Impact of Fly Ash Incorporation in Soil Systems

Review
Impact of y ash incorporation in soil systems

Vimal Chandra Pandey*, Nandita Singh
Eco-Auditing Group, National Botanical Research Institute, Council of Scientic and Industrial Research, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2. Physico-chemical and mineralogical properties of FA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3. Impact of FA on soil system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1. Impact of FA on soil fertility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2. Impact of FA on soil biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.1. Soil microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.2. Soil enzymatic activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.3. Soil nitrogen cycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3. Soil contamination due to FA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.1. Potential toxic elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.2. Radioactive elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4. Role of bio-amelioration of FA on soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5. Stabilization of heavy metal-contaminated soil by FA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6. Role of microbial chelates in FA bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7. Improvement of degraded lands by FA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.1. FA factor that may inuence its use on soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
8. Using FA for reducing global warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
9. Fly ash: a versatile waste product with many potential applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
10. Current aspects of FA incorporation in soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
11. Recommendations and perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
12. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 136 (2010) 1627
A R T I C L E I N F O
Article history:
Received 25 April 2009
Received in revised form 16 November 2009
Accepted 17 November 2009
Available online 21 December 2009
Keywords:
Fly ash
Soil system
Microbial chelates
Enzymatic activity
Heavy metal
Stabilization
Bio-amelioration
Degraded land
A B S T R A C T
Fly ash (FA)a coal combustion residue of thermal power plants has been regarded as a problematic
solid waste all over the world. The conventional disposal methods for FA lead to degradation and
contamination of the arable land. However, several studies proposed that FA can be used as a soil-
additive that may improve physical, chemical and biological properties of the degraded soils and is a
source of readily available plant micro- and macro-nutrients. Numerous studies revealed that the lower
FA incorporation in soil modies the physico-chemical, biological and nutritional quality of the soil.
However, the higher dosage of FA incorporation results in heavy metal pollution and hinders the
microbial activity. Practical value of FA in agriculture as an eco-friendly and economic fertilizer or soil
amendments can be established after repeated eld experiments for each type of soil to conrm its
quality and safety. Integrated Organic/Biotechnological approaches should be applied for the reducing
toxicity of FA contaminated site near thermal power plants. Overall, study reveals that FA could be
effectively used in the barren or sterile soil for improving quality and enhancing fertility. The purpose of
this paper is to explore the possibility of FA addition into degraded soils for improving nutritional and
physico-chemical properties.
2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 522 2297931 32, fax: +91 522 2205847.
E-mail address: vimalcpandey@gmail.com (V.C. Pandey).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment
j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ agee
0167-8809/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.agee.2009.11.013
1. Introduction
Fly ash (FA), a coal combustion residue, is an amorphous ferro-
alumino silicate with a matrix very similar to soil. Elemental
composition of FA (both nutrient and toxic elements) varies due to
types and sources of used coal (Comberato et al., 1997). Addition of
FA to soil may improve the physico-chemical properties as well as
nutritional quality of the soil and the extent of change depends on
soil and FA properties. In view of the high cost of disposal and
environmental management, utilization of FAin agricultural sector
could be a viable option. Its use in agriculture was initially due to
its liming potential and the presence of essential nutrients, which
promoted plant growth and also alleviated the nutrient deciency
in soils (Mittra et al., 2005). FA production and utilization in
different countries during 2005 are presented in Figs. 1 and 2,
respectively. Figs. 1 and 2 shows that India generates higher
production of FA (112 million tonnes/year) and utilizes lower
percentage of FA (38%) in respect of other countries while
Denmark, Italy and Netherlands generate lower FA production
(2 million tonnes/year) and utilize 100% FA (Source: http://
www.tifac.org.in).
The commercialization of FA as a fertilizer in agricultural sector
for crop production is uncommon in the most countries, because
y ashes may contain non-essential elements (e.g. As, B, Cd, Se)
that adversely affect crop and soil and poor in both nitrogen (N is
absent because it is oxidized into gaseous constituents during the
combustion) and P (excessive Fe and Al convert soluble P to
insoluble P compounds, which are not readily available to plants;
Adriano et al., 1980). Factors that restrict the ash disposal in soils
are the content of potentially toxic elements (as B, Se, Ni, Mo and
Cd), high salinity and reduced solubility of the some nutrients from
the high pH of some FAs (Page et al., 1979). Although, the lower
levels of FA in the soil caused enhancements of both growth and
yield, however, the adverse effects at higher levels were observed
for crops (Pandey et al., 2009a). Several studies focused mainly on
the general characteristics of ashes that are essential for the soil
treatments and their benets to the growth and yield of crops.
There is a need to evaluate the impact of FA on the soil systemsuch
as soil fertility, soil health, soil microbes, soil bio-chemical activity
and soil nitrogen cycling etc. Our aim in this review paper is to
briey explain the properties of FA which is related to incorpo-
ration of soil, the effect of FA on the soil system and discuss
potential uses of FA for amelioration of structural, nutritional and
other problems in degraded soils for the productivity.
2. Physico-chemical and mineralogical properties of FA
FA being a coal combustion residue shows a wide variation in
their physico-chemical and mineralogical properties depending on
the nature of parent coal, conditions of combustion, type of
emission control devices, storage and handling methods (Jala and
Goyal, 2006). FA consists of ne, glasslike particles, which range in
particle size from 0.01 to 100 mm (Davison et al., 1974) that are
predominantly spherical in shape, either solid or hallow and
mostly glossy (amorphous) in nature. Spherical-shaped particles
constitute most of the FA especially in the ner fractions. Some
spheres are hallow (cenospheres), while others (plerospheres) are
lled with smaller amorphous particles are crystals. FA has a low
bulk density, high surface area and light texture (Asokan et al.,
2005; Jala and Goyal, 2006).
The major matrix elements in FA are Si, Al, and Fe together with
signicant percentages of Ca, K, Na and Ti. It is also substantially
rich in trace elements like mercury, cobalt and chromium and
these trace elements in the ash are concentrated in the smaller ash
particles (Adriano et al., 1980). Ca was found to be the dominant
cation in FAfollowed by Mg, Na and K (Matti et al., 1990). Al in FAis
mostly bound in insoluble aluminosilicate structures, which
considerably limits its biological toxicity. FA contains essential
macro-nutrients like P, K, Ca, Mg and S and micro-nutrients
including Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Co, B and Mo. The pH of FA can vary from
4.5 to 12.0 depending largely on the sulphur content of the parent
coal and the type of coal used for combustion affects the sulphur
content of FA. According to Anisworth and Rai (1987) FAs with Ca/S
ratios of less than about 2.5 generated acid extracts, whereas, y-
ashes with Ca/S ratios higher than 2.5 produced alkaline extracts.
FA consists of mainly amorphous glass and a few crystalline
phases. The crystalline phases of FA consist of gypsum
(CaSO
4
2H
2
O), aluminosilicate glass, mullite (3Al
2
O
3
2SiO
2
),
quartz (SiO
2
), magnetite (Fe
3
O
4
), anhydrite (CaSO
4
), ettringite
(3CaOAl
2
O
3
3CaSO
4
32H
2
O), opaline SiO
2
, hematite (Fe
2
O
3
), lime
(CaO), chlorite, feldspars and spinel (FeAl
2
O
4
), depending on the
mineralogy of the feed coal (Moreno et al., 2005; Kutchko and Kim,
2006) which are known as minarals.
Fig. 1. Fly ash production (million tonnes/year) in different countries (plots present
data from the source: http://www.tifac.org.in).
Fig. 2. Utilization (%) of total produced y ash in different countries (plots present
data from the source: http://www.tifac.org.in).
V.C. Pandey, N. Singh/ Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 136 (2010) 1627 17
Table 1
Application of FA for improving problematic soil system.
Amendments FA doses range Soil type Remarks References
FA+soil FA @ 3, 6, 12% (w/w) Sandy loam soil 3% FA amendment on sandy loam soil enhanced decomposition rate of soil
organic carbon in comparison to control
Wong and Wong
(1986)
FA+soil, FA+soil +FYM @ 5g/kg FA @ 80 and 160gkg
1
Acid alsol Higher microbial activities in soil amended with up to 8% FA and combined
application of FYM and FA proved to be benecial in augmenting proliferation
and activity of microorganisms in acid soil
Lal et al. (1996)
FA+soil and FA+soil +sludge (5%) FA @ 0, 5, 10 and 20% (w/w);
sewage sludge @ 5%
Silt loam soil High rates of FA to soil may hinder normal decomposition and nutrient
cycling processes
Pichtel and
Hayes (1990)
FA+soil FA @ 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40%
by weight basis
Clayey, sandy-clay-loam,
sandy, sandy-loam
FA incorporation in texturally variant soils modies the soil physical and
physico-chemical environment which in turn may inuence the crop yields
Kalra et al. (2000)
FA+soil FA to the top 0.15m coarse
textured (sandy) soil
Acidic soil and
duplex soil
Reduce hydraulic conductivity by 25% and improve water-holding capacity Yunusa et al. (2006)
FA+soil FA @ 0, 10, 12.5, 15, 17.5 and 20t ha
1
Sandy-loam Invertase, amylase, dehydrogenase and protease activity increased with
increasing application of y-ash up to 10t ha
1
, but decreased with higher
levels of FA application
Sarangi et al. (2001)
Control, FA, CF, FA+CF, FYM+CF,
FA+FYM+CF, L +FYM+CF, PFS +CF,
FA+PFS+CF, L +PFS +CF, CR+CF,
FA+CR+CF
FA @ 10t ha
1
; organic sources
(FYM, PFS and CR) @ 30kgNha
1
;
lime @ 2t ha
1
Acid lateritic soil The application 10t ha
1
of FA in combination with organic sources and
chemical fertilizer increased the grain yield and nutrient uptake of rice
and pod yield of peanut compared to chemical fertilizers alone
Mittra et al. (2005)
FA+lime+acidic coal spoil FA @ 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40gkg
1
;
lime @ 0, 10, 20, 40 and 80gkg
1
Acidic coal spoils All rates of lime tested and FA rates at or above 20gkg
1
increased the
spoil pH, aboveground plant biomass and root biomass. So FA is a feasible
alternative to lime for treating acidic coal spoils in the region
Taylor and
Schuman (1988)
FA+soil, soil +(Zn, Cu, Ni and Cd),
FA+soil +(Zn, Cu, Ni and Cd)
3% FA Poorly buffered
acidic soils
Alkalizing effects of FA can be utilized to reduce plant accumulation of
potentially toxic elements, particularly in poorly buffered acidic soils
Scotti et al. (1999)
FA+soil FA @ 0, 2, 5, 10, 15 and 20% Acidic soil Helped to reduce metal solubility and availability to plants Shende et al. (1994)
FA+acid lateritic soils Sandy loam acid
lateritic soil
Integrated use of y ash, organic wastes and chemical fertilizers was
benecial in improving crop yield, soil pH, organic carbon and available
N, P and K in sandy loam acid lateritic soil
Rautaray et al. (2003)
FA+soil FA @ 10, 25, 50% Improved physico-chemical properties of soil and plant grown, net
primary productivity, leaf area and photosynthetic pigments
Ajaz and Tiyagi (2003)
FA+soil FA @ 0, 280, 560 and 1120Mgha
1
Improved physical properties of soils (water-holding capacity, plant
available water, water retention capacity)
Adriano and
Weber (2001)
FA+soil FA @ 0, 40, 80, and 120Mgha
1
Loamy ne sandtypic
Hapludalfs
FA can be a good soil amendment for rice production without B toxicity Lee et al. (2008)
FA+soil FA @ 0, 1, 2.5, 5, 10 and 15Mg ha
1
Sandy soil, sandy loam Improved physical properties of soil and growth and yield of rice at 10Mgha
1
Mishra et al. (2007)
FA+soil FA @ 0, 3, 6, 12 and
30% (on a dry weight basis)
Sandy soil, sandy loam The electrical conductivity and pH of both recipient soils were raised, but
more so for the sandy soil. The increase in electrical conductivity may
limit the availability of soil water because of the high osmotic pressure
and the increased pH would alter the availability of micro-elements to plants
Wong and
Wong (1989)
FA+soil FA @ 0, 3, 6 and 12% Calcareous heavy
loam soil (Ustarents)
FA at the highest rate raised the pH of sandy soil and sandy loam from 7.3 and
6.7 to 9.7 and 8.6, respectively. EC also increased from 56 to 2035mmhos cm
1
for sandy soil and 135 to 341mmhos cm
1
for sandy loam. Hence, sandy
loam had a higher buffering capacity for receiving the FA amendment
than sandy soil.
Both accumulation and reduction of metals in plant tissue were signicantly
correlated with the pH of FA-amended soils
Wong and
Wong (1990)
FA+soil FA depths 5, 7 and 10cm
in bottom of pots; soil
depths 10, 8 and 5cm;
total depths of growth
substrate 15cm;
mycorrhizal treatments
Two paddy soils of
contrasting textures
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) fungi may make a substantial contribution to
successful crop establishment in soils overlying areas of coal y ash
Bi et al. (2003)
FA+phospho-gypsum+soil FA+phospho-gypsum (50:50, w/w)
mixture @ 0, 20, 40 and 60Mgha
1
Silt loam, loamy sand Mixtures of FA+phospho-gypsum should reduce P loss from rice paddy soils
due to the high Ca content in this mixture which might convert water-soluble
P to less soluble forms by precipitation process and increase soil fertility
Lee et al. (2007)
Abbreviations: FA: Fly-ash, FYM: farmyard manure, CF: chemical fertilizer, L: lime, PFS: paper factory sludge, CR: crop residue, EC: electrical conductivity.
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3. Impact of FA on soil system
3.1. Impact of FA on soil fertility
The effect of FA on soil fertility largely depends upon the
properties of original coal and soil. FA, which can be acidic or
alkaline depending on the source, can be used to buffer the soil pH
(Elseewi et al., 1978). Lime in FA readily reacts with acidic
components in soil and releases nutrients such as S, B and Mo in the
form and amount benecial to crop plants. FA improves the
physical properties of soil and nutrient status of soil (Rautaray
et al., 2003). FA has been used for correction of sulphur and boron
deciency in acid soils (Chang et al., 1977). The majority of crops
prefer optimum pH values of between 6.5 and 7.0, within which
the availability of most nutrients to plants is maximized. Fertility is
impaired at very low pHlevels as dissolution and bioavailability of
Mn and Al that are toxic to plants increases. Without proper
management, majority of soils will be unsuitable for the protable
cultivation. The initial increase in soil pH after alkaline FA
amendment is explained by the rapid release of Ca, Na, Al, and
OH ions from FA (Wong and Wong, 1990).
FA applied on acidic strip mine spoils at different places
increased the yield of many crops which was attributed to
increased availability of Ca
2+
, Mg
2+
in soil and preventing toxic
effects of Al
3+
and Mn
2+
and other metallic ions by neutralizing the
soil acidity (Fail and Wochok, 1977). The activity of certain metals
may increase with an increase in pH. For example, aluminium is
relatively insoluble as Al(OH)
3
at neutral pH, but it exists
predominantly as highly soluble and toxic aluminate anions above
a soil pH of 8.0. Al
3+
is the toxic species for monocots, e.g. in wheat
roots, when Al
3+
activities were increased, the activities of the
hydroxyl-Al species were decreased. For dicots either Al(OH)
2+
or
Al(OH)
2
+
is the phytotoxic species and Al
3+
is much less toxic
(Kochian, 1995). Al is the most abundant metal in FA. Although,
higher B availability limits the use of FA in crop production (Page
et al., 1979), the problemcan be overcome by proper weathering of
the FA, which reduces B availability to below toxic level.
3.2. Impact of FA on soil biota
There is a dearth of studies regarding the effects of FA
amendment on soil biological properties. Numerous short-term
laboratory incubation studies found that the addition of unweath-
ered FA to sandy soils severely inhibited microbial respiration,
numbers, size, enzyme activity and soil nitrogen cycling processes
such as nitrication and N mineralization (Arthur et al., 1984;
Cerevelli et al., 1986; Wong and Wong, 1986; Pichtel, 1990; Pichtel
and Hayes, 1990; Garau et al., 1991). The huge FA materials have
been a potential resource for improving problematic soil systems
(Table 1).
3.2.1. Soil microbes
Some factors such as pH, salinity, toxicity of B and other trace
elements, poor physical conditions can limit colonization of
microorganisms as well as plants in the FA (Carlson and Adriano,
1993). Though, the concentration of soluble salts and other trace
elements was found to decrease due to weathering of FA during
natural leaching, thereby reducing the detrimental effects over
time (Sims et al., 1995). Despite that, the most limiting factors for
microbial activity are usually a lack of substrate C as an energy
source for heterotrophic microorganisms and the lack of an
adequate N supply (Klubek et al., 1992). Earlier studies indicate
that the microbial diversity generally increases as ash weathers
and nutrients accumulate. Karpagavalli and Ramabadran (1997)
reported that the application of Lignite FA reduced the growth of
seven soil borne pathogenic microorganisms. Whereas, the
population of Rhizobium sp. and P-solubilizing bacteria have been
reported to increase under the soil amended with either farmyard
manure or FA individually or in combination (Sen, 1997).
Application of FA (40 t/ha) with phosphate solubilizer, Pseudomo-
nas striata improved the bean yield and phosphorous uptake by
grain and FA did not exert any detrimental effect on the population
of P. striata in soil (Gaind and Gaur, 2002). Alkaline FA and lime
were tested for their effectiveness in pathogen removal from
biosolids and it was observed that the mixture of 10% ash
biosolids and 8.5%lime on dry weight basis had acceptable levels of
Salmonella and total coliforms (Wong et al., 2001). Machulla et al.
(2004) suggested that the microbial communities that developed
in 1720-year-old lignite ash deposits in Germany contained
specic ash-tolerant populations that different signicantly from
those in surrounding soils. Increased microbial activity was
reported for ash-amended soils containing sewage sludge (Pichtel,
1990). Elevated populations of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and
Gram-negative bacteria were found by the FA incorporation
(505 Mg ha
1
) in soil from the analysis of community fatty acids
(Schutter and Fuhrmann, 2001). FA and its different mixtures with
soil (w/w) were tested for use as a carrier for diazotrophs and
phosphobacteria which showed their maximum viability in FA
alone or soil:FA (1:1) mixture (Gaind and Gaur, 2003). Kumar et al.
(2008) isolated metal tolerant plant growth promoting bacteria
(NBRI K28 Enterobacter sp.) from FA contaminated soils and found
that the strain NBRI K28 and its siderophore overproducing mutant
NBRI K28 SD1 are capable of stimulating plant biomass and
enhance phytoextraction of metals (Ni, Zn and Cr) from FA by
metal accumulating plant i.e. Brassica juncea (Indian mustard).
Concurrent production of siderophores, Indole acetic acid (IAA)
and phosphate solubilization revealed its plant growth promotion
potential. Finally, in most of the cases mutant of NBRI K28, exerted
more pronounced effect on metal accumulation and growth
performance of B. juncea plants than wild type. Actinomycetes and
fungi declined with 5% FA and all populations declined at the 10
and 20% rate. With 20% FA bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi
decreased by 57, 80 and 86%, respectively (Pichtel and Hayes,
1990).
Rau et al. (2009) worked on the evaluation of functional
diversity in rhizobacterial taxa of a wild grass (Saccharum
ravennae) colonizing abandoned Indraprastha and Badarpur FA
dumps of Delhi region and reported 65 dominant, morphologically
distinct rhizobacteria, which belonged to 18 genera and 38 species.
Gram-positive bacteria were dominating in the FA environment.
Bacillus spp. and Paenibacillus spp. were common at both the
dumps. Multi-metal tolerance was shown by diverse bacterial taxa.
The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was highest for As
(12.520.0 mM) and Pb (7.510.0 mM). The tolerance proles of
rhizobacteria to different metals may be ranked in the decreasing
order as As > Pb > Cr > Zn > Ni > Cu > Co > Cd > Hg. Majority of
rhizobacteria showed good siderophore activity. Multiple-metal
tolerance was also coupled with high siderophore production in
some of the isolates (Microbacterium barkeri IPSr74, Serratia
marcescens IPSr90 and IPSr82, Enterococcus casseliavus BPSr32,
Bacillus sp. IPSr80, Pseudomonas aeruginosa BPSr43 and Brochothrix
campestris BPSr3). Proportion of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria
was high. Representative rhizobacteria, with high MIC (for most of
the metals) and good plant growth promoting (PGP) traits
comparable to commercially useful bacterial inoculants were
identied as S. marcescens IPSr82 and IPSr90, P. aeruginosa BPSr43,
Paenibacillus larvae BPSr106, Arthrobacter ureafaciens BPSr55,
Paenibacillus azotoxans BPSr107 and E. casseliavus BPSr32. S.
ravennae and some of these rhizobacteria may be potentially useful
for the development of inoculation technologies for conversion of
barren FA dumps into ecologically and economically productive
habitats.
Garampalli et al. (2005) revealed on the basis of pot-culture
experiment that using sterile, phosphorus-decient soil to study
the effect of FA at three different concentrations viz., 10 g, 20 g and
30 g FA kg
1
soil on the infectivity and effectiveness of vesicular-
arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) Glomus aggregatum in pigeonpea
(Cajanus cajan L.) cv. Maruti. All the concentrations of FA
amendment in soil were found to signicantly affect the intensity
of VAM colonization inside the plant roots and at higher
concentration (30 g FA kg
1
soil); the formation of VAM fungal
structure was suppressed completely. The dry weight of the C.
cajan plants under the inuence of FA amendment in VAMfungus-
infested soils was found to be considerably less (though not
signicant enough) when compared to the plants grown without
FA that otherwise resulted in signicant increase in growth over
the plants without G. aggregatum inoculation. However, FA
amendment without VAM inoculation was also found to enhance
the growth of plants as compared to control plants (without FAand
VAM inoculums).
Hrynkiewiez et al. (2008) evaluated the use of inoculation with
a mycorrhiza-associated bacterial strain (Sphingomonas sp. 23L) to
promote mycorrhiza formation and plant growth of three willow
clones (Salix spp.) on y ash from an overburdened dump in a pot
experiment. They conclude that inoculation with mycorrihza
promoting bacterial strains might be a suitable approach to
support mycorrhiza formation with autochthonous site-adopted
ectomycorrhizal fungi in FA and thereby to improve re-vegetation
of FA landlls with willows. Ray and Adholeya (2008) presented a
correlation between organic acid exudation and metal uptake by
ectomycorrhizal fungi grown on pond ash in vitro and this nding
supports the widespread role of lowmolecular weight organic acid
as a function of tolerance, when exposed to metals in vitro.
3.2.2. Soil enzymatic activity
The enzymatic activity of soil is also an important factor for
measuring soil biological properties after FA amendment in soil.
The high pHand electrical conductivity of FA have been suggested
to be important elements limiting microbial activity (Elliott et al.,
1982). It has been found that a signicant increase in the rate of
CO
2
evolution and the activity of soil enzymes (protease and
dehydrogenase) in FA amended soil from a pot culture experi-
ment. Increase in enzyme activity and CO
2
evolution in soil have
been reported as favourable for soil microbial activity. The
enzymatic activity was measured in 6 treatments after one month
of planting andbefore harvesting the rice crop. Invertase, amylase,
dehydrogenase and protease activity increased with increasing
application of FA up to 10 t ha
1
, but decreased with higher levels
of FA application (Fig. 3AD) (Sarangi et al., 2001). Pichtel and
Hayes (1990) reported that soil phosphatase, sulfatase, dehydro-
genase and invertase were inhibited as FA treatment levels
increased. Catalase activity was not signicantly affected by FA
concentration. Rau et al. (2009) puried and identied 65
rhizobacteria from Indraprastha and Badarpur FA dumps of Delhi
region in which S. marcescens IPSr90 was the only rhizobacterium,
which showed 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC)-de-
aminase (ACCD) activity. Ametal tolerant plant growthpromoting
bacteria (NBRI K28 Enterobacter sp.) was isolated by Kumar et al.
(2008) from FA contaminated soils, which exhibited 1-aminocy-
clopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase activity. Pati and
Sahu (2004) taken 7 concentrations of FA amended soil (0, 2.5, 5,
10, 15, 25 and 50%; w/w) for the toxicity test of earthworms
(Drawida willsi) and studied the CO
2
evolution and enzyme
activities (dehydrogenase, protease and amylase) in the presence
and absence of D. willsi. They found little or no inhibition of soil
respiration and enzyme activities up to 2.5% FAamendment. With
further addition of FA, all the above activities were signicantly
decreased. On the other hand, signicant stimulation of soil
respiration and microbial activities were observed up to 5% FA
amendment when the soils contained earthworms. This may
be due to increased microbial activity induced by substrates that
are produced by the earthworms. Co-application of FA and
Fig. 3. Enzymatic activities (A) protease, (B) amylase, (C) invertase and (D) dehydrogenase in different y-ash amended soil under rice plant at 35 and 110 days (plots present
data from the source: Sarangi et al., 2001).
earthworms at lower doses can thus be considered to stimulate
soil biological activity and thereby improve nutrient cycling in
acidic soil. Addition of the sludge to the FAsoil mixtures
generally enhanced enzyme activity. Lal et al. (1996) reported
that FA added to soil @ 16% (w/w) increases enzyme activities
(urease and cellulase). However, acid phosphatase activity was
depressed and withFAapplication. So, mix application of FYMand
FAprovedtobe benecial inaugmenting proliferationandactivity
of microorganisms in acid soils.
3.2.3. Soil nitrogen cycling
If FA is to be considered for land application then it is essential
to evaluate its potential effects on the micro-mediated ecological
processes such as organic matter decomposition and cycling of
nutrients (especially N and P) which maintain the fertility and
productivity of the biosphere. Harmful effects of higher applica-
tions of FA on plants are primarily due to a shift in the chemical
equilibrium of the soil (Singh and Yunus, 2000). Both the high
alkaline pH and the excess levels of soluble elements of FA induce
hazardous effects to the soil microbes that conduct N xation and
failure of nodulation by Rhizobium (Cheung et al., 2000). In
addition, leguminous plant inoculated with FA tolerant Rhizobium
strain was found to improve nitrogen content of infertile FAlandll
(Vajpayee et al., 2000). The high silt content of lagoon ash results in
a greater tendency to cement the soil. Poor aeration and water
logging may cause inadequate oxygen supply for Rhizobiumstrains,
which eventually result in nodulation uxes. Furthermore, Rau
et al. (2009) studied on 65 rhizobacteria of a wild grass (S.
ravennae) colonizing abandoned two FA dumps of Delhi region and
found that most of the bacteria could grow on nitrogen-decient
medium. However, the dominant nitrogen-xers reported from
the rhizosphere of other Saccharumspecies were not detected. FA
sludge mixtures containing 10% ash had positive effect on N and P
cycling and reduction in the availability of heavy metals (Lai et al.,
1999). Application of nitrogen xing cyanobacteria inoculants to
enhance N and P status and reducing metal toxicity of FA has been
reported (Rai et al., 2000). Rai et al. (2000) tested seven nitrogen
xing blue-green algae to grow on FA, however, only Anabaena
doliolum was found to grow efciently on the substrate enriching
with high level of nitrogen, phosphorus and organic content which
supported plant establishment and growth. The alga also
accumulated sufciently large amounts of toxic metals viz., Ni,
Cr, Ca, Fe and Mn from FA leading to its detoxication.
Furthermore, Bhattacharya and Chattapadhyaya (2004)
reported the possibility of improving the nitrogen status in
mixtures of FA and organic matter by implementing vermicom-
posting technology. Different combinations of FA and cow dung
viz., FA alone, cow dung alone and FA + cow dung at 1:1, 1:3 and
3:1 ratios were incubated with and without epigeic earthworms
(Eisenia foetida) for 50 days. Results revealed that different bio-
available forms of nitrogen, such as easily mineralizable NH
4
+
and
NO
3
, considerably increased in the series treated with earth-

worms. It could be largely attributedto augmented microbiological
activity in the vermicomposted samples and also to considerable
rise in the concentration of N-xing bacteria in this series. Among
the three combinations, the highest availability of nitrogen was
recorded in 1:1 mixture of vermicomposted FA and cow dung.
3.3. Soil contamination due to FA
3.3.1. Potential toxic elements
Generally FA contains potentially toxic elements such as As, Cu,
Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni, Cr, Se, etc. (Rautaray et al., 2003; Lee et al., 2006;
Tiwari et al., 2008; Adriano et al., 2002), which readily contaminate
soil. At higher levels of FA, some toxic elements might become
more active and hinder microbial activity (Adriano et al., 1978).
Unutilized FA are disposed in lagoons or landlls which polluted
soil by wind erosion, seepage, discharge of rain water and run off
from landlls into soil. At large application rates of FA to soil, Tolle
et al. (1983) reported concentrations of As in lucerne tissue were
above the level (3.4 mg kg
1
) considered toxic to sheep. Potentially
toxic concentrations of Se in herbage grown on FA-treated soils
have been found by numerous workers (Tolle et al., 1983). Some
elements (B and Mo) are found in FA which is toxic to plants or
animals due to more concentrations. Frequently noted cause of
growth depressions in plants grown in soils amended with FA or in
FA alone is B toxicity (Adriano et al., 2002). 30 mg kg
1
of B is
considered highly toxic to plants (Bradshaw and Chadwick, 1980).
Mo toxicity has been reported in Great Britain when livestock were
fed crops grown on FA-amended soil (Tolle et al., 1983). Currently
Juwarkar and Jambhulkar (2008) reported that inoculation of bio-
fertilizer and application of FYM helped in reducing the toxicity of
heavy metals of FA dump such as Cr, Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Cd which
were reduced by 31, 25, 46, 47, 48 and 25%, respectively due to the
increased organic matter content in the FA which complexes the
heavy metals thereby decreasing the toxicity of metals (Fig. 4).
3.3.2. Radioactive elements
Besides potentially toxic heavy metals, FA also contains
radioactive elements like
238
U,
232
Th,
40
K,
226
Ra,
210
Pb,
228
Ra,
222
Ru and
220
Ru (Sharma, 1989; Mandal and Sengupta, 2003;
Papastefanou, 2008). Tadmore (1986) reported radionuclides of
uranium (U) and thorium (Th) series in FA. Most of FAs are not
signicantly enriched in radioactive elements compared to
common soils or rocks (Zielinski and Finkelman, 1997). During
the process of coal combustion, radionuclides are distributed in
solid and gaseous combustion products and are discharged to and
accumulate in mans environment. According to Mittra et al.
(2005), the radioactivity (Bq kg
1
) analysis of FA and soil treated
with FA at 40 t ha
1
revealed that higher radioactivity of
226
Ra,
228
Ac and
40
K was recorded in the latter than the former whereas,
the activity of
137
Cs was reverse. The radioactivity due to addition
of FA was subjected to dilution effect in soil. However, these
marginal variations remained with the safe limit. In a radioactivity
analyses by Goyal et al., 2002, it was found that the activity levels
of gamma (g) emitting radionuclides
40
K,
226
Ra and
228
Ac were
Fig. 4. Toxic heavy metals status of y ash dump before and after amendment of
FYM and bio-fertilizer (plots present data from the source: Juwarkar and
Jambhulkar, 2008).
within the permissible limits and mixing of FA with soil at 24% (v/
v) was of no consequence. Thereby the ground water quality due to
disposal of FA remained unaffected with respect to radionuclide
contamination (Cothern and Smith, 1987; Zielinski and Finkelman,
1997).
4. Role of bio-amelioration of FA on soil
Recent investigations suggest that FA can nd better applica-
tion if combined with organic amendments such as cow manure,
press mud, paper factory sludge, farmyard manure, sewage sludge,
crop residues and organic compost for improvement of degraded/
marginal soil (Tripathi et al., 2000; Kumpiene et al., 2007; Sajwan
et al., 2003; Shen et al., 2008). Few benecial combined effects of
FA and organic matter on soil have been found such as reduced
heavy-metal availability and killing pathogens in the sludge
(Wong, 1995); improved soils through higher nutrient concentra-
tions, better texture, lower bulk density, higher porosity and mass
moisture content and higher content of ne-grained minerals
(Shen et al., 2008), enhanced the biological activity in the soil
(Kumpiene et al., 2007), reduced the leaching of major nutrients
(Sajwan et al., 2003) and benecial for vegetation (Rautaray et al.,
2003). Certain inhibitory effects to soil microbes by toxic
components of FA may, furthermore, be attenuated by the
application of organic materials.
The greater availability of metals has been correlated with a
lowering of pHof FA after the addition of press mud (Tripathi et al.,
2000). Toxicity of boron is the major limiting factor in agricultural
use of FA. Boron induced inhibition of microbial respiration can be
prevented by the co-application of a readily oxidizable organic
substrate (Page et al., 1979). Adriano et al. (1980) recommended
mixing alkaline FA with highly carbonaceous acidic material to
make compost for soil treatment. Use of swine manure with FA
increased the availability of Ca and Mg balancing the ratio between
monovalent and bivalent cations (Na
+
+ K
+
/Ca
2+
+ Mg
2+
), which
otherwise proves detrimental to the soil (Giardini, 1991). The
ability of Ca to enhance occulation/aggregation of soil particles,
particularly clay, keeps the soils friable, enhances water penetra-
tion and allows roots to penetrate hard/compact soil layers.
Calcium easily replaces Na at clay exchange sites to increase soil
occulation and stability. A considerable change in the soil
physico-chemical properties, rising of pH and increased rice crop
yield was obtained by mixed application of FA and paper factory
sludge and farmyard manure (Hill and Lamp, 1980). Co-utilization
of slash a mixture of FA, sewage sludge and lime in the ratio of
60:30:10 had benecial soil ameliorating effect (Reynolds et al.,
1999). Slash incorporation in soil showed positive effects on soil
pH and Ca, Mg and P content and reduction in the translocation of
Ni and Cd (Rethman and Truter, 2001) and enhanced growth and
yield of corn, potatoes and beans in pot trials. So, amendment with
FA will enhance agricultural sector for crop production. Further,
organic amendment application will provided anchorage and
growth of the plant on a FA dumping site.
5. Stabilization of heavy metal-contaminated soil by FA
Stabilization (chemical immobilization) by means of soil
amendments has been recently recognized as a valuable alterna-
tive, innovative technique for a wide range of contaminated sites
(Vangronsveld and Cunningham, 1998). Chemical immobilization
inhibits the transport of contaminants such as heavy metals into
deeper soil layers and into groundwater. Additionally, revegeta-
tion of highly contaminated sites might be possible after
immobilization of phytotoxic trace elements (Vangronsveld
et al., 1996). Recently increased attention was paid to the
metal-contaminatedsoil stabilizationprocess aiming tominimize
the mobility of toxic heavy metals by using various additives
mostly thermal power plant waste such as FA. When, y ashes are
addedtothe soil theyreduce metal mobilityandavailabilityinsoil
and help to restore soil properties. The mechanism of immobili-
zation involves the phenomenon of adsorption, complexation and
(co)precipitation.
Synthesized zeolites from FA have been used in the immobili-
zation of heavy metals in polluted soils. FA is an alkaline waste
material with high sorptive capacity which increases the surface
area available for element adsorption and renders most cationic
metals less mobile (Ciccu et al., 2003). In a study conducted on soils
from Italian mine site contaminated harshly with heavy metals,
mixed with FA showed decreased levels of heavy metal content in
percolating water indicating that FA in such soils can lead to
immobilization of heavy metal ions (Ciccu et al., 2001). Fly ashes
are suggested to solve problems related to acid mine drainage and
metal solubility (Iyer and Scott, 2001; Xenidis et al., 2002). FA has
been suggested to be used for land stabilization in mining areas
(Jarvis and Brooks, 1996) and in pyritic mine tailing (Sonderegger
and Donovan, 1984). According to Kumpiene et al. (2007) Cu and
Pb mobility and bioavailability in soil can be effectively reduced by
using a mixture of FA and peat (natural organic matter) as soil
amendments. Iron oxides (FeO
x
) found in FA have a high sorptive
capacity for metals. The surface charge of Iron oxide is pH
dependent and metal adsorption decreases with decreasing pH
(Cornell and Schwertmann, 2003). According to literature, FA may
be considered as one of the most common amendment materials
for heavy metal-contaminated soil as it plays signicant role in
metal immobilization, representing an effective, cost-effective,
eco-friendly management option for reclamation of metal-
contaminated soil.
6. Role of microbial chelates in FA bioremediation
Recently, bioremediation of heavy metals from FA is an
alternate emerging technology which is self-sustainable, cost
effective and eco-friendly than other conventional methods.
Regrettably, phytoextraction takes several years to remove metals
from contaminated soils due to low bioavailability of metals
(Denuex-mustin et al., 2003). To overcome this problem, various
synthetic chelates like EDTA have been used to induce metal
bioavailability, but their biodegradability is very low in compari-
son to microbial chelates (White, 2001). Hence, they may be toxic
to plants (Chen and Cutright, 2001). Microbes being integral
component of biogeochemical cycle, may be employed to either
solubilize the toxic metals, thereby increasing their bioavailability
or immobilize them to check their migration to water bodies from
contaminated sites (Gadd et al., 2001). Metal mobility/immobility
are the specic function of the bacterial strains in both aerobic and
anaerobic conditions. Chelates produced by several soil bacteria
and fungi (Neilands and Leong, 1986) which solublize metals.
Dicotyledonous species are not able to produce siderophores while
graminaceous species (monocotyledonous species) excrete phy-
tosiderophores in their roots, which are released into the
rhizosphere to mobilize Fe fromsparingly-soluble Fe
III
compounds
(Romheld and Marschner, 1986). However, dicots may excrete
organic compounds in place of siderophores by their roots which
can mobilize soil metal.
Tiwari et al. (2008) reported that except NBRFT
1
strain of
bacteria, other showed cellular immobilization of Cr, indicating
reduction of Cr (VI) to Cr (III) in the system. Braud et al. (2006)
reported that metal extractability by bioaugmentation of bacterial
(Bacillus subtilis, P. aeruginosa, P. uresccus) or fungal inocula
(Aspergillus niger or Penicilliumsimplicissimum) was enhanced from
contaminated soils. Likewise, bioleaching of Al, Fe and Zn metals
from FA was induced by A. niger (Ting, 2004). Tiwari et al. (2008)
found that most of the bacterial strains either induced the
bioavailability of Fe, Zn and Ni or immobilized Pb, Cr, Cu, Cd in
the FA. However, there were few exceptions also. In case of Ni,
eight strains enhanced metal mobility, while other caused metal
immobilization. The ndings also suggest that metal solublization
and immobilization are specic to bacterial strains. Zn and Cd
metal occur in soil primarily as insoluble precipitates (PO
4
2
,
CO
3
2
and hydroxyl-oxide) and therefore unavailable to plant, but
they are made available to plants by the microbial action. Tiwari
et al. (2008) observed that among eleven bacterial strains, only
four bacterial strains [NBRFT2 (MTCC 9018), NBRFT4 (MTCC 9021),
NBRFT5 (MTCC 8912), and NBRFT9 (MTCC 8913)] were found very
effective in enhancing mobility or immobilization of toxic metals
from FA.
7. Improvement of degraded lands by FA
Sometimes soil loses fertility and quality due to environmental
causes and unmanaged exploitation by human. For increasing soil
productivity, waste FAcould be used as exploitable resource for the
management of degraded soils, because FA possesses several
similarities like soil and contains essential micro-nutrients (Fe, Mn,
Zn, Cu, Co, B and Mo) and macro-nutrients (P, K, Ca, Mg and S). FA
also can be used in the reclamation of wastelands (sodic soil, acidic
soil and mine spoil) as FA possesses many of the functional
properties of lime and gypsum (Shainberg et al., 1989; Kumar and
Singh, 2003). Pandey et al. (2009b) also suggested the use of FA in
the reclamation of wastelands. Field experiments have indicated
that the chemical constituents of FA can improve agronomic
properties of soil (Chang et al., 1977; Wong and Wong, 1989; Sikka
and Kansal, 1995). The most promising agronomic use for these
materials may be to substitute for lime or fertilizers as soil
amendments (Schumann and Sumner, 1999).
Innovative usage options that can utilize greater percentage of
FA are being explored and large-scale application on land has been
advocated as a promising utilization option (Adriano and Weber,
2001). As a result of strip mining of coal, millions of hectares of land
worldwide became wasteland. Mine spoil is often characterized as
having lowfertility, loworganic matter content, lowwater-holding
capacity, and low soil biological activity, yet it is used as a
substitute for topsoil in surface-mine re-vegetation when topsoil is
lacking (Reddell and Milnes, 1992). Since wasteland re-vegetation
objectives may not be met if a suitable soil environment is not
provided, amendments such as FA, sewage sludge and arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi can be added to mine spoil to help create a
functional soil (Ram et al., 2006). Addition of alkaline FA to
wasteland or mine spoils increases the soil pH, decreases soil bulk
density, alters soil texture, increases water-holding capacity,
reduces compaction and enhances soil fertility (Capp, 1978;
Jastrow et al., 1981; Fail, 1987; Mittra et al., 2005). The amount of
FA needed to reclaim such areas depends upon the pH of FA, state
of weathered and pH of the land to be reclaimed. Huge volume of
neutral FA can be protably used (Abbott et al., 2001) by co-
application of a lime-stabilized biosolid for the reclamation of acid
mine spoil. Punshon et al. (2002) reported that application of FA
and poultry biosolid helped in restoration of eroded land with no
adverse effect on the soil nutrient status and environment. Saxena
and Asokan (1998) observed in a eld experiment that wasteland
(agriculturally unproductive) soil amended with 25% (w/w) FA
resulted in a 40% increase in plant growth. FA neutralizing ability
also depends on its source and extent to which it is weathered.
Addition of unweathered FAis not advisable as it may substantially
increase the soil salinity. Lagooning, leaching and stockpiling
appreciably solve this problem, minimizing boron toxicity and
other ill effects of unweathered FA (Page et al., 1979; Phung et al.,
1978). FA could be used as an alternative to lime for reclaiming the
acidic mine spoils (Carlson and Adriano, 1993; Stehouwer et al.,
1995; Srivastava and Chhonkar, 2000).
7.1. FA factor that may inuence its use on soil
Certain properties or factors of FA that may inuence its value
for the land application are grouped into positive and potentially
negative categories (Adriano and Weber, 2001).
(I) Positive: Calciumcarbonate equivalency; especially for type C
y-ash; presence of pozzolanic reactions; dominance of silt size
particles; presence of Ca, K and other nutrients; buffering
capacity; mitigation of aluminumtoxicity, especially in subsoils.
(II) Potentially negative: Presence of B and soluble salts
especially in unweathered materials; long-term availability
of Mo, Se and As; High calciumcarbonate equivalency in certain
products; potential micronutrient deciency and other nutrient
imbalance; potential sodicity; reduced inltration and perco-
lation in some cases; high erosivity; high economics of
handling, delivery and application; restrictive regulations.
8. Using FA for reducing global warming
Agricultural lime contributes a prime role in the global uxes of
the greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and
methane. Many researches revealed that additional opportunities
have arisen for lessening the global warming potential by altering
the agronomic practices (Robertson et al., 2000). According to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), agricultural
lime application contributes to global warming through emission
of CO
2
to the atmosphere, the US EPA estimated that 9 Tg
(teragram = 10
12
g = 10
6
metric tonnes) CO
2
was emitted from an
approximate 20 Tg of applied agricultural lime in 2001 (West and
McBride, 2005). Some researchers have been worked on utilization
of FA in place of agricultural lime for minimizing global warming
(Bernoux et al., 2003; McBride and West, 2005). An experimental
study revealed that 1 tonne of FA could sequester up to 26 kg of
CO
2
, i.e., 38.18 tonnes of FA per tonnes of CO
2
sequestered. This
study conrmed the possibility to use this alkaline residue for CO
2
mitigation (Montes-Hernandez et al., 2009). So, use of FAinstead of
lime as soil ameliorant can reduce net CO
2
emission and thereby
lessen global warming.
In other sector, using FA to replace cement can decrease cement
in concrete mixture and results in decreasing CO
2
from the
productionof cement. This CO
2
is thought to be a major contributor
to the greenhouse effect and the global warming of the planet
(Ferreira et al., 2003; Tietenberg, 2003). According to one estimate,
use of 1 tonne of FA in concrete will avoid 2 tonnes of CO
2
emitted
from cement production and reduces green-house effect and
global warming (Krishnamoorthy, 2000; Naik and Tyson, 2000). So,
there are some advantages of using FA in concrete and cement
production as well as in agricultural sector: (1) use of a zero-cost
raw material, (2) conservation of natural resources mainly land
(topsoil), water, coal and lime as well as one other resource as
chemical fertilizer, (3) elimination of waste and (4) minimization
of global warming.
9. Fly ash: a versatile waste product with many potential
applications
Besides use of FA as soil conditioner as discussed in earlier
sections, there are several potential application of waste FA. For
example, FAis being used in ceramic industry (Jonker and Potgieter,
2005), concrete and cement manufacturing industries (Gao et al.,
2008), bricks making (Sevelius, 1997), in removal of chemical
oxygen demand (COD) from textile mill efuents (Patnaik et al.,
1995), seepage control through various hydraulic structures (Gupta
and Alam, 2004), synthesis of zeolites (Moreno et al., 2002), as
pesticide (Sankari and Narayanasamy, 2006, 2007; Ahmad and
Alam, 1997; Khan et al., 1997; Ajaz et al., 2004; Bagchi and Jadhan,
2006), additives for immobilization of industrial and water
treatment wastes (Dirk, 1996), adsorptionof basic dye fromaqueous
solution (Lin et al., 2008), adsorption of phenol and its derivatives
fromwater (Lin and Juang, 2009), removal of mercury and lead ions
from waste water (Somerset et al., 2008), copper removal from
aqueous solution (Kapadia et al., 2000), as an effective low cost
adsorbent for the removal of heavy metal ions frommunicipal solid
waste leachate (Mohan and Gandhimathi, 2009), decolorization of
efuents (Khanet al., 2003), synthesis of anano-crystallinesolidacid
catalyst from y ash (Khatri and Rani, 2008), sorbents for ue gas
desulfurization (Garea et al., 1997) and as reservoirs for valuable
metals, such as Al, Si, Fe, Ge, Ga, V, Ni (Font et al., 2001).
10. Current aspects of FA incorporation in soil
For effective FA incorporation in soil, a good understanding of
how soil biota, especially earthworm, responds to amendment of
agricultural soil with FA is needed. Survival rate and function of
earthworms are recognized as valuable indices of soil health and
fertility in agriculture. In ecological terms, structural features of
burrows are known to signicantly inuence hydrology, gas
diffusion and nutrient distribution (Bouma, 1991; Bouche and Al-
Addan, 1997; Bastardie et al., 2002). For instance, long and
complex branching burrows were found to be more efcient in
conducting water into the soil, compared with less complex
burrows (Bastardie et al., 2002). There is a scarcity of studies
regarding the effects of FA amended soil on the earthworm.
Nahmani et al. (2005) reported that in soil, that are heavily
polluted with heavy metals, such as Cu, Cd, Pb and Zn, the burrows
showed greater branching and concentration near the soil surface
than in non-polluted soils. However, the effects on the burrow
characteristics of relatively low amounts of heavy metals, such as
those applied to soil through the FA addition (Muir et al., 2007),
have not been reported. Currently, Yunusa et al. (2009) determined
basic structural features of burrows created by earthworms of
native megascolecid and exotic Aporrectodea trapezoides in intact
soil cores (150 mm ID by 0.3 m deep) that were treated with coal
FA at 0, 5 or 25 Mg ha
1
mixed into the top 50 mmof the cores. The
cores were inoculated at a rate equivalent to 850 worms m
2
and
after 6 weeks they found that FA reduced the total volume of the
burrowsystem (Vs) by up to 39% for the native species and 29% for
the exotic species, these reductions averaged 33% with addition of
ash at 5 Mg ha
1
and 39% at 25 Mg ha
1
. While the native
earthworms responded to treatment by burrowing deeper into
the soil core and away from the ash-tainted surface soil, the exotic
species reduced the depth of burrowing and remained close to the
surface. FA addition did not have signicant effect on tortuosity of
the burrows for either earthworm species. A. trapezoides created
predominantly vertical burrows, while the native megascolecid
worms produced more horizontally oriented burrows in addition
to vertical ones. These modications of earthworm behaviour by
FA addition to soil, along with previous experience with plant
growth, suggest that an ash application rate of 5 Mg ha
1
is close to
optimum for routine agronomic applications. Additionally Maity
et al. (2009) revealed that up to 50% of FA amendment does not
apparently harm the earthworm L. mauritii in respect of their
survival and growth. A signicant increase in tissue metallothio-
nein level was recorded in L. mauritii without tissue metal
accumulation indicating that metallothionein is involved in
scavenging of free radicals and reactive oxygen species metabo-
lites. It is concluded that this biochemical response observed in L.
mauritii exposed to FA amended soil could be used as a valuable
tool for eco-toxicological eld monitoring.
Experiments are needed to explore the impact of FA incorpo-
ration on the key features of the burrows such as their length,
diameter, sinuosity, tortuosity, orientation, branching, connectivi-
ty and volume differ amongst species and functional groups of
earthworms as well as behaviour of earthworms in soil.
11. Recommendations and perspectives
FAcan be directly used as a soil conditioner indifferent degraded
soils, mainly for the purpose of forestry and oriculture. However,
the recommendationfor a largeFAapplicationtoagricultural soils in
a regioncannot be made, unless extensive trials are made to ndout
a proper combination of FA with each type of soil to establish its
quality and safety. Additionally, food-chain transfer studies for all
potentially toxic elements present in FA are needed to evaluate the
effect of heavy metal on the human health. Concurrently, in future,
attention should be given on some important aspects related to FA
incorporation to soil like long-term studies of impact of FA on soil
quality, soil fertility, soil health and continuous monitoring on the
properties of soil and FA. Utilization of FA with organic waste (i.e.
poultry, sewage sludge etc.) mixtures without natural soil for
successive phytocolonisation of economically important plants and
ecological rehabilitationinmining areas, tosolve the shortage of soil
resource, would be a tendency in the future for the improvement of
such areas with economic importance.
12. Conclusions
FA can be used as a potential nutrient supplement for degraded
soils thereby solving the solid waste disposal problem to some
extent. However, the bioaccumulation of toxic heavy metals and
their critical levels for human health in plant parts and soil should
be investigated. An ultimate goal would be to utilize FA in
degraded/marginal soils to such an extent as to achieve enhanced
fertility without affecting the soil quality and minimizing the
accumulation of toxic metals in plants below critical levels for
human health. There are several potential benecial and few
harmful effects of FA application in soil:
(a) Benecial effects: (i) improves soil texture; (ii) reduces bulk
density of soil; (iii) improves water holding capacity; (iv)
optimizes pH value; (v) increases soil buffering capacity; (vi)
improves soil aeration, percolation and water retention in the
treated zone (due to dominance of silt-size particles in FA); (vii)
reduces crust formation; (viii) provides micro-nutrients like Fe,
Zn, Cu, Mo, B etc.; (ix) provides macro-nutrients like K, P, Ca,
etc.; (x) reduces the consumption of soil ameliorants (fertili-
zers, lime); (xi) FA can also be used as insecticidal purposes;
(xii) decreases the metal mobility and availability in soil.
(b) Harmful effects: (i) reduction in bioavailability of some
nutrients due to high pH (generally from 8 to 12); (ii) high
salinity; (iii) high content of phytotoxic elements, especially
boron.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to Director,
National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow for providing
necessary facilities.
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, considerably increased in the series treated with earth-

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