GIKPKC7 94107 Nuclear Physics Page 1

Introduction
For Information about The History of Nuclear Physics See History

Terms:
Atomic Number (Z) The number of protons present in the nucleus of the atom
Mass Number (A) The sum of the numbers of the proton and neutrons in the atom

Neutron Number (N) Number of neutron in the atom

Nucleon Particles in the nucleus
Nuclide Atom defined by its A and Z
Electron-Volt (eV) Energy on the atomic scale
1eV = 1.602  10-19J
1amu = 931MeV
1amu = 1.66  10-27kg
Isotopes Atoms of the same Z but different A
Radioactivity Spontaneous transformation of unstable nuclei into other nuclei
with the emission of radiation
Ion Atom with a charge
Ionising Causes another element to become an ion by adding (anion) or
subtracting (cation) electrons
Half-Life (t½) Time for a substance to decay by half
Fission The spliting of the atom
Fusion Atom forming molecule
Deuterium H 12
Tritium H 13

Nuclide:
235
E.g. U 92 Here, Z = 92 & A = 235

Equation: A=N+Z
A = Mass Number
N = Neutron Number
Z = Atomic Number

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The Atom
Electron

Nucleus
Electron Path
(Protons & Neutrons)

Characteristics:
Name Nuclide Mass (kg) Charge (C)
Proton p11 1.673  10-27 +1.60219  10-19
Electron e01 9.109  10-31 1.60219  10-19
Neutron n01 1.675  10-27 0
Neutrino  0; but carries energy and 0; but opposite in nature to
momentum antineutrino
Antineutrino  0; but carries energy and 0; but opposite in nature to
momentum neutrino

Strong nuclear force

Force Between
Protons Electrostatic force

0 1 2 3 4 ( 10-15 m)
Separation of Protons

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Nuclear Stability
18/8/98

To bring an unstable nucleus to a

stable nucleus then

Alpha Decay ():

 Two protons and two neutron; helium nucleus: He24
 Positively charged when ionised
 High ionising ability
 Low penetrating power
 Emitted with specific energies of the order of 5 to 10 MeV
 Alpha emission;  initial speed is 107m.s-1. E.g. U 92
238 234
 Th90  He24

Beta Decay-Negative Beta Decay ():

 One electron: e01
 Low ionising ability
 High penetrating power
 During beta emission the conversion of a neutron into a proton, electron and an
antineutrino. i.e. n01  p11  e01  v
 The proton stays within the nucleus and the electron (speed approach light) and the
antineutrino are ejected from the nucleus.
E.g. C614  N 714  e01  v

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Positron Decay-Positive Beta Decay:

 One positron: e10
 The conversion of a proton into a neutron, electron and a neutrino.
i.e. p11  n01  e01  v
 The neutron stays within the nucleus and the electron and the neutrino are ejected
from the nucleus. E.g. N 713  C613  e10  v

Gamma Rays ():

 Extremely energetic electromagnetic radiation:  00
 Low ionising ability
 Extremely high penetrating power
 As a result of beta or alpha emission, the nucleus is left in an excited state. It than
returns to the ground state by emitting a gamma-ray photon. Therefore, excited
nuclei give off gamma radiation.
 Energy contained in gamma ray photons is less than 1MeV
 During a gamma-ray photon the nuclei becomes less excited.
137 137
E.g. Ba 56  Ba56   00

Alpha, Beta and Gamma Rays in a Magnetic Field:

 Alpha head towards a positively-charged particle
 Beta head towards a negatively-charged particle
 Gamma is not affected

 
Magnetic field
(Into the Page) 

Radium Sample Lead Box

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Radioactive
Radioactive Decay Series (U-238):

Application of Radioactivity:
Radioactive isotopes, also called radioisotopes, have many applications, some of which
are the following:

Use of Gamma Rays to Measure Thickness of Metal Sheets and to

Monitor Machine Wear
Gamma rays are absorbed by metal sheets – the thicker the metal sheet. the greater is the
number of gamma-ray photons that are absorbed. Thus, to determine the thickness of a
metal sheet, a gamma-ray source is placed under the sheet with the beam directed
through it. Gamma rays emerging from the metal are detected by a Geiger-Müller tube.

Radiocarbon Dating
Radiocarbon dating is used to date objects as much as 50 000 years old (although
accuracy is limited to 20 000 years).

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The Principle on Which Radiocarbon Dating is Based

When a living plant or animal dies, its C-14 content (which is a beta emitter)
progressively decreases since it no longer takes in radiocarbon atoms, but the decay
process continues.
The ratio C-12/C-14 indicates the time that has passed since the organism died. The
method cannot be applied with any accuracy for objects older than 20 000 years because
the activity becomes very low (t½ for C-14 is 5760 years).

Medical Uses
As Tracers -- Studying Metabolic Pathways
Radioactive isotopes can be used to trace the uptake and metabolism of various elements
by animals and plants. For example, the uptake of phosphate and metaholiam of
phosphorus by plants can be studied using a fertiliser containing 15P32.
Radioactive tracer studies using 6C14 have helped in the elucidation of photosynthesis and
protein synthesis. The isotope 54I131 has been used in the diagnosis and treatment of
thyroid diseases and in research into thyroid gland functioning. It has a half-life of 8
days and so the risk to the patient is negligible.

Treatment of Disease, E.g. Cancer

A beam of gamma rays (or x-rays) is used to kill cancerous cells.
The structure of DNA within the genes of animals and plants can be changed by
radiation. For reasons which are not yet clear, cancer cells are more susceptible than
normal cells to destruction by radiation. Because of this, gamma rays can be used in the
treatment of cancer. Penetrating gamma radiation from cobalt-60 (27Co60) is used in
treating inaccessible growths, whereas superficial cancers, such as skin cancer, can be
treated by less penetrating radiation from 15P32 or 38Sr96 in plastic sheets strapped on the
affected area

Sterilisation
Stetilisalion of food with gamma radiation kills insects, bacteria and fungi, thus
increasing the life of the food.

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Nuclear Binding Energy

 Equal to the mass defect (The difference between the masses of constituent particles
and the actual mass)

Equation: Defect = Theoretical – Actual

Defect = Mass Binding Energy
Theoretical = Sum of the Components Mass’s in the Atom
Actual = Mass from Chemical Experiments

Equation: E = m  c2
E = Binding Energy (J)
m = mass defect (kg)
c = Speed of light in a vacuum (m.s-1)= 3  108m.s-1

Binding Energy Per Nucleon Versus Mass Number

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Fission & Fusion

2/9/98
Fission:
Naturally Occurring Fission
235
U 92  n01  La 57
148
 Br3585  3.n01
235
U 92  n01  Ba 56
141
 Kr3692  3.n01
235
U 92  n01  La 57
139
 Mo42 95
 2.n01  7.e01

Nuclear Fission

Chain Reaction
 The excess neutrons can continue to fission other U-235

Fusion:
 Once the nuclei are close enough together, the nuclear force of attraction
outweighs the coulomb force of repulsion and the nuclei fuse
 Extremely high temperatures (> 107K) are needed to ensure that the nuclei have
enough KE to get close together

Naturally Occurring Fusion From the Sun

H 11  H 11  H 12  e01   00
H 12  H 11  He23   00
He23  He23  He24  H 11  H 11

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Nuclear Reactors
3/9/98
Fission Reactors:
 A reactor is a system for ensuring a controlled chain reaction to make radioisotopes
 A breeder reactor uses fast neutrons to breed fissionable fuel from fertile fuel.
Moderator not needed

Fissionable Fuel
The Fuels are
U-238
U-235
U-234
 The fuels are enriched because natural uranium contains more U-238

Moderators
Examples of Commonly Used Moderators
Ordinary water
Heavy water
Graphite
Beryllium
 Moderators slow down neutrons to thermal energies so that they can cause fission.
 For optimum energy transfer, moderators should have mass comparable to that of a
neutron

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Control Rods
There are Two Sets of Control Rods
Regulating rods for routine control (cadmium or boron)
Safety rods for emergency shutdown
 Control rods are use to slow down the nuclear chain reaction by absorbing
neutrons

Coolant
Examples
Air
Helium
Heavy water
Liquid sodium
 The coolant takes away the heat energy liberated in the nuclear reaction

Shielding
Materials Used
Lead
Water
Steel
Polyethylene (mobile reactors)
Concrete (stationary reactors)
 Prevents leakage of harmful radiation mainly gamma and neutrons

Fusion Reactors:
 On earth where any reacting mass is very
limited in size, an efficient fusion process
cannot involve more than a single step
 One first needs high temperatures to
overcome the strong nuclear force
(deuterium: 108K & deuterium and
tritium: 107K). At these temperatures most
of the atoms are stripped of their electrons
and the gas becomes a plasma (fourth state
of matter)
 Since plasma in a thermonuclear fusion
reactor must be kept very hot, to prevent thermal contact with the walls of the
reactor vessel, magnetic bottles are used, they are composed of a pair of converging
magnetic fields (magnetic mirrors), which is called the tokamak.

Advantages & Disadvantages:

A: Cheap, Limitless fuel, Less hazard than fission energy, minor production of
radioactive wastes. D: Containing the plasma, sustaining a controlled thermonuclear
reaction, extracting heat as a useful form.

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Particle Accelerators
3/9/98
 Another form of making radioisotopes
Van de Graaff Generator:
 Accelerate protons and other ions to energies
of 0.5 MeV
 Charged particles are accelerated to high KE
in an electric field and made to collide with
nuclei to cause transmutation

Cyclotron:
 Just like alpha particles in a magnetic field
(See Page 4), but two semicircular hollow
elements called dees are used at a high
frequency AC to speed up the ions

Betatron:
 Just like a cyclotron but uses beta (electron)
particles

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