz i
s t yl e
a nd m o r e
s pe c if ic a l l y
a s
r e s pe c t iv e r e pr e s e nt a t iv e s
o f t h e s o -c a l l e d
na npa i (s o u t h e r n s c h o o l )
a nd
be ipa i
(no r t h e r n s t yl e )
o f d iz i m u s ic a nd
pe r f o r m ing s t yl e . Al t h o u gh t h e y
a r e
m e r e l y
s t a nd a r d is e d v e r s io ns o f t r a d it io na l
it e m s , c r e d it is
giv e n
t o t h e
pl a ye r s
wh o f ir s t
pe r f o r m e d
a nd
a r r a nge d
t h e m . In s o
d o ing, e m ph a s is
is
pl a c e d
o n t h e
c o nt r ibu t io ns a nd "r e -c r e a t io n" a c t iv it ie s o f t h e ne w
s pe c ia l is t s
wh il e
d o wnpl a ying
t h e
im po r t a nc e
o f t h e m u s ic a l t r a d it io n f r o m wh ic h t h e
c o m po s it io ns
we r e d e r iv e d .
Fe ng's
v e r s io n o f
Xixia ngf e ng
(f ig. 5)
is t a ke n f r o m t h e e r r e nt a i t r a d it io n
po pu l a r
a r o u nd Sh a nxi
pr o v inc e
a nd t h e we s t e r n Inne r
Mo ngo l ia
a r e a . Er r e nt a i,
a
r e gio na l
m u s ic d r a m a , is
u s u a l l y a c c o m pa nie d by
a
qu a r t e t c o ns is t ing
o f a d iz i, a
4-s t r ing
bo we d f id d l e
xih u ,
a h a m m e r e d d u l c im e r
ya ngqin
a nd a
pa ir
o f
c l a ppe r s
ba ngz i.
Th e e ns e m bl e
a c c o m pa nie s
t h e
s inge r s
a nd
pr o v id e s ba c kgr o u nd
m u s ic
f o r t h e d a nc e in a d d it io n t o
pr o v id ing
a n
o v e r t u r e , int e r l u d e a nd
po s t l u d e .
Th e
d iz i, be ing
t h e m o s t
im po r t a nt
ins t r u m e nt in t h e
e ns e m bl e , no t
o nl y
d o u bl e s t h e
m a in v o c a l l ine bu t a l s o
im pr o v is e s
o n
it , t o e nh a nc e t h e m o o d a nd c r e a t e a r ic h e r
m u s ic a l t e xt u r e .
Th e d iz i
s t yl e
in t h e e r r e nt a i t r a d it io n is c h a r a c t e r is e d
by
t h e c o ns t a nt u s e o f
r a pid po r t a m e nt o , gl is s a nd o ,
f l u t t e r
t o ngu ing,
d is ju nc t
m e l o d y
wit h
l a r ge
int e r v a l s , a nd s h o r t m e l o d ic
f r a gm e nt s .
Sinc e t h e e r r e nt a i t r a d it io n wa s
Fe ng's
o nl y
s o u r c e o f r e f e r e nc e , h is
pl a ying
a nd l a t e r
c o m po s it io ns
a r e m a r ke d
by
t h e s e
c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . Ano t h e r
f r e qu e nt l y e m pl o ye d c o m po s it io na l pr o c e d u r e ,
e pit o m is e d
in
Xixia ngf e ng
a nd
m a ny
o f
Fe ng's
l a t e r
c o m po s it io ns ,
is t h e u s e o f
t h e m e a nd v a r ia t io ns
pr o c e d u r e .
As a r e s u l t , Fe ng's
d iz i
t e c h niqu e
h a s be c o m e a n
im po r t a nt
m o d e l o f
r h yt h m ic
a nd v ir t u o s ic
pl a ying
f o r
m a ny
l a t e r
c o m po s it io ns .
Co nt r a s t ing
wit h
Fe ng's e ne r ge t ic r h yt h m ic
d iz i
s t yl e
is Lu
Ch u nl ing's l yr ic a l
pl a ying
d e r iv e d f r o m t h e s iz h u t r a d it io n o f e a s t c e nt r a l Ch ina . In
Jia ngna n s iz h u , a
wind a nd
s t r ing
e ns e m bl e t r a d it io n f r o m s o u t h o f t h e
Ya ngt z e Re gio n,
d iz i is t h e
l e a d ing
ins t r u m e nt . Th e e s s e nc e o f
Jia ngna n
s iz h u m u s ic l ie s in t h e
h e t e r o ph o nic
im pr o v is a t io ns
o f a
m e l o d y pl a ye d s im u l t a ne o u s l y by
v a r io u s ins t r u m e nt s in t h e
e ns e m bl e
(Wit z l e be n
1995:
118-22).
Th e
l yr ic a l
c h a r a c t e r o f t h e m u s ic is
a c c e nt u a t e d
by o v e r l a pping ph r a s e s
a nd c o nt inu o u s a nd s m o o t h m e l o d ic l ine s
pl a ye d by
a l l ins t r u m e nt s . Lu 's
a c qu a int a nc e
wit h t h e s iz h u t r a d it io n is r e f l e c t e d
La u : So l o d iz i m u s ic in
po s t -1949
Ch ina 121
Fig.
3: Lu
Ch u nl ing
a s s h o wn o n a c a s s e t t e c o v e r
~s '
~."?."'
HL-Is
~,
E- E
z
?^ F?
Fig.
4:
Ko ng Qingba o ,
d iz i s o l o is t wit h t h e
Sh a ngh a i
Tr a d it io na l Mu s ic
Or c h e s t r a
122 Br it is h Jo u r na l
f Et h no m u s ic o l o gy,
v o l . 5 (1996)
Fig.
5:
Xixia ngf e ng
(Ha ppy Re u nio n) by Fe ng
Zic u n (t r a ns c r ibe d
by t h e a u t h o r
f r o m
Ch ina Re c o r d Co .
M-104)
AA
1r
M
e I t -
e ~~v
v
v ~A
A A
A
u
-'=-' -
S e t c .
in bo t h h is
r e pe r t o r y
a nd h is
pl a ying
s t yl e .
His d iz i
s t yl e
is m a r ke d
by
a
l yr ic a l
qu a l it y
a nd t h e
f r e qu e nt
u s e o f t r il l s , a ppo ggia t u r a ,
s u bt l e a r t ic u l a t io n, c o nt r a s t ing
d yna m ic s ,
m e l o d ic
a u gm e nt a t io n
a nd o r na m e nt e d f igu r e s a s we l l a s c o nju nc t
m e l o d ic c o nt o u r . His
c o m po s it io n Zh e gu f e i (f ig. 6)
e xis t s in v a r io u s v e r s io ns .
Am o ng t h e m , Lu 's v e r s io n is c o ns id e r e d t h e m o s t
po pu l a r
a nd
d e m a nd ing
o ne .
Th is
pie c e
h a s a l s o be e n t r a ns c r ibe d
by
Jo na t h a n St o c k f o r t h e We s t e r n f l u t e
(1994:
13-19).
Fe ng's
a nd Lu 's
c o m po s it io ns
o f t h e 1950s a r e
c l e a r l y a m o ng
t h e m o s t
inf l u e nt ia l o f
e a r l y
m o d e m d iz i
s t yl e s .
Th e ir
s ignif ic a nc e , h o we v e r , l ie s in
pr o v id ing
m o d e l s f o r l a t e r
pl a ye r s
wh o
s u bs e qu e nt l y
e s t a bl is h e d a nd
d e v e l o pe d
a
s t a nd a r d is e d s o l o d iz i
s t yl e by f u s ing
t h e s e a nd o t h e r
r e gio na l
d iz i
t e c h niqu e s .
Wo r ks wr it t e n
by
o t h e r
c o m po s e r s d u r ing
t h e 1960s -f o r
e xa m pl e ,
Mu d i
(Sh e ph e r d s ' Fl u t e ), Gu s u xing (A Tr ip
t o
Su z h o u ), Hu a nl e d e jie r i (Jo yo u s
Fe s t iv a l s ), Xia o ba l u ju n (Lit t l e Eigh t h
Ar m y)-a r e
a l l c o ns id e r e d inno v a t iv e a nd
s o ph is t ic a t e d e xa m pl e s
o f t h is ne w s o l o
s t yl e . Ho we v e r , t h e
d e v e l o pm e nt
o f t h is
s t yl e
d id no t
s t o p
wit h t h e f u s io n o f
r e gio na l s t yl e s .
Diz i
c o m po s e r s
wh o f o l l o we d
Lu a nd
Fe ng
a l s o
e xpa nd e d
t h e ir
c o m po s it io na l s t yl e a c c o r d ing
t o o t h e r a r t is t ic
La u : So l o d iz i m u s ic in
po s t -1949
Ch ina 123
Fig.
6:
Zh e gu f e i
(Th e Fl igh t o f
t h e
Pa r t r id ge s ) by
Lu
Ch u nl ing (t r a ns c r ibe d by
t h e a u t h o r
f r o m
Ch ina Re c o r d Co .
03-1246)
Ad l ib.
T
* , -
if
l - -r
A . V-1 I~~~~~S
Sr
>r Sr - -
f r -.
"t " - .* S-
^^
Dj
^ ^^
;^<l ^^'
-^
,^
Li'1
^
^
-^ 1--
r ,
I ;
'-
'5
19i -" i
--^f --
--*
^
*-9
r
'*''--
^'
je t c .
c o ns id e r a t io ns a nd
po l it ic a l a ge nd a s .
In a d d it io n t o
d r a wing
o n Ha n
r e gio na l
m u s ic , t h e y f r e qu e nt l y inc o r po r a t e d
inno v a t iv e m u s ic a l id e a s a nd e l e m e nt s t a ke n
f r o m o t h e r s o u r c e s -na t io na l m ino r it ie s , r e gio na l f o l ks o ngs , Eu r o pe a n
c l a s s ic a l
m u s ic , f o l ks o ngs
f r o m o t h e r c u l t u r e s , a nd s o m e t im e s e v e n
ja z z -a s
t h e ba s is o f
t h e ir
c o m po s it io ns .
Th e
po s s ibil it ie s
o f
inc o r po r a t ing
a wid e r
r a nge
o f m u s ic a l
m a t e r ia l s in a
c o m po s it io n
a r e e nd l e s s , pa r t ic u l a r l y
in t h e l a s t t wo d e c a d e s (La u
1996).
Th e
e xc e r pt
in
f igu r e
7 d e m o ns t r a t e s a n inno v a t iv e wa y
o f
inc o r po r a t ing ja z z
e l e m e nt s in
c r e a t ing
a n
u nc o nv e nt io na l -s o u nd ing
d iz i
c o m po s it io n. Mu ya ngr e n
(Th e Sh e ph e r d s ), a c c o r d ing
t o t h e c o m po s e r
Yu Xu nf a , is ba s e d o n a Ca na d ia n
f o l k
s o ng
wh ic h h e l e a r ne d wh il e
c o nc e r t is ing
in Ca na d a . In
u s ing
a
v a r ie t y
o f
no n-Ch ine s e m u s ic a l e l e m e nt s s u c h a s
s ync o pa t e d r h yt h m s ,
"bl u e " no t e s , c o nga
d r u m s a nd c l a v e s , t h is d iz i c o m po s it io n
is
c l e a r l y int e nd e d t o e v o ke a
s e ns ibil it y
d if f e r e nt f r o m t h a t o f t h e e a r l ie r
pe r io d s .
d z --
-
r
^j^ r ^
r .
J
-r ^ . ^
-
---
- wq!a Ie t -- --t (*
*- - -- -
- x -
--- -V -;-
-
--
--1
0
-
-
J
.. ..
,
,
- -
c l a v e &
4
-
x_
_
bo ngo
...- L r
I -
-
I%-=
-.Z . - -
..
.
- -.
..
..
.-- -- ---Z
7
13
e t c .
Fig.
7:
Mu ya ngr e n (Th e Sh e ph e r d s ) by
Yu
Xu nf a
(t r a ns c r ibe d by
t h e a u t h o r
f r o m
c a s s e t t e Hu il iu : Yu Xu nf a d iz i
z h u a nji, To ngs h e n
Yu e s h e
TS-201)
d iz i
La u : So l o d iz i m u s ic in
po s t -1949
Ch ina 125
Re pe r t o r y
I h a v e d e s c r ibe d h o w t h e
e m e r ge nc e
o f t h e
pr o f e s s io na l
d iz i s o l o is t h a s r e s u l t e d in
t h e
d e v e l o pm e nt
o f a
h igh l y
e c l e c t ic s o l o d iz i
s t yl e .
No w l e t u s t u r n t o t h e
r e pe r t o r y
a nd
c o m pa r e
r e c e nt s o l o d iz i m u s ic wit h s o m e o l d e r s o l o d iz i
pie c e s
in
o r d e r t o il l u s t r a t e v a r io u s
d is t ingu is h ing
f e a t u r e s .
Du e t o l im it e d h is t o r ic a l d o c u m e nt a t io n a v a il a bl e f o r t h e
pr e -1949 pe r io d ,
I
wa s a bl e t o l o c a t e
o nl y
nine c o l l e c t io ns o f d iz i t u ne s d a t e d be t we e n 1843 a nd t h e
1940s in t h e
Libr a r y
o f t h e Ch ine s e Mu s ic Re s e a r c h Ins t it u t e in
Be ijing
a nd t h e
Be ijing Libr a r y. Be a r ing s im pl e
t it l e s s u c h a s
Diqu
(Mu s ic
f o r
d iz i)
a nd Xia o d i
xinpu
(Ne w
t u ne s f o r d iz i
a nd xia o ),
e a c h o f t h e s e bo o ks c o nt a ins
t we nt y
t o
t h ir t y
r e l a t iv e l y
s h o r t t u ne s . I h a v e no t ic e d t h a t t h e
s t yl is t ic
f e a t u r e s o f
pie c e s
f o u nd in
t h e s e s o u r c e s c o nt r a s t
d r a s t ic a l l y
wit h t h o s e o f t h e m o r e r e c e nt
c o m po s it io ns (La u
1995). Al t h o u gh
t h e s e t u ne s a r e
by
no m e a ns
r e pr e s e nt a t iv e
o f t h e e nt ir e
e a r l y
d iz i
r e pe r t o r y, t h e y
s e r v e a s a u s e f u l
po int
o f
d e pa r t u r e
f o r o u r
c o m pa r is o n. Fir s t ,
r e ga r d ing
t h e
o r igin
o f t h e s e t u ne s : t h e int r o d u c t io ns o f s e v e r a l t u ne bo o ks
ind ic a t e t h a t t h e
pie c e s
we r e
pr im a r il y po pu l a r
m e l o d ie s o f t h e t im e e xt r a c t e d
f r o m v a r io u s
o pe r a t ic
a nd e nt e r t a inm e nt
ge nr e s .
Th is is u nl ike t h e s it u a t io n
t o d a y,
wh e r e by
m o s t m e l o d ie s in t h e r e c e nt
r e pe r t o r y,
a s d e m o ns t r a t e d t o m e
by
d iz i
pl a ye r s t h e m s e l v e s , a r e
ne wl y c o m po s e d
m e l o d ie s
f u s ing
d if f e r e nt m u s ic a l
s t yl e s .
Se c o nd , t h e t id e s o f t u ne s in t h e ne w a nd o l d
r e pe r t o r ie s
a r e
t o t a l l y
u nr e l a t e d t o
o ne a no t h e r . Wh il e t h e na m e s o f t h e o l d e r t u ne s a r e t a ke n f r o m
c o nt e m po r a r y
po pu l a r
t u ne s a nd
qu pa i (t u ne
t ype s
o r l a be l l e d m e l o d ie s u s e d in v a r io u s
o pe r a t ic
t r a d it io ns ),
t it l e s o f r e c e nt
pie c e s
a r e
l a r ge l y
r o o t e d in
po l it ic a l
r h e t o r ic
s u ppo r t ing
t h e Co m m u nis t
Pa r t y,
f o r
e xa m pl e Ma nnia nh o ng (Fo r e v e r Re d ),
Mu m in
xin'ge
(Ne w So ngs
f o r t h e
Sh e ph e r d s ), Ch a ngz i s h a nge ga id a ngt ing (Sing
a Mo u nt a in
So ng
t o t h e
Pa r t y),
Jinxi
(Ye s t e r d a y-To d a y),
a nd Ch u nd a o La s a
(Spr ing
Co m e s t o
Lh a s a ).
Th ir d , m o s t o f t h e o l d e r t u ne s a r e
qu it e
s h o r t a nd
s t r u c t u r a l l y s im pl e , c o ns is t ing
o f
o nl y
a f e w
ph r a s e s ,
a s
o ppo s e d
t o t h e m o r e e l a bo r a t e m e l o d ic l ine s a nd
c o m pl e x
s t r u c t u r e s f o u nd in m o s t r e c e nt s o l o
c o m po s it io ns . La s t , bu t no t l e a s t ,
r e c e nt
c o m po s it io ns
c o nt a in
e xpl ic it
ind ic a t io ns o f
pa r t ic u l a r ke y, m o d e , ph r a s e
m a r kings , d yna m ic s , a r t ic u l a t io ns , o r na m e nt a t io ns , m e t e r , a nd t h e
s pe c if ic t ype
o f
d iz i t o be u s e d . Fo r m o s t e a r l ie r
t u ne s , ind ic a t io n o f m o d e a nd
o c c a s io na l l y ke y
a r e t h e
o nl y
wr it t e n
pe r f o r m a nc e gu id e s :
t h e r e s t is
e nt ir e l y u p
t o t h e ind iv id u a l
pe r f o r m e r
t o d e c id e .
Th e s e
a s pe c t s c l e a r l y
r e f l e c t
s ignif ic a nt
d if f e r e nc e s in a t t it u d e s t o wa r d s d iz i
m u s ic a nd it s
pe r f o r m a nc e .
In a d d it io n t o t h e
e xpr e s s io n
o f
po l it ic a l id e o l o gy
in
t h e ne w
t it l e s , e m ph a s is
is
pl a c e d
o n
s pe c ia l is a t io n
in
pe r f o r m a nc e ,
s t r u c t u r a l
c o m pl e xit y
a nd f o r m a l
s ys t e m a t is a t io n.
Th e
pu r po s e
is
c l e a r l y
in l ine wit h t h e
St a t e 's
po pu l is t id e o l o gy:
e m bl e m s o f t h e
pe o pl e
we r e e l e v a t e d , wh il e a t t h e s a m e
t im e f u s e d wit h
im a ge s
o f
gr e a t e r c o m pe t e nc e ,
s kil l a nd "s c ie nt if ic "
s ys t e m a t iz a t io n-in s h o r t , t h e d e s ir e d
im a ge
o f t h e ne w St a t e .
Dis c u s s io ns wit h
c o nt e m po r a r y
d iz i m u s ic ia ns wh o u nd e r s c o r e d t h e d if f e r e nc e
in
pr e s t ige
o f t h e ne w a nd o l d
r e pe r t o r ie s pr o v id e
f u r t h e r
ins igh t s .
Wh e n o l d e r
126 Br it is h Jo u r na l
o f
Et h no m u s ic o l o gy,
v o l . 5 (1996)
t u ne s we r e
pr e s e nt e d
t o
m y inf o r m a nt s , m a ny
o f t h e m a d m it t e d t o
h a v ing v e r y
l it t l e
kno wl e d ge
a bo u t t h e m .
Al t h o u gh t h e y
c o u l d
id e nt if y
o l d e r d iz i t u ne s a s
a r r a nge m e nt s
o f l o c a l f o l k m e l o d ie s a nd
o pe r a t ic ge nr e s , t h e y
a l l ins is t e d t h a t
t h e s e t u ne s we r e no t
s ignif ic a nt
f o r
m y r e s e a r c h ; t h e y
s t r e s s e d t h a t I s h o u l d
c o nc e nt r a t e o n t h e r e c e nt
r e pe r t o r y,
s inc e it wa s
s pe c if ic a l l y c o m po s e d
a nd
pe r f o r m e d by z h u a nye pr o f e s s io na l pl a ye r s
a nd h e nc e is a m o r e
s pe c ia l is e d
a nd
r e s pe c t a bl e
m u s ic a l t r a d it io n. Th e no t io n o f
be ing
"s c ie nt if ic " a nd
r igo r o u s
in
m u s ic
t h e o r y
a nd
pr a c t ic e
is
s o m e t h ing
o f t e n m e nt io ne d
by
Ch ine s e m u s ic ia ns .
Th e
im pl ic a t io n
t h a t t r a d it io na l Ch ine s e m u s ic l a c ks t h e s e
qu a l it ie s
h a s
ins pir e d
m a ny
d iz i m u s ic ia ns , pa r t ic u a r l y
t h o s e a t t h e c o ne r s e r v a t o r ie s a nd
pe r f o r m ing
t r o u pe s ,
t o
d e s ign
a m o r e "s c ie nt if ic " d iz i a nd
r igo r o u s t r a ining
m e t h o d . Th is h a s
s pa wne d m a ny
ne w
a ppr o a c h e s
t o t h e ins t r u m e nt a nd it s m u s ic .
Ir o nic a l l y,
wh il e
t h e d iz i wa s
gr a nt e d pr e s t ige
in
po s t -1949
Ch ina a s a n e m bl e m o f
po pu l a r s o c ie t y
a nd c u l t u r e , it wa s r e -c r e a t e d in t h e
im a ge
o f a n e l it e
s pe c ia l is t
t r a d it io n.
Co nc l u s io n
Sc h o l a r s wh o
s t u d y po s t -1949
Ch ine s e c u l t u r a l f o r m s a nd t h e ir
d e v e l o pm e nt ,
s u c h a s t h e o ne I h a v e
d e s c r ibe d , f r e qu e nt l y
v ie w t h e m a s t h e e m bo d im e nt a nd
m a nif e s t a t io n o f St a t e
id e o l o gy (e .g. Ka ga n 1963, Ch u 1978, Ha n a nd Li 1980,
Ma c ke r r a s 1981, Pe r ns 1983, Ho l m
1984).
Th e
im pl ic a t io n
is t h a t t h e s e m o d if ie d
c u l t u r a l
e xpr e s s io ns
a r e
ine v it a bl y c o ns e qu e nc e s
a nd s o u r c e s o f ind o c t r ina t io n.
Id e o l o gy,
in t h is s e ns e , pr o je c t s
a u nil ine a l
im a ge
o f
po we r
wh ic h r e nd e r s t h e
ind iv id u a l a c t o r s a nd m u s ic ia ns
pa s s iv e
a nd
po we r l e s s . By e m ph a s is ing
t h e
po t e nc y
a nd
pr e v a l e nc e
o f St a t e
id e o l o gy,
s c h o l a r s a t t r ibu t e it s
e m e r ge nc e
a s t h e
pr inc ipa l
c a u s e o f t h e
c h a nge
in t h e d o m a in o f a r t is t ic
e xpr e s s io n.
I f ind t h is
c o nc e pt io n
o f
id e o l o gy r e s t r ic t ing
t o t h e e xt e nt t h a t it u nd e r m ine s t h e
c o m pl e xit y
o f t h e is s u e . If
id e o l o gy
f u nc t io ns a s a
s ys t e m
o f
c o l l e c t iv e l y
s h a r e d v a l u e s a nd
no r m s a nd a
r igid s ys t e m
o f
be l ie f , h o w c a n we
e xpl a in
t h e
e m e r ge nc e
o f ne w
s t yl e s
a nd t h e m u l t if a c e t e d
e xpr e s s io ns
f o u nd in d iz i m u s ic o f t h e 1980s a nd
1990s ,
wh ic h d e v ia t e f r o m t h e s e m ina l m o d e l s
d e v e l o pe d by Fe ng
a nd Lu ? If
d e v ia t io n f r o m t h e no r m is
a c c e pt e d ,
c a n we a s s u m e t h a t St a t e
id e o l o gy
is
ine f f e c t iv e a nd
d ys f u nc t io na l ?
Ac c o r d ing
t o J.B.
Th o m ps o n,
t h e
s t u d y
o f
id e o l o gy
e xa m ine s "t h e
wa ys
in
wh ic h
m e a ning
o r id e a s a f f e c t t h e
c o nc e pt io ns
o r a c t iv it ie s o f t h e ind iv id u a l s a nd
gr o u ps
wh ic h m a ke
u p
t h e wo r l d "
(1984: 73).
To a s s e s s it s s u c c e s s in
a ny
m e a ningf u l wa y,
we ne e d t o u nd e r s t a nd h o w
m e a ning
is ins c r ibe d a nd r e if ie d in
r e a l it y,
in
e v e r yd a y l if e , in t h e s c h o o l s a nd in t h e c o ns e r v a t o r ie s . Pu t
d if f e r e nt l y,
it
is
t h r o u gh
ind iv id u a l s '
a c t io n, pr a c t ic e
a nd be h a v io u r t h a t we c a n v is u a l is e t h e
e xt e nt t o wh ic h
id e o l o gy
h a s be e n
int e r na l is e d , be c a u s e id e a s c a n
o nl y
be
m a t e r ia l is e d a nd
e xpr e s s e d
in a c t io n. Th e
s it u a t io n, h o we v e r , is f u r t h e r
c o m pl ic a t e d by
t h e f a c t t h a t a
s ingl e s o c ie t y m a y
s e e
c o m pe t ing
o r
o v e r l a pping
id e o l o gie s d e pe nd ing
o n t h e l e v e l o f
e d u c a t io n, u r ba n wo r l d v ie w, po l it ic a l
a f f il ia t io n, r e gio na l
a s s o c ia t io n a nd s o f o r t h . Th e s e
m u l t ipl e
v ie ws
ine v it a bl y
be c o m e
pa r t
o f t h e c o nc e r n wh e n a n ind iv id u a l m a ke s a d e c is io n. Th e f ina l
La u : So l o d iz i m u s ic in
po s t -1949
Ch ina 127
o u t c o m e is
u nd o u bt e d l y
a
s ynt h e s is
a nd ba l a nc e o f t h e v a r io u s m o d e s o f
e xpe r ie nc e
a nd t h e s o c ia l
a ge nt 's int e r pr e t a t io n
o f
r e a l it y. Vie wing id e o l o gie s
a s
int e r c o nne c t e d d o m a ins
h a v ing m u l t ipl e l a ye r s ,
we c a n
e xpl a in wh y
c e r t a in a c t io n
o u t s id e t h e St a t e 's c o ns t r a int is c o ns id e r e d
a c c e pt a bl e
o r e v e n
po s s ibl e . Id e o l o gy,
in t h is m a nne r ,
m u s t be v ie we d no t a s a m o no l it h ic f ixe d
e nt it y
t h a t r e s id e s a bo v e
pe o pl e
a nd d ic t a t e s h u m a n a c t io n f r o m t h e
t o p
d o wn bu t r a t h e r a s a n a r t ic u l a t io n
o f t h e ind iv id u a l c h o ic e m a d e in r e f e r e nc e t o a
l a r ge r
d im e ns io n.
Pl a ye r s
l ike Lu
Ch u nl ing
a nd
Fe ng Zic u n, wh o we r e e l e v a t e d f r o m l o w-c l a s s
f o l k m u s ic ia ns t o a
pr e s t igio u s pr o f e s s io na l s t a t u s , e xpe r ie nc e d
a d r a m a t ic
c h a nge
in
s e l f -pe r c e pt io n
a nd l if e
s t yl e ,
wh ic h
s u bs e qu e nt l y
a l t e r e d t h e
wa y t h e y
v ie we d
r e a l it y.
To t h e m , t h e St a t e is
c l e a r l y
t h e ir be ne f a c t o r a nd
pr o v id e r
r a t h e r t h a n t h e ir
o ppr e s s o r .
It is t h e r e f o r e no t
s u r pr is ing
t h a t
t h e y r e a d il y a c c e pt
a nd
a gr e e
t o a c t
a c c o r d ing
t o t h e d e m a nd s o f t h e St a t e 's
po l ic y
a nd a r t is t ic
gu id e l ine s .
In r e t u r n,
t h e y
r e c e iv e a
r e gu l a r s a l a r y
a nd a r e
giv e n
t h e
pr iv il e ge
o f
pe r f o r m ing
a nd
t r a v e l l ing
a c r o s s t h e
c o u nt r y
a nd a br o a d . In
r e a l it y, t h e y
we r e
giv e n
a r o a d t o
s t a r d o m a nd s o c ia l
pr e s t ige
wh ic h wa s
c o m pl e t e l y
o u t o f t h e
qu e s t io n
f o r t h e m
be f o r e t h e Re v o l u t io n. Bu t t h e r e wa s a
pr ic e : by a c c e pt ing
t h e m a t e r ia l is t ic
ga in
a nd
c o nt r ibu t ing
t h e ir m u s ic t o t h e
po l it ic a l
d is c o u r s e o f t h e St a t e , t h e y
a u t o m a t ic a l l y
be c o m e f u nc t io na r ie s o f t h e St a t e
a ppa r a t u s -a
d e c is io n
t h e y
c o ns e nt t o
v o l u nt a r il y
r a t h e r t h a n
by
f o r c e .
Ac c o r d ing
t o Gr a m s c i, t h is is h o w t r u e
h e ge m o ny o pe r a t e s .
Do m ina t io n is e f f e c t e d no t
by
c o e r c io n o r f o r c e , bu t
by
pe r s u a d ing
t h e s u ba l t e r n t o int e r na l is e a nd c o ns e nt t o t h e d o m ina nt
wa y
o f
t h inking
a s na t u r a l
(Gr a m s c i 1971). Id e o l o gy
s e e n in t h is s e ns e is m o r e t h a n
u nil ine a l bu t r a t h e r a d ia l e c t ic
pr o c e s s
o f "s t r u c t u r e a nd
s t r u c t u r ing",
a nd it h a s
t h e
c a pa bil it y
t o "f o r m u l a t e a nd be f o r m u l a t e d "
(Bo u r d ie u 1977). Th u s , c h a nge s
in d iz i m u s ic a nd it s
pr a c t ic e
c a n be v ie we d a s a r e s u l t o f t h e
wa y pl a ye r s
t h e m s e l v e s
int e r pr e t
a nd
a d ju s t
t o t h e ir im m e d ia t e wo r l d , t h a t is , t h e wo r l d
e s t a bl is h e d
by
t h e St a t e . Th is a l s o
h e l ps
u s
e xpl a in wh y
l a t e r
pl a ye r s
wh o wr it e in
ne w
s t yl e s
a r e
a c c e pt e d
a nd c o ns id e r e d in
a gr e e m e nt
wit h t h e St a t e
id e o l o gy:
l ike
t h e ir
pr e d e c e s s o r s , t h e y
h a v e a l s o
h e l pe d
t o "inv e nt " a nd r e d e f ine St a t e
id e o l o gy
in t h e ir o wn t e r m s wit h in c e r t a in bo u nd a r ie s a nd l im it s .
By pu t t ing
h u m a n
a ge nt s
in t h e
f o r e gr o u nd ,
we c a n a c c o u nt f o r t h e ir a c t io ns
a nd t h e
c h a nge s t h e y br ing
t o t h e t r a d it io n a s
t h e y c o nt inu o u s l y r e s po nd
t o t h e
d e m a nd s a nd ne e d s o f t h e ir im m e d ia t e wo r l d . In a c ir c u l a r f a s h io n, St a t e
id e o l o gy
is
be ing ke pt
in
pl a c e t h r o u gh
t h e inv e nt io n o f a ne w m u s ic t r a d it io n t o wh ic h
ne w
pie c e s
a r e a l l o we d t o be
pe r pe t u a l l y
a d d e d in o r d e r t o c o ns o l id a t e , a r t ic u l a t e
a nd r e inv e nt t h e s o c ia l o r d e r .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
An e a r l ie r v e r s io n o f t h is
pa pe r
wa s
pr e s e nt e d
a t t h e
Et h no m u s ic o l o gy Co l l o qu ia ,
Univ e r s it y
o f Ca l if o r nia , Be r ke l e y,
1993. I h a v e be ne f it t e d f r o m d is c u s s io ns wit h
He nr y Spil l e r ,
And r e w We int r a u b a nd Ma r k De Wit t wh il e a t
Be r ke l e y.
Re s e a r c h
f o r t h is
pa pe r
wa s c o nd u c t e d in t h e
Pe o pl e 's Re pu bl ic
o f Ch ina
(1986-87)
s u ppo r t e d by
d is s e r t a t io n r e s e a r c h
gr a nt s
f r o m t h e Na t io na l
Ac a d e m y
o f Sc ie nc e s
128 Br it is h Jo u r na l
o f Et h no m u s ic o l o gy,
v o l . 5 (1996)
CSCPRC
Pr o gr a m
a nd t h e
Univ e r s it y
o f Il l ino is Gr a d u a t e
Co l l e ge .
I wo u l d l ike t o
t h a nk Da v id
Hu gh e s ,
Jo na t h a n
St o c k, Th o m a s Tu r ino , Ma r ga r e t
Sa r kis s ia n a nd
Inne Ch o i f o r t h e ir inc is iv e a nd
ge ne r o u s
c o m m e nt s . Al s o
m y
s inc e r e
gr a t it u d e
t o
Pa t r ic k
Mu nr o e ,
Th o m a s Dr e s e l a nd Th o r La r s e n o f Ca l
Po l y
f o r t h e ir
pa t ie nc e
in
gu id ing
m e
t h r o u gh
t h e
pa ins t a king s t e ps
o f
c r e a t ing c o m pu t e r is e d gr a ph ic s
a nd
m u s ic no t a t io n.
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Re nm in
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Ch u ba ns h e
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t h e
Pe o pl e s ' Br o a d c a s t ing Unit ] (e d .) Minz u
qiyu e jia nz o u [Br o a d c a s t l e c t u r e s o n na t io na l
ins t r u m e nt a l
m u s ic ], pp.
40-5.
Be ijing: Yinyu e Ch u ba ns h e .
La u : So l o d iz i m u s ic in po s t -1949
Ch ina 129
Jo ne s , St e ph e n (1996) Fo l k m u s ic
o f
Ch ina :
l iv ing
ins t r u m e nt a l t r a d it io ns . Oxf o r d Univ e r s it y
Pr e s s .
Ka ga n,
Al a n (1963)
"Mu s ic a nd t h e Hu nd r e d Fl o we r m o v e m e nt ." Mu s ic a l
Qu a r t e r l y
49.3: 417-
30.
Ka r t o m i,
Ma r ga r e t (1981)
'Th e
pr o c e s s e s
a nd r e s u l t s o f m u s ic a l c u l t u r e c o nt a c t : a d is c u s s io n o f
t e r m ino l o gy
a nd
c o nc e pt s ." Et h no m u s ic o l o gy
25: 227-50.
La u , Fr e d e r ic k (1991) Mu s ic a nd m u s ic ia ns
o f
t h e t r a d it io na l Ch ine s e d iz i in t h e
Pe o pl e 's
Re pu bl ic o f
Ch ina . Ph D t h e s is , Univ e r s it y
o f Il l ino is a t Ur ba na -Ch a m pa ign.
(1995)
"'Lo s t in t im e ?': s o u r c e s o f t h e 20t h -c e nt u r y
d iz i
r e pe r t o r y." Pa c if ic
Re v ie w o f
Et h no m u s ic o l o gy
7: 31-56.
(1996) "Ind iv id u a l it y
a nd
po l it ic a l
d is c o u r s e in s o l o d iz i c o m po s it io ns ."
As ia n Mu s ic
27.1: 133-152.
Li
Minxio ng (1982) Minz u
qiyu e
ga il u n [Su r v e y o f Ch ine s e ins t r u m e nt a l m u s ic ]. Mim e o gr a ph e d .
Sh a ngh a i: Sh a ngh a i Co ns e r v a t o r y
o f Mu s ic .
_____ (1987) Minz u
qiyu e
z h is h i
gu a ngbo
jia ngz u o [Br o a d c a s t l e c t u r e s o n t h e
kno wl e d ge o f
na t io na l ins t r u m e nt a l m u s ic ].
Be ijing:
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
Li
Yu a nqing
(1983) Minz u
yinyu e
we nt i d e t a ns u o [Expl o r ing
is s u e s o f
na t io na l m u s ic ]. Be ijing:
Re nm in Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
Liu
Gu a nyu e (1956)
Diz i d u z u o
qu xu a n
[A c o l l e c t io n o f
s o l o d iz i
pie c e s ]. Be ijing: Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
Ma Ke
(1957) Zh o nggu o m injia n
yinyu e
jia ngh u a [Ta l ks o n Ch ine s e f o l k
m u s ic ]. Be ijing:
Re nm in Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
Ma c ke r r a s , Co l in
(1981)
Th e
pe r f o r m ing
a r t s in c o nt e m po r a r y
Ch ina . Lo nd o n/Bo s t o n:
Ro l it l e d ge &
Ke ga n
Pa u l .
Mc Do u ga l l ,
Bo nnie
(1984) Po pu l a r
Ch ine s e l it e r a t u r e a nd
pe r f o r m ing
a r t s in t h e Pe o pl e 's
Re pu bl ic o f Ch ina , 1949-1979. Univ e r s it y
o f Ca l if o r nia Pr e s s .
Me r r ia m , Al a n P.
(1977)
"Mu s ic
c h a nge
in a
Ba s o ngye v il l a ge (Za ir e )." Ant h r o po s
72: 806-46.
Ne t t l , Br u no
(1983)
Th e s t u d y o f
e t h no m u s ic o l o gy:
t we nt y-nine
is s u e s a nd c o nc e pt s . Univ e r s it y
o f Il l ino is Pr e s s .
(1992)
"Re c e nt d ir e c t io ns in
e t h no m u s ic o l o gy."
In He l e n
Mye r s (e d .) Et h no m u s ic o l o gy:
a n int r o d u c t io n, pp.375-400.
Ne w Yo r k: W.W. No r t o n.
Pe r r is , Ar no l d (1983) "Mu s ic a s
pr o pa ga nd a :
a r t a t t h e c o m m a nd o f d o c t r ine in t h e Pe o pl e 's
Re pu bl ic
o f Ch ina ." Et h no m u s ic o l o gy
27.1: 1-28.
Pr o v ine , Ro be r t
(1981)
"Re a c t io ns t o a d is c u s s io n o n Ch ine s e na t io na l m u s ic a l t r a d it io ns by
Fa ng
Ku n." As ia n Mu s ic 12.2: 11-14.
Re e s , He l e n
(1997)
"'Au t h e nt ic it y'
a nd t h e
pr o m o t io n
o f t r a d it io nis m by
t o u r is m : d if f e r e nt ia t e d
pr e s e nt a t io ns
o f a m u s ic a l
r e pe r t o ir e
t o int e r na l a nd e xt e m a l a u d ie nc e s in So u t h we s t Ch ina ."
Jo u r na l
o f Mu s ic o l o gic a l Re s e a r c h , f o r t h c o m ing.
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e
Bia njibu ,
e d . (1959) 'Th e d e v e l o pm e nt
o f m u s ic a l a c t iv it ie s in o u r
c o u nt r y
in t h e
pa s t
t e n
ye a r s ."
Re nm in
Yinyu e 10/11: 32-5.
(1979) "Jic h e ng
m inz u
yinyu e yic h a n
d e
z h o ngya o
c o s h i" [Th e im po r t a nt
m e a s u r e s o f
inh e r it ing
t h e na t io na l m u s ic l e ga c y].
Re nm in
Yinyu e
7: 36-40.
Ric e , Tim o t h y (1994) Ma y it f il l yo u r
s o u l :
e xpe r ie nc ing Bu l ga r ia n m u s ic . Univ e r s it y
o f Ch ic a go
Pr e s s .
Sc h u yl e r , Ph il ip (1991) "Mu s ic a nd t r a d it io n in Ye m e n." As ia n Mu s ic 22.1: 51-71.
Sh il s , Ed wa r d (1981)
Tr a d it io n. Univ e r s it y
o f
Ch ic a go
Pr e s s .
St o c k, Jo na t h a n
(1992) "Co nt e m po r a r y
r e c it a l s o l o s f o r t h e Ch ine s e
t wo -s t r inge d
f id d l e e r h u ."
Br it is h Jo u r na l
o f
Et h no m u s ic o l o gy
1: 55-88.
(1994) Ch ine s e f l u t e
s o l o s . Lo nd o n: Sc h o t t
Th o m ps o n,
Jo h n B. (1984) St u d ie s in t h e t h e o r y o f id e o l o gy. Univ e r s it y
o f Ca l if o r nia Pr e s s .
Th r a s h e r ,
Al a n (1978)
'Th e t r a ns v e r s e f l u t e in t r a d it io na l Ch ine s e m u s ic ." As ia n Mu s ic 10.1: 92-
114.
Tu r ino , Th o m a s (1991) "Th e
h is t o r y
o f a Pe r u v ia n
pa npipe s t yl e a nd t h e
po l it ic s
o f
int e r pr e t a t io n."
In Bl u m e t a l . 1991: 121-38.
Wa ng
Tie c h iu (1985) "Diz i
ye nz o u jia
Fe ng Zic u n" [Diz i pe r f o r m e r Fe ng Zic u n]. Re nm in Yinyu e
12: 15-17.
130 Br it is h Jo u r na l
o f Et h no m u s ic o l o gy,
v o l . 5 (1996)
Wa t e r m a n,
Ch r is t o ph e r (1990)
"' Ou r t r a d it io n is a
v e r y
m o d e m t r a d it io n':
po pu l a r
m u s ic a nd t h e
c o ns t r u c t io n o f Pa n-Yo r u ba
id e nt it y."
Et h no m u s ic o l o gy
34.3: 367-79.
(1991)
"Ju ju
h is t o r y:
t o wa r d a
t h e o r y
o f s o c io m u s ic a l
pr a c t ic e ."
In Bl u m e t a l . 1991: 49-
67.
Wit z l e be n, J. La wr e nc e (1995) "Sil k a nd ba m bo o " in
Sh a ngh a i:
t h e
Jia ngna n
s iz h u ins t r u m e nt a l
e ns e m bl e t r a d it io n. Ke nt St a t e
Univ e r s it y
Pr e s s .
Ye
Do ng (1983) Minz u
qiyu e
d e t ic a i
yu xings h i [Type s
a nd f o r m s o f
na t io na l ins t r u m e nt a l
m u s ic ]. Sh a ngh a i: Sh a ngh a i We nyi
Ch u ba ns h e
[Sh a ngh a i
Ar t s
Pu bl is h ing Co m pa ny].
Yu a n
Jingf a ng (1987) Minz u
qiyu e [Na t io na l ins t r u m e nt a l m u s ic ]. Be ijing:
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
Zh a o
So ngt ing
(1983) Diz i
ya nz o u jiqia o gu a ngbo jia nz o u [Br o a d c a s t l e c t u r e s o n t h e
pe r f o r m ing
t e c h niqu e s o f
t h e d iz i].
Be ijing: Gu a ngbo
Ch u ba ns h e [Br o a d c a s t Pu bl is h ing Co m pa ny].
(1985) Diyi c h u nqiu [Spr ing
a nd a u t u m n o f
t h e a r t
o f
t h e d i]. Ha ngz h o u :
Zh e jia ng
Re nm in Ch u ba ns h e
[Zh e jia ng's Pe o pl e 's Pu bl is h ing Co m pa ny].
ZYX
=
Zh o nggu o
Yinyu e jia
Xie h u a [Ch ine s e Mu s ic ia ns ' Unio n], e d . (1959) Yinyu e jia ns h e
we nji [Co l l e c t e d e s s a ys
o n t h e c o ns t r u c t io n
o f m u s ic ]
(3 v o l s .). Be ijing: Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
ZYY =
Zh o nggu o
Yinyu e
Ya njiu s u o ,
e d . (1960) Lu n
pipa nd e jic h e ng
we nh u a
c h u a nt o ng [On
h o w t o
c r it ic a l l y
inh e r it c u l t u r a l t r a d it io ns ]. Be ijing: Zh o nggu o Yinyu e
Ya njiu s u o
[Ch ine s e
Mu s ic Re s e a r c h Ins t it u t e ].
PRE-1949 DIZI MUSIC SOURCES
n.d . Ms s . Xia o d i
h e pu [Du e t s f o r
xia o a nd d i].
n.d . Ms s . Zu ixin xia o
h e pu [La t e s t m u s ic
f o r
xia o a nd
d i].
1846 Ms s . Zh a o
d iqu
z a z h i
h u ipia n [Th e
Zh a o
f a m il y a nt h o l o gy o f
d i m u s ic ].
1913 Ms s .
Diqu c o pie d by Ch a ng
Re n [Di m u s ic ]
1922 Ms s . Sh e nd a o
d iqu [Th e d iv ine d i m u s ic ], c o pie d by
Xi
To ng.
1924 Xia o d i
xinpu
e d .
by Zh e ng
Jinwe n [Ne w m u s ic
f o r
xia o a nd d i]. Sh a ngh a i: Sh a ngh a i
We nm ing
Sh u ju
[Sh a ngh a i
Civ il iz e d Bo o ks t o r e ].
1933 Ms s . Ya nd i
s h u yi na r r a t e d
by Fa ng [Expo s it io n o f Binz h o ng,
wr it t e n
by Fa ng
We nxi: Ar t
o f
d i
pl a ying]
1946 Xia o d i
c h u iz o u f a by
Xia o
Jia nqing [Me t h o d s o f pl a ying
t h e xia o a nd d i].
Sh a ngh a i:
Sh a ngh a i
Gu o gu a n
Sh u d ia n Ch u ba ns h e .
SELECTED LIST OF POST-1949 DIZI SOLO COLLECTIONS
Ga o
Ming (1987)
Ga o
Ming
d iz i
qu xu a n [Co l l e c t io ns o f Ga o
Ming's
d iz i
pie c e s ]. Be ijing:
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
Jia n
Gu a ngyi (1982)
Jia n
Gu a ngyi
d iz i
qu xu a n
[Co l l e c t io ns o f Jia n
Gu a ngyi's
d iz i
pie c e s ].
Be ijing:
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
Jia ng Yo ngh e (1956) Diz i
jia o c a i [Pe d a go gic a l
m a t e r ia l s
f o r
t h e d iz i].
Be ijing: Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
(1957a )
Diz i
d u z u o qu xu a nji [Co l l e c t io ns o f s o l o d iz i
pie c e s ]. Be ijing: Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
Lu
Ch u nl ing (1960) Jins e : d iz i d u z u o
qu xu a n
['To d a y-Ye s t e r d a y':
a c o l l e c t io n o f s o l o d iz i
c o m po s it io ns ]. Sh a ngh a i: Sh a ngh a i We nyi
Ch u ba ns h e
[Sh a ngh a i
Ar t s
Pu bl is h ing Co m pa ny].
_____
(1982)
Lu
Ch u nl ing
d iz i
qu ji [Co l l e c t io n o f
Lu
Ch u nl ing's
d iz i
pie c e s ]. Be ijing:
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e
Bia njibu ,
e d . (1975) Gu a ngku o
t ia nd i
l ia nh o ngxin [Th e
wid e wo r l d
c a n
t e m pe r
o ne 's r e d h e a r t ], v o l . 1.
Be ijing:
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
_____
(1977)
Re nm in l ie c h e
xia ngxia njin [Pe o pl e 's
t r a in r u ns f o r wa r d ],
v o l . 2.
Be ijing:
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
(1979a )
Diz i
qu ji
1949-1979
[Co l l e c t io n o f d iz i
pie c e s
1949-1979].
Be ijing:
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
___._ (1979b) Za o yu a n
c h u ns e
[Spr ing
in t h e d a t e
ga r d e n],
v o l . 3.
Be ijing:
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
La u : So l o d iz i m u s ic in
po s t -1949
Ch ina 131
____ (1982)
Qingqu a n
Hu a Xixu n [Cl e a r St r e a m s
Br ings
Go o d Ne ws ], v o l . 4.
Be ijing:
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
(1986)
Diz i
qu ji [Co l l e c t io ns o f
d iz i
pie c e s ],
v o l . 5.
Be ijing:
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
Sh a ngh a i
We nyi
Ch u ba ns h e
Bia njibu ,
e d . (1983)
Diz i
qu xu a n [Co l l e c t io ns o f
d iz i
pie c e s ],
v o l . 1.
Sh a ngh a i: Sh a ngh a i We nyi
Ch u ba ns h e
[Sh a ngh a i
Ar t s Pu bl is h ing Co m pa ny].
(1985) Diz i
qu xu a n [Co l l e c t io ns o f d iz i
pie c e s ],
v o l . 2.
Sh a ngh a i: Sh a ngh a i We nyi
Ch u ba ns h e [Sh a ngh a i
Ar t s
Pu bl is h ing Co m pa ny].
Sh a ngh a i Co ns e r v a t o r y
o f Mu s ic (n.d .)
Diz i
jia o c a i yu e qu xu a n [Co l l e c t io ns o f pie c e s f o r
t e a c h ing d iz i], (Six Vo l u m e s ). Mim e o gr a ph e d . Sh a ngh a i: Sh a ngh a i Co ns e r v a t o r y
o f Mu s ic .
Wa ng
Tie c h u i (1984) Wa ng
Tie c h u i d iz i
qu xu a n [Co l l e c t io ns o f Wa ng
Tie c h u i's d iz i
pie c e s ].
Be ijing:
Re nm in
Yinyu e
Ch u ba ns h e .
Zh a o
So ngt ing (1985) Diyi c h u nqiu [Spr ing
a nd a u t u m n
o f
t h e a r t
o f
t h e d i]. Ha ngz h o u :
Zh e jia ng
Re nm in Ch u ba ns h e
[Zh e jia ng's
Pe o pl e 's Pu bl is h ing Co m pa ny].
Zh o ngya ng Yinyu e Xu e yu a n,
e d . (1962) Minz u
qiyu e [Na t io na l ins t r u m e nt a l m u s ic ]. Be ijing:
Zh o ngya ng Yinyu e Xu e yu a n
Ch u ba ns h e [Ce nt r a l Co ns e r v a t o r y
o f Mu s ic Pu bl is h ing
Co m pa ny].
SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY
A c o l l e c t io n o f m u s ic
pl a ye d
o n d iz i, 8-v o l u m e CD s e t (Ch ina Re c o r d Co m pa ny
CD 94.350-357)
Lu
Ch u nl ing
d iz i d u z u o
qu xu a n [Se l e c t e d d iz i s o l o s o f Lu
Ch u nl ing] (Ch ina
Re c o r d
Co m pa ny
HL-150)
Hu il iu : Yu Xu nf a d iz i
z h u a nji [Co nv e r ge nc e :
a
s pe c ia l
e d it io n o f Yu Xu nf a 's d iz i
s o l o s ]
(To ngs h e n
Yu e s h e
TS-201)
Ko ng
Qingba o
d iz i
d u z u o qu
[Ko ng Qingba o 's
d iz i s o l o s ] (Sh a ngh a i Ya u s h e ng
Du wu Go ngs h i
Y-2049)
Fr e d e r ic k La u is As s is t a nt Pr o f e s s o r o f Mu s ic a t t h e Ca l if o r nia
Po l yt e c h nic
St a t e
Univ e r s it y,
Sa n Lu is
Obis po .
He h a s c o nd u c t e d e xt e ns iv e f ie l d wo r k in t h e
Pe o pl e 's
Re pu bl ic
o f Ch ina in 1986, 1989 a nd 1992. His int e r e s t in Ch ine s e m u s ic f o c u s s e s o n
t r a d it io na l ins t r u m e nt a l m u s ic a nd t h e
r e l a t io ns h ip
be t we e n m u s ic a l
c h a nge
a nd
s o c ie t y
in
20t h -c e nt u r y
Ch ina . He h a s
pu bl is h e d
s e v e r a l a r t ic l e s o n d iz i m u s ic . His m o s t r e c e nt
r e s e a r c h is o n t h e Te o c h e w-Th a i m u s ic c u l t u r e in
Ba ngko k
a nd o n is s u e s r e l a t e d t o t h e
s t u d y
o f t h e Ch ine s e m u s ic
d ia s po r a .
Ad d r e s s : Mu s ic
De pa r t m e nt ,
Ca l if o r nia
Po l yt e c h nic
St a t e
Univ e r s it y,
Sa n Lu is
Obis po ,
CA 93407, U.S.A. E-m a il :
<f f l a u @o bo e .c a l po l y.e d u >