Piper Seminole

PA-44
Multi-Engine Aerodynamics











There is little difference between a single engine aircraft and a multi-engine
aircraft aerodynamically, under normal flight conditions. But when an engine
fails, the multi-engine will display a unique set of flight characteristics.
Single Engine Aerodynamics: The problem of asymmetric thrust
When a multi-engine aircraft loses an engine, there will be unbalanced forces
and turning tendencies about the CG. The following directional control and
performance problems will result:
1. Pitch Down the loss of lift over the horizontal stabilizer will result in a
loss of tail down force and causes the noses to pitch down
2. Roll toward the dead engine the loss of airflow created by the propeller
(accelerated slipstream) over the dead engine wing results in a loss of lift
on that wing. This loss of lift causes a roll toward the dead engine.
3. Yaw toward the dead engine the loss of one engine will result in
asymmetric thrust being produced. This will cause the aircraft to yaw
toward the dead engine and will require additional rudder on the side of the
operating engine. Dead Foot, Dead Engine
Sideslip effects both controllability and performance, by increasing drag and
reducing rudder effectiveness. The drag factor is significant imagine the side
of the airplane being pushed into the relative wind. Sideslip can generate
more drag and more performance loss than a windmilling propeller. This in
turn can cause a rapid loss of airspeed leading you into control problems.
Zero Sideslip
As a multiengine pilot, you must know how to establish minimum sideslip
conditions with an engine out both with the propeller windmilling and with it
feathered. Zero sideslip involves using a bank to offset some of the turning
tendency and placing the ball at half deflection towards the good engine.
Officially a 5 degree bank toward the good engine should be established
immediately after an engine failure. For the Seminole, you will find that a 2-3
degree bank works best, and will give you the best single-engine climb
performance.
In addition to the asymmetrical thrust and sideslip characteristics, most twin-
engine aircraft have one engine that displays these adverse aerodynamic
effects to a greater extent than the other (if that engine were to fail). This is
because with both propellers spinning in the same direction, when it fails, one
of the engines aggravates the aircraft to a greater extent that the other. We
call this engine the Critical Engine.

Single Engine Factors
Without Counter-Rotating Propellers

Critical Engine Definition: The engine whose failure most adversely affects
the performance and handling qualities of the airplane. On most light twins,
both propellers rotate clockwise, making the left engine critical.

Factors that make the left engine critical:
P P-Factor
A Accelerated Slipstream
S Spiraling Slipstream
T Torque

P Factor (Yaw)
- Both propellers turn clockwise as viewed from the cockpit. The
descending blade produces more thrust than the ascending blade.
Relative to the center of gravity, the descending blade on the right
engine has a longer arm than the left engine. The yaw produced by
the loss of the left engine is greater than the yaw produced by the
loss of the right engine, making the left engine critical.
Accelerated Slipstream (Roll & Pitch)
- P-Factor causes more thrust to be accelerated on the right side of
each engine than the left. The accelerated air creates more lift in the
localized area. This causes the overall center of lift on each wing to
shift to the right. The center of lift on the right wing will be further
from the aircrafts CG than the left wing. Because of this, the roll
produced by the loss of the left engine would be greater than a loss
of the right engine, making the left engine critical. On some aircraft
the loss of the left engine also increases the aircrafts tendency to
pitch nose down because of the loss of lift over the horizontal
stabilizer.
Spiraling Slipstream (Yaw)
- Spiraling slipstream from the left engine hits the vertical stabilizer
from the left, helping to counteract the yaw produced by the loss of
the right engine. With a left engine failure the right engine slipstream
does not counteract the yaw toward the dead engine because it
spirals away from the vertical stabilizer, making the left engine
critical.
Torque (Roll)
- For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Since the
propellers rotate clockwise, the aircraft will tend to roll
counterclockwise. When the right engine is lost the aircraft will tend
to roll to the right. The torque created by the left engine reduces the
right rolling tendency. When the left engine is lost the aircraft will
tend to roll to the left and the torque produce by the right engine will
further add to the left rolling tendency, making the left engine critical.
In order for the pilot to maintain control of the aircraft during an engine failure
he or she will need sufficient airspeed to ensure the flight controls are
effective enough to counteract the adverse forces working against the
airplane. The minimum speed to maintain control of the aircraft is
appropriately called Minimum Controllable Airspeed (Vmca).






Minimum Control Speed
Vmc is the calibrated airspeed that when the critical engine is suddenly made
inoperative, it is possible to recover control of the airplane with that engine still
inoperative, and maintain straight flight either with zero yaw or, with an angle
of bank not more than five degrees. The method used to simulate critical
engine failure must represent the most critical mode of power plant failure with
respect to controllability expected in service.


Vmc may not exceed 1.2 Vs1 where Vs1 is determined at max takeoff weight
with:
- Takeoff maximum available power on the operating engine
- The propeller of the inoperative engine
Windmilling
In the most probable position for the specific design of the
propeller control
Feathered, if the airplane has an automatic feathering device
- The most unfavorable center of gravity
- Zero yaw and Maximum 5 degrees bank towards good engine. At
Vmc the rudder pedal force required to maintain control may not
exceed 150 pounds and it must not be necessary to reduce power or
thrust of the operative engines. During recovery, the airplane may
not assume any dangerous attitude and it must be possible to
prevent a heading change of more than 20 degrees
- Flaps in the takeoff position
- Cowl flaps in the normal takeoff position
- The airplane trimmed for takeoff
- Landing gear retracted
- The maximum sea level takeoff weight
- The airplane airborne and the ground effect negligible (meaning not
in ground effect)
The Ten Conditions of Vmc Discussed
The items listed above describe the condition an aircraft would be in just after
takeoff. Incidentally, this probably the worst time to have an engine failure and
it is why CFR 23 requires aircraft manufactures to determine an aircrafts Vmc
in this worst case scenario. Imagine just lifting off Boeing Field (sea level,
standard day) with flaps, cowl flaps, and trim set for takeoff. The aircraft is at
its maximum takeoff weight and configured with an aft C.G. to maximize
performance. Finally, you have maximum (or takeoff) power. Just after you
select the gear to retract (you have just left ground effect on your climb out)
the critical engine begins to windmill.
Note that many of these conditions are not necessarily the most ideal in order
to maintain directional control or to increase aircraft performance. In the
paragraphs below, the sentences in italics at the end of each paragraph will
state the configuration desired to enable better aircraft control (lowering
Vmc).
1. Takeoff or maximum (sea level) power on the operating engine
The more power on the operating engine the greater the asymmetrical thrust
and therefore the more rudder deflection needed to maintain directional
control. The greater the asymmetrical thrust, the greater the yawing
movement toward the inoperative engine. Reducing the power the operating
engine will lover the Vmc.
2. The propeller of the inoperative engine windmilling or feathered
When the propeller is in a low pitch (unfeathered) position, it presents a large
area of resistance to the relative wind. This resistance to the wing causes the
engine to windmill. A windmilling propeller creates the most drag and the
largest yawing movement into the dead engine, increasing Vmc. Feathering
the propeller on the dead engine will lower the Vmc.
3. The most unfavorable Center of Gravity
As the center of gravity moves aft, the moment arm between the rudder and
CG is shortened this reduces the leverage, and the less effective the rudder
will be to counteract yaw and maintain directional control. Moving the C.G.
forward will lower the Vmc.
4. Zero yaw and maximum five degrees bank towards the operating
engine
This is a pre-determined condition for establishing the value of Vmc and is
one of the most important factors in maintaining control of the aircraft during
an engine failure. When the wings are level, only the rudder is used to stop
the yaw produced by the good engine. Banking into the operating engine
creates a horizontal component of lift. With this horizontal component of lift,
less rudder deflection is required to overcome yaw. This in turn will permit the
aircraft to fly at a slower airspeed before running out of rudder. A zero side
slip will lower the Vmc.
5. Flaps in the takeoff position
Flaps will increase the camber of the wing and lower the required angle of
attack. A lower angle of attack will decrease the P-factor and accelerated
slipstream effects. Extended flaps have a stabilizing effect that may reduce
Vmc. Flaps will increase the total drag component in the aircraft. When an
engine fails the increase in drag from the windmilling propeller will result in a
smaller overall increase in aircraft drag with flaps deployed than with no flaps
set. Finally, the increase in drag from the flaps will dampen the initial yawing
effect created from asymmetrical thrust. Deploying flaps will lower the Vmc.
6. Cowl flaps in the takeoff position
Cowl flaps will increase the total drag component on the aircraft. When an
engine fails the increase in drag from the windmilling propeller will have a
smaller overall increase in aircraft drag with the cowl flaps open than with
them closed. The increase in drag from the cowl flaps will also dampen the
initial yawing effect created from asymmetrical thrust. Opening the cowl flaps
will lower the Vmc.
7. The airplane is trimmed for takeoff
Rudder trim set for take-off will increase the total rudder authority available
during an engine failure. Aileron trim set for take-off will increase the total
aileron authority available during an engine failure. Pitch trim has no practical
effect on aircraft controllability during an engine failure. However, if pitch trim
is set for takeoff it will enable an uninhibited pitch toward the blue-line if an
engine failure occurred. Trims set for takeoff will lower the Vmc.
8. Landing gear retracted
Just after takeoff the landing gear is normally retracted. If an engine failure
were to occur with the gear up the aircraft would be less controllable (resulting
in a higher Vmc). The published Vmc is determined with the gear retracted.
Conversely, with the gear extended, the wheels and struts tend to act as a
stabilizer. This will result in a lower Vmc.

9. The maximum sea level takeoff weight
The larger the aircraft mass the more resistant it will be to an adverse
condition. If an engine failure occurs when the aircraft is heavy the aircraft will
be more resistant to the adverse effects of the engine failure than when the
aircraft is light. Additionally, an increase in aircraft weight will increase the
horizontal lift component when performing a zero-side-slip. This condition is
another one that will compromise performance and control. At max gross
weight, control is better (Vmc is lower), but performance is worse. Increasing
the aircraft weight will lower the Vmc.
10. The airplane airborne and ground effect negligible
When an aircraft is out of ground effect the angle of attack will increase. The
increase in Angle of Attack will in turn increase the effects of both P-factor and
accelerated slipstream. This will result in an increase in the Vmc. The total
drag on the aircraft will also increase when the aircraft is out of ground effect.
As stated under number 5 (flaps set for takeoff), a higher total drag
component will result in a smaller overall increase in adverse yaw from an
engine failure. Despite this benefit, the increase in P-factor and accelerated
slipstream far outweigh the benefits to aircraft stability from an increase in
drag. As a result, when an aircraft is flown out of ground effect, the Vmc will
increase. Flying the aircraft in ground effect will lower the Vmc.

Determining Factors
Maximum loss of 20 degrees of heading
If heading is not maintained within twenty degrees during the manufacturers
demonstration, the Vmc demo is considered null and void. Our attempt will be
to keep the plane straight.
Maximum rudder pedal pressure of 150 pounds
It does us no good to have a rudder capable of controlling the airplane with a
pilot incapable of controlling the rudder. The FAA restricts pressure on the
rudder pedal to 150 pounds during certification. Obviously, in real life, we will
move the rudder to the fullest extent possible, regardless of the amount of
pressure applied.
Effect on Vmc with an Increase in altitude
As an aircraft climbs, the Minimum Controllable Airspeed will decrease. In
normally aspirated aircraft both the available manifold pressure and propeller
efficiency will degrade with altitude. The decrease in overall thrust will in turn
result in a decrease in the adverse effects created by asymmetrical thrust
when operating on one engine. Turbocharged aircraft will still experience a
decrease in thrust but only due to decreasing propeller efficiency with altitude.
As altitude increases the stall speed will remain constant. This means that
eventually an altitude will be reached where Vmc will be lower than the stall
speed. The result will be that the aircraft will stall before losing directional
control. Note: Vmc in the Seminole is already below stall speed even at sea
level on a standard day
What is the significance of all this? If the aircraft stalls with asymmetrical
thrust it will go into a spin and multi-engine aircraft are not required to
be certified for spin recovery. Whats more, most likely the reason the
aircraft is flying this slow in the first place is that it is close to the ground
attempting to climb (as in a takeoff). In this case there would be almost no
time to even attempt a spin recovery.
Bottom Line: If you ever hear the stall horn or begin to lose directional
control of a multiengine aircraft and you are on one engine: push the nose
down and reduce power on the good engine immediately! This will enable you
to regain control of the aircraft quickly and avoid the possibility of entering a
spin.
This recovery procedure is also part of your multi-engine flight training and is
referred to as a Vmc Demo.