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AristotlesTheoryofKnowledgePart2

GregSalmieri1Hr30min

Recap
ThereareseveraldifferentkindsofGknowledge,someofwhicharemoreintensethanothers
Amongthemostintenseareepistemeandtechne
Eachareaboutdifferentkindsofthings
Unliketheknowledgeofsomeonewhosmerelyexperienced,thepersonwithepisteme
ortechnehasuniversalknowledgeandseesthingsasaresultofcauses
Youhaveepistemewhen:
YouGknowitscause
Knowthatthecausecausestheobject.
Recognizethereforethattheobjectcouldntbeotherwisethanitis
Epistemeisreachedthroughdemonstrations
Demonstrationsaredeductionsinwhichoneshowseffectstobenecessarybydeducing
themfromtheircauses(notacompletedefinitionyet)
Thepremisesmustbepriorbynaturetotheconclusion(notnecessarypriortous)
Whatsmorefundamental,whatsadeepercause
Ex:NewtonispriorbynaturetoKeplerbutKeplerwaspriortous
Ifpremisesofdemonstrationshavethesecharacteristicstheywillbesufficienttoproduceepisteme:
Premisesmustbetrue
Premisesmustbebetterknownthanconclusion
Betterknowndoesnotnecessarilymeanclosertoperceptionbutthattheknowledgeis
moreintenseithastobethiswayandyougraspwhyithastobethisway.
Inotherwords,togettoknowledgeofacausesuchthatitcannotbeanyotherwayyou
needtohavethesameintensityofknowledgeforthepremises.
Premisesmustbeabsolutelyprimaryorimmediate
Theresnoearlierthingfromwhichyoucandemonstrateit
Theyneedtobeclosertosomethingthatsimmediateandprimarythantheconclusion
Whatarethesebeginningfundamentalsuponwhichepistemeisbased?2broadtypes:
Axioms:somethingthatsneededifoneistolearnanythingatall
Ifyoudidntalreadyhaveanaxiomyouwouldbeincapableoflearninganything
Ex:Existenceexists,ex:lawofnoncontradiction,ex:lawofexcludedmiddle
Theses:isspecifictoacertaindiscipline.Eachscience/arthastheirownthesesuponwhich
everythinginthefielddepends
Hypotheses
Statementsthatsomethingexistsoristhecase
Definitions
Definesallthetermsinascience
Theunderstandingoftheseprincipleshastobeasgknowingastheconclusionitself
Callsthisunderstandingnous
Sometimestranslatedasunderstandingorcomprehension
ThenameofthestateinwhichyouGknowaprinciple
Question:Seemstobemodeledondeduction.Didhefavordeduction?
AristotlesTheoryofKnowledgePart2
GregSalmieri1Hr30min

Youmightreadthisandcometotheconclusionthatthisishowyoushouldgoaboutgaining
knowledge
Thatsprobablynotwhathethoughtbecausethatsnothowhepresentshisideas
Whathesprobablysayingis(basedupontheapproachinhiscorpus):Thisisnothow
wereachknowledgeinthefirstplacenorhowweshouldteachthingsbutratherthis
identifiesthestructureinwhichweholdtheknowledgeinourheadsoncewehaveit
Ifyouacceptthathemeantthatthisishowyoushouldholdtheknowledgeinyourhead,thisisa
verywidelyheldviewinthehistoryofknowledge
Awiderangeofpeoplewithawiderangeofapproachestosciencebelievethis
AfterAristotlecameagroupofdoctorswhocalledthemselvesempiricistswhobelievedthatitwas
notpossibletoarriveatthefundamentalprinciplesoftheirtechne(medicine)butratherthateach
experiencehadtobeapproachedindividually
Everythingisseparateanddisconnected.Humeisthemodernempiricist
Epistemeandtechneareimpossiblebecauseitsimpossibletoreachprinciplesfromperception
Thepeoplethatdisagreedwiththembecameknownastherationalists.Theythoughtthatyoucould
identifythefundamentalprinciplesbydeducingthemfromhigherconcepts
StemsfromPlato.(hisrationalistictheoryofforms)
Theprinciplesareknownindependentofexperience
Aristotlesviewisdistinctfromthese:
Epistemeispossiblebecausenouscanbederivedfromperception
Considerrandsdefinitionofreason:reasonisthefacultythatidentifiesandintegratesthe
materialprovidedbymanssenses
ThisisessentiallyanAristoteliandefinition
Certainquestionscomeaboutfromhisview:
Howcanepisteme,whichisofuniversals,beofobjectsintheperceptualworldwhichisof
particulars
Thisquestionarisesfromtheplatoniccontext
Howcannousofprinciplescomeaboutfromformsofperceptionthatarelessintensethan
nousitself?
Normallyifyouderiveanitemofknowledgefromanother,theitemyouderivecannot
bestrongerthantheitemsyouderiveditfrom
Subquestion1:Howcannouscomeaboutfromperception?Whatarethestatesthat
comeaboutsuchthatthisispossible?
Subquestion2:whatmethodsmustIfollowtodothis?
Atopicweneedtodiscusstofigureoutthesequestionsischange.Howdothingscometobe?
Wheneversomethingcomestobe,theremustbesomethingthatcomestobeit.
Ifacakecomestobe,theremustbesomethingthatbecomesthecake:thebatter
Theverybatteritselfmustcometobethecake,notjustreplaced
Theremustbesomethingthatunderliesthechange:weneedanameforwhatbecomesan
entity
Aristotleintroducesthetermsmatterandform
AristotlesTheoryofKnowledgePart2
GregSalmieri1Hr30min

Anythingthatcancometobeandpassawaycanbecategorizedintomatter.
Matteristhesubject,thatwhichisabletobebatteratfirstandcakelater
Thatwhichunderliesthecomingtobeofanentity
Theformisthatwhichcomestobewhenthebatterturnsintothecake
Aristotleusesthetermmatterinanotherway
Ex:Asmartpersonhasthematter(ie.thepotential)tobecomeanintellectual
Ex:thestarshavematter(potential)forchangeofplace(asheobservesthemindifferentspots
inthesky),butatanymomentithasacertainformitactualizesitspotentialtobeinanyofthe
places
Ex:Spherescanbebisectedintotwohemispheres.Socanyoubisectasoapbubble?No,it
wouldpop
However,youcanbisectitinthoughtassortofageometricexercise
Thereforeithasintelligiblemattermatterforthinking.
Thataboutitwhichenablesittoundergosomethinginthinking
Question:IsAristotlesview:agivenpieceofknowledgeisnotepistemeuntilyouvededucedit
fromprincipleseventhoughyoumighthaveitbeforehand
Yes,theresmoreonitnextlecture
Question:Isittruethateverythingthathasapotentialityisexhibitingonesuchpotentialityatsome
point?
Yes,ifyoumeanitas,allmatterexistsinsomeform
Aristotledistinguishesbetweenfirstandsecondactualities
Afirstactualityisanacquiredcapacitywhichisanactualizationofanunderlyingpotentialitybut
isitselfactualizedinitsexercise
Ex:Asinger.Isthepersonactuallyasingerorpotentiallyasinger?
Whentheywereborntheywereapotentialsingerbecausetheyhadthecapacityto
learnsong
Havingthecapacitytosing(beingasinger)iswhatAristotlecalledafirstactuality
Actuallysingingiswhathecallsthesecondactuality
ThisishowAristotlesolvestheearlierquestion:Howcanuniversalknowledgebeofparticulars?
Eknowledgehastwosense
Inpotentiality(firstactuality)
Andactuality(secondactuality)
Exofhowhesolvesthis:Takethemathproblemfromlectureone.Weknownowthatthetwo
numberswhenmultipliedwillbeeven.Thuswhenwerecontemplatingaparticularcasethe
knowledgeisofthesecondactualitywhereasbefore,whenwehadtheknowledgebutwerenot
contemplatingituponaspecific,theknowledgewasintheformofafirstactuality.
Whenyourecontemplating:secondactuality
Whenyouhadtheknowledgebutnotapplyingtospecific:firstactuality
Theepistemewhenyourenotusingitlikematter,itsapotentialwhereastheactualepisteme
isdefiniteandofthedefinite.Itsofacertainthingyoucanpointtoaparticular
AristotlesTheoryofKnowledgePart2
GregSalmieri1Hr30min

Whenyouhavetheknowledgeabouttheevennumbers,theknowledgeisuniversalbut
withapotentialityitcanapplytoanyevennumber
Butwhenyouactualizetheepisteme,youhavetothinkaboutaspecificparticular
Knowledgewhennotexercisedislikematter
Eknowledgeasacapacityistheabilitytoeknowanyoftheparticularsofacertainkind
Whenweexerciseit,wehaveeknowledgeofthatparticular
Thisisabroaderpointaboutpotentialityandactuality
Ifalarkisasinger,itisntnecessarilysinging.Butwhenitissinging,itissingingaparticularnote
orsong
Wedonotneedtohaveuniversalobjectstohaveuniversalknowledge
Sowhatisitabouttheindividualsunderakindsuchthatasinglepowerappliestoknowingallof
them?
Whatweneedisareasonwhyitstruetosayonethingofmany.Whycanwetreatoneas
manyinthoughtandwhatneedstobetruetotreatthemthisway?
Onepossibleanswer:(commontotextbooksbutnotaproperinterpretation):Allhuman
beings,forexample,havematterandform.Whattheyhaveisasinglemanformthat
makesthemaman.Buttheyhavedifferentmatter.
Thomiststhought:matteristheprincipleofindividuationandformistheprinciple
ofuniversality
Whatisthesameamongmenistheformandwhatsdifferentisthematter
ThisisprobablywrongbecauseAristotlewassayingearlieristhatmatteris
associatedwithuniversalitynotparticularity.Infact,hesaysthisallthetime.
Ex:Aristotlesaysthegenusisthematterandthedifferentiaistheform
Whenyouaddadifferentiaitsthesamekindofprocessthattakesplacein
thoughtwhenyouapplyyouruniversalknowledge
Inbothcases,somethingthatisindefiniteisgettingspecifiedand
formed/determinedintooneofthethingsthatitcanbe
Thereareimmenseimplicationsofthisview
Thismatterformrelationshipbetweenthegenusanddifferentiamakesthespeciesonething
Theformsofakindhavetobeinacertainrelationshipwithoneanother:differenceratherthan
otherness
Theremustbesomerespectinwhichtheyrecommensurablesuchthatinthoughtonecan
betransformedintoanother
Theyhavetobecomparableamongthesamedimensioninsomerespect
Theydifferinthemoreandtheless(ananticipationofRandsmeasurementomission)
Question:Areindividualmenspeciesofmen?
Aristotlesaysno.Ifyouhaveawidegenus(takeanimal),whatitistobeananimalhasakindof
range(aperceivinglocomotingorganism).Thustherearemanydifferentkindsofperceiving
locomotingorganisms.
Inthedefinitionofanimal,youcannarrowitdown.
AristotlesTheoryofKnowledgePart2
GregSalmieri1Hr30min

Butnowwegetdowntoyouanindividualman.Whatdistinguishesyoufromother
men?Youreblonde,youreskinny,etc.
Thesecharacteristicsarenolongersubdivisionsofanimal,theyareothertraits
Youcangoaleveldeeperandcrossclassifybuttheresnothingtoknowbygrouping
thingssonarrowlyasyou.
Sohowdowegettonous?
Frompart1wehadacertainprogression:perceptiontomemorytoexperiencetoprinciplesof
episteme/techne
Aristotlethinksofperceptionasakindofbeingeffectedbyaphysicalobjectwhereitsortof
impressesitseffectuponyou.
Perceptioncantbefalseitcantbetrueorfalsethatappliesonlytobeliefs
Itsalwaysvalid
Itsnotahighgradeofknowledgebutitsthestrongestformyoucanhavewhenitsrightin
frontofyoureyes
Phantasiaistheimageorphantasmoraftereffectoftheperception
Theseimagesarewhatallowformemory
Memoryisatypeofphantasia
Youcanjustworkwithyourphantasia
Youcanimagineorprojectcertainthings
ThisiswhatAristotlethinksanimalsaredoinganimagisticprojectionofthefuture
Ex:wasoncecleaningatoiletbowlandgashedhisfingeronasharppieceofceramic.
Everytimehecleansatoilethehasasortofvisualtactilewincingthatsinvoluntary.It
justkindofcomesoveryoubutyoucanstillkindofcontrolit.
Aristotlethinksthisisessentialtothinkingthereisnothinkingwithouttheimage
Perceptionisareceptionofbeingeffectedbyexternalthings.Memoryisakindofphantasia.
Whatthenisemperia(experience)?
Peoplewhohaveexperiencearethinkingparticularisticlyratherthanuniversally
Theexampleshegivespeoplearentthinkingabsolutelyparticularlybuttheyareusingvery
lowlevelgeneralizations
Ex:frompart1thechickensoupgivernoticedthatthecoughwasthesameamong
CalliasandSocrates.Thecausewasnotexplicit
Emperia:anabilitybaseduponknowledgeofpastparticularstohaveahunchor
associationalability
Theemperiacausenotionsorsortofhuncheslikeheymaybethischickensoupwill
work
Theconcepthasnotbeengraspedsortofanimplicit/halfbakedconcept
Somehowfromexperiencewehavetogettohavingaprincipleofepisteme/techne.How?
Aristotlegivesafamousanalogy(whichisconfusing):backgroundinGreekwarfaresoldiers
wouldgettogetherintoaphalanxwhereeachwouldlineupnexttoeachother,eachwitha
shieldandspearintoacontinuouslineorunbreakableline(likein300)
AristotlesTheoryofKnowledgePart2
GregSalmieri1Hr30min

Arouthasoccurredandalloftheseguysarerunningaroundallovertheplace.Oneman
isstanding(likeonethingstickinginyourmemory).Anothermanjoinshim.Untilthey
arealltogetherintosortofawhole
Hisinterpretation:Asingleguyalonecantdothethingsthatthephalanxcando.
Butoncemorepeoplestarttocometogether,theycansortofapproximateinanad
hocmannerthekindofworkaphalanxdoes.Eventuallytheyhavethecapabilities
ofafullphalanx
Aprinciplegivesyouakindofabilitytograspcauseandeffectrelationships
whenyouhaveit.Asingleindividualcantgiveyouthat.Norcanacouple.But
onceyoustarttogetenoughindividualsyougetanadhocfunctioning(this
wouldbeemperia)
Aristotlegoesontoclarify:Wedivideuptheparticular
WithCalliasinoursoulwecanfindasubpartofhimman
Withmaninoursoulwecanfindanimalasasuppartofhimanimal
Withanimalinoursoulwecanfindasubpartorganism
Theproblemwiththisisthataphalanxisnotapartofasoldierthesoldierispartof
thephalanx
StrangethatAristotlewouldgiveusbothbreakingdownandbuildingupas
examplesofthesameprocess.
Question:Clarifypotentiality
Itsapowertobecertainthings
Aristotlethinksofitthisway:Universalknowledgeisapowertoknowanyofthedifferent
particularsunderit.Inthissenseitsapotential.

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