Critical Feasibility Study

Plymouth City Centre Renewable Energy

Ben Pitcher
10205005
Connecting Sustainable Practices
ARCH 410
Abstract
This Feasibility Study investigates the potential of Photo-Voltaic
modules as a Sustainable energy source for Plymouth City Centre
(UK). It fnds that the City Centre is only able to create below 10%
of its required power through PV within its own geography. The
study analyses the environmental impacts of PV, the required
infrastructure and the potential implementation of an ESCo
(Energy Services Company) by Plymouth City Council.
Contents
2 The Situation
3-4 The Options
5-6 The Calculated Quantities
7-9 The Spatial Requirements
10-11 The Implications
12 The Sustainability of PV
13 The Implementation
14 Conclusion
15 Appendix
- 15-26 Plymouth Solar Case Studies
- 27 EU GIS Summary
- 28-29 Quantity Calculations
- 30 ESCo Implementation
31-32 References
33 Images
34 Bibliography
1
The Situation
This study assesses Plymouth City Centres electrical energy dependency on fossil fuels and its current resilience strategies to the imminent
peak oil crisis.
Herbert Girardet in his book Creating Sustainable Cities, defnes a Sustainable City as the following:
organised so as to enable all its citizens to meet their own needs and to enhance their well-being without damaging the natural
world or endangering the living conditions of other people, now or in the future.
(Herbert Girardet, 2011: 13)
Plymouth could potentially become a sustainable city by fnding means of producing suffcient energy for its own needs from sustainable
sources.
Currently the City Centre alone uses 15 GWh/yr for heating and 32 GWh/yr electrical. (The electrical load is much higher than the heating
load in the city centre because of the cooling requirements caused by a mainly retail and offce mix.), (CSE, 2010), (n.b. For the purpose of
later calculations and the fact that heating can potentially be sourced from electrical energy - heating and electrical will be considered
as one joint fgure of 47GWh/yr).
Plymouth is not alone in using vast quantities of energy, it is a global issue with huge planetary implications. The continuous combustion of
fossil fuels and the creation of carbon dioxide in huge quantities is altering the atmosphere which is essential for planetary stability.
Fossil fuels are a fnite resource. Modern society requires huge volumes of energy and the dominant source is extracted oil and gas. If fossil
fuels were to run out in the close future, society has not yet created the necessary infrastructure to resiliently support its current standard
of living.
There presently exist several main methods of generating energy without the combustion of fossil fuels, this is often referred to as
sustainable energy generation, however the term sustainable is used loosely, only considering that the source providing the energy
is theoretically unlimited e.g. the sun, however not considering the embodied energy and materials required to create the (usually very
technologically, chemically and metallurgically complex) sustainable products, the often rare and fnite resources generally require
extensive transportation and destructive gathering methods which destroy environments and require vast amounts of energy themselves.
Also the majority of the energy sources are unpredictable in their energy delivery, with the exception of tidal power and hydroelectric
generation (although potentially affected by drought), and cannot always generate the necessary energy when immediately required,
storing of energy, particularly electrical energy requires capacitors and batteries, both of which require vast quantities of planet damaging
resources to create.
2
Currently the City Centre alone uses 15 GWh/yr for heating and 32 GWh/yr electrical. (The electrical load is much higher than the heating
load in the city centre because of the cooling requirements caused by a mainly retail and offce mix.), (CSE, 2010), (n.b. For the purpose of
later calculations and the fact that heating can potentially be sourced from electrical energy - heating and electrical will be considered
as one joint fgure of 47GWh/yr).
The Options
The Centre for Sustainable Energy (CSE) summarises the potential of Biomass energy, Wind
power, Urban Waste CHP (Combined Heat and Power), and Solar Power generation
methods as the following:
The widespread implementation of biomass energy in the form of Woodfuel
would need to draw upon the resources of neighbouring authorities, and the
establishment of energy crops is an important resource in this respect. Fuel supply
chains currently remain limited in Devon and throughout the region, although
it is expected that emerging initiatives will stimulate the market and hence the
production of Woodfuel. Woodfuel heating can be implemented in a wide variety
of applications, from individual households to large scale community heating
networks. Until recently, biomass combined heat and power (CHP) has only been
viable at medium to large-scale applications. Smaller scale systems, however, are
now appearing on the market.
Wind power is limited in Plymouth due to lower wind speeds typical of urban areas,
planning constraints in residential areas or due to military objections/fight path
issues. Implementation would mostly be limited to small or medium-scale turbines
in open areas or industrial/commercial estates, or rooftop micro-scale devices.
Plymouths urban waste stream is a signifcant resource and is suffcient to support
Energy from Waste technologies, providing a suitable heat load can be identifed
to justify a CHP plant.
In the short term, micro-renewables, such as solar PV, solar water heating, heat
pumps, small-scale wood heating and small-scale/rooftop wind are more likely to
be employed in relation to on-site renewables policy compliance within residential
developments. Larger scale wind and/or the development of more extensive
biomass supply chains are likely to be required for low or zero carbon developments.
(CSE, 2007)
Solar energy is something that, as identifed by the CSE, is a potential quick-turnaround
solution that has been considered and is currently being implemented by the city, funded
by government renewable energy funds, however currently the impact is relatively
insignifcant on the scale of the city.
UK Solar Irradiance Map, Smart Solar SW (2010)
3
Plymouth and the South West of England are amongst the best areas in the UK for solar energy generation (Enlighten Systems,
2011), and as a result of the CSE report Plymouth has recently commissioned a solar initiative for the city (United Kingdom
Tenders, 2013), proposing to install PV systems on the rooves of 14 (later restricted to twelve, See Appendix for the published Lot
details list) Local Authority and Partners roof spaces located around the city.
The objective of the project is to install photovoltaic (PV) In order to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels, realise cost
savings, generate income and have a positive impact on the reputation of Plymouth City Council as an organisation
continually searching for sustainable solutions to provide for its needs.
Quote from Susan Trower of Plymouth City Council
(United Kingdom Tenders, 2013)
The reasoning for the project is more demonstrational of intention than a complete viable solution. The total array was required
to meet, or marginally exceed, 447.5kWp. (A total of 3.9 GWh/year Approximately 0.7GWh/year when given the system and
geographical losses - (JRC European Commission, 2013)), this is almost insignifcant in the contribution towards the energy
consumed by the city centre.
In order to reduce the daunting prospect of the vast quantity of panels required to run a city, the city must help to lower
the energy usage levels. With current technology levels, this can be achieved through better building design, lower energy
consuming products and lighting, as well as improved insulation. All of which require a social change in cooperation and
drive from the people in the city, this can be achieved through fnancial incentives (FITs (FITariffs, 2014)), or raising the taxation
on the use of energy, which is currently the dominant method, however rising energy costs reduces the fnance available for
individuals to switch to an (initially expensive outgoing) alternative solution. This will be revisited later in the document.
For the purpose of later calculations, future potential energy saving achievements will be disregarded taking into account
the reason stated by McDonough and Braungart below, it is hard to be sustainable in a way that is not displacing the issue.
however this will be revisited as a necessary consideration should the potential solar yield and array size be insuffcient for the
needs of the City Centre.
More control (being less bad) is not the same as being good. It is not protecting your child if you beat him three times
instead of fve, and it is not protecting the environment if you simply use your car less often..
(McDonough and Braungart, 2009: 82-84)
4
The Calculated Quantities
In order to assess the viability of the City Centre of Plymouth becoming self-suffcient for its energy requirements - as per Girardet - it
is necessary to calculate the volume of PV panels required. Usually Solar panels are calculated to a level around their peak output,
however the below calculations consider the system losses through geographical location and refect the realistic quantities required
to produce a suitable output.
(Full calculations and reasoning in Appendix under Quantity Calculations)
The following tables are summaries of 3 calculated options with the project output and implications summarised after each. The Average
Optimum Outputs are based upon expected returns during peak summer when solar gain is highest and vice versa for the Average
Minimum Outputs, the % Average Yearly Contribution is a mean average of the two.
Option 1 would mean that at peak output the panels could generate enough output to power the city centre, however for the majority
of the year, it would be insuffcient.
Option 1 Summary:
117,920 Modules Placed at Optimum angle (38 degrees) to Optimum Azimuth (0 degrees).
Average Optimum Output: 128,680 kWh/day % of Average City Requirement: 100%

Average Minimum Output: 37,290 kWh/day % of Average City Requirements: 29%
% Average Yearly Contribution 65%
5
Option 2 Summary:
406,824 Modules Placed at Optimum angle (38 degrees) to Optimum Azimuth (0 degrees).
Average Optimum Output: 443,946 kWh/day % of Average City Requirement: 345%

Average Minimum Output: 128,680 kWh/day % of Average City Requirements: 100%
% Average Yearly Contribution 223%
Option 3 Summary:
262,372 Modules Placed at Optimum angle (38 degrees) to Optimum Azimuth (0 degrees).
Average Optimum Output: 286,313 kWh/day % of Average City Requirement: 223%

Average Minimum Output: 82,985 kWh/day % of Average City Requirements: 65%
% Average Yearly Contribution 100%
Option 2 would mean that the average minimum output of panels would be enough to support the whole City centre and for the majority
of the year the panels would produce saleable excess energy.
Option 3 would be a balance of Options 1 and 2 where 50% of the time the panels would produce excess saleable energy and 50% of the
time they would produce less than suffcient energy.
6
The Spatial Requirements
Evidently installing up to 406,824 modules will require a lot of roof space. Each average 60-cell module will be taken to be 1650 x 990
mm requiring 25mm gap for installation fabrication. (Yingli Solar, 2014). Each module will be considered to require a total area of 1.7
square metres. (Flat rooves require approximately 50% more space due to the available mounting systems)
Option 1 would thus require:
200464 square metres (448m x 448m)
Option 2 would thus require:
691601 square metres (832m x 832m)
Option 3 would thus require:
446032 square metres (668m x 668m)
The next task is to overview and assess the available commercial, residential, and public owned spaces that are appropriate for panels:
Option 1
Option 3
Option 2
The graphic to the right shows, using
Google Maps (2014) that the idea of
the volume of panels for Option 1, 2,
or 3 (represented volumetrically as
squares beside an identically scaled
map) ftting in the area of the City
Centre (ringed in red) is not feasible
considering relative roof space.
As such, it can be immediately
understood that using the current
quantities of energy is not sustainable
through the use of PV panels.
Google Maps, 2014, Plymouth (Edited by Author)
7
Google Maps, 2014, Plymouth (Edited by Author)
8
The graphic on the opposite page clarifes in further detail, using Google Maps (2014) the potential available roof-space (highlighted in
green) in the City Centre, this gives a vague idea to refect upon the previous graphic to demonstrate roof space per unit area available
in the city and highlights the fact that the City Centre is unable to sustain its own energy requirements through panels mounted within
its area, and that there is a need to install panels across the rest of the City.
The graphic was created through studying each roof individually and marking as appropriate, this is a time consuming method,
although generally accurate, however increasingly accurate mapping software is now appearing that is able to automatically map
and assess rooves and array size (as demonstrated overleaf) with higher levels of accuracy also performing all the calculations related
to expected yields, e.g. the Mapdwell software developed with Cambridge University in Boston, America. (Mapdwell, 2012). Also in the
more local city of Bristol, where they are currently attempting to implement an Energy Supply Company (ESCo) for the city, they have
had a software made especially for the purpose of identifying suitable roof-spaces in the city for solar installations (Maps.Bristol, 2013).
Such software could be benefcial for the city of Plymouth to invest in should it consider encouraging city-wide installations.
Using the volumetric roof-space calculations as above it is possible to estimate that the City Centre could support around 12,000 PV
modules at best achieving only around 10% of Option 1 and less than 3% of Option 2.
9
The Implications
Before considering Solar PV as a solution, the logistics of energy supply, storage and dispersal and required infrastructure must be considered.
One key issue with Solar is that only commercial and public spaces (predominantly) require large volumes of energy during the day when
the panels are producing energy, however at night when the panels are not producing energy, private residences (generally) take up
more power. The city centre, mainly commercially dominated uses the majority of its power during daytime hours, however still requires
energy overnight for services and the few residences that reside above the commercial spaces. Regardless of panel quantities, energy
will not be produced overnight.
This means that the energy must be stored for use overnight, this informs the choice of inverters to be used for the project. Systems already
exist to store energy generated during the day for overnight storage, thus providing 24 hour support. An example of this technology is
made by SMA based in Germany (SMA, 2014), anoter system is diagrammed below by Panasonic.
Example of energy storage system for (General Home) residential purposes. (Panasonic, 2012)
10
For Options 1 and 3 (that at some point in their daytime yields are expected to fall below the required yield necessary for fully powering
the city centre), due to their being no current energy storage system available to store peak generation for months of low solar
irradiation, the alternative back-up sources are generally fossil fuel based such as the aforementioned diesel generator plant.
For a large commercial scale, requiring long-term energy storage, the city could look into large scale capacitors, these could perhaps
be created using the readily available seawater as an electrolytic solution. (Electronics Point, 2012).
With regards to maintenance, Solar PV is relatively straightforward, with no moving parts involved the main source of maintenance is
to ensure the panels are clean. Panels ftted at an angle self-clean with rainwater. Most installers offer warranties with their work that
cover any technical failures in the system. (Energy Saving Trust, 2014).
Plymouth has already taken into consideration that renewable energy sources are not always able to deliver energy upon demand as
stated by Merlin Hyman of Regen SW:
"There is going to be a need for back-up generation, whether it's for nuclear power, coal power or renewables.
(BBC News Devon, 2013)
This was stated in concurrence to a statement by Fulcrum Power:
"Energy fuctuations are predicted to become greater with the advent of unpredictable renewable generation such as solar and
wind".
(BBC News Devon, 2013)
As such has used this is used as a reason to justify the installation of 52 diesel generators in the North-West of Plymouth. (Run and
managed by Fulcrum Power). Granted planning permission on 15/10/2013 (Plymouth City Council, 2013), the facility will be able to
produce 20MW of energy from 1.1 million litres of diesel per year. However it is not a renewable solution as it still runs on fossil fuels and
is questionably unnecessary due to the current lack of renewable energy sources. Running at full capacity 24/7 365 days a year, this
facility could generate up to 175GWh. Suffcient to power the majority of the entire city although not at peak demands (BBC News
Devon, 2013), this in combination with a sustainable energy source could provide a promising solution. The choice of the generators to
run on diesel is also a good decision as the potential for running the facility on carbon neutral bio-diesel is a future option. Fulcrum chief
executive Paul Lazarevic said:
"the company would prefer to burn bio-diesel and will look to do so if possible".
(BBC News Devon, 2013).
11
The Sustainability of PV
As highlighted in the introduction, so called Sustainable products are often less so when considered in a wider planetary context, it is
therefore relevant to consider the environmental impact that PV arrays can have.
The main criticism for Solar Panels are the environmental impacts of their construction. The key points are the Following:
Land Use
Water Use
Hazardous Materials
Life-Cycle Global Warming Emissions
(Union of Concerned Scientists, 2013)
Land use being an issue depends upon location. Generally, roof mounted systems are not an issue as rooves are otherwise not useful.
However installations on arable land are a waste of the potential growing ability of the land. Impacts can be reduced by placing
installations on otherwise unused land such as abandoned mining land.
Water use is not particularly relevant to the Plymouth project, apart from the water used during the construction of the panels, however
concentrating solar plants (CSPs use water for cooling purposes, and this can be an issue depending upon the type of cooling system
and the availability of the water resource. (NREL, 2010)
Hazardous Materials include those used in the manufacturing process, particularly various acids used for cleaning surfaces. These vary
upon panel type, as well as the quantity of silicon wafer used to grow the cell. Thin flm PV includes several more hazardous chemicals that
can cause severe environmental damage. However the majority of the materials are recyclable, and manufacturers are given fnancial
incentive to make additional efforts to achieve this. (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2013).
General Global Warming Emissions during a panels life-cycle include, manufacturing and transportation followed by maintenance,
decommissioning and dismantlement, however the lifecycle is still considerably less damaging than that of fossil fuels. (IPCC, 2011).
12
The Implementation
It is clearly evident that the number of panels that the city centre could actually install is too few to support its needs, however potentially
the power required by the City Centre, and the vast volume of panels could be supported should the panels be spread out across the
rooves of the rest of the residential and commercial city. This could allow the lower energy using residential houses to produce excess
energy and sell it to the commercial City Centre whilst providing energy for their own needs too. This would upscale the array to a city
scale and consider city-wide energy production and consumption.
It would be better for the City Centre to purchase solar energy from the locality (to reduce system losses through the National Grid)
even if not specifcally over its own geographical area or under its personal ownership - whoever owns and profts from the panels is
irrelevant in the scheme of producing sustainable energy. This can potentially be achieved by Plymouth City Council creating an ESCo
-Energy Services Company.
An ESCo would require Plymouth City Council to set-up its own electricity company (similar to that adopted by Woking Council in
1991 (BFC Solutions, 2014)), potentially working in conjunction with Plymouth based energy company Fulcrum Power, to buy and sell
the excess energy from residential and commercial systems and redistribute it to the rest of the city to suit displaced demand. This in
conjunction with the potential array over the City Centre, though insuffcient to supply demand alone, could multiply out to a city-wide
power supply.
(Further details R.E. ESCo set-ups included in the Appendix)
The same conclusion was reached by I.C.E. (UK) (2010), they also published a Feasibility report founded upon a district heating scheme,
primarily aimed at Public owned buildings in the City Centre, Derriford and Devonport, to be initially combined with the Devonport
Incinerator project (MVV, 2012). The I.C.E. recommend that the MoD (one of the main energy users in the city) and PCC partner (with
PCC as the point of contact) in the ESCo with the potential of additional 3rd party connections.
13
Graph to explain how commercial
and residential energy usage pat-
terns are generally fairly inverse and
demand could be spread relatively
equally between them.
(Graph by Author - Not to scale)
Average Demand
Conclusion
In summary of this Feasibility Study and refecting Upon Herbert Girardet and McDonough & Braungart:
- The City Centre cannot currently support its existing energy demand through solar PV within its own geography - so fails to meet its
own needs as required in Girardets model, although potentially could be achieved with greater permissible geography.

- The Girardet model could only be possible within its own geography if the City Centre becomes between 90 and 97% more energy
effcient which is a completely unrealistic target and diffcult to achieve without still causing damage environmentally - as noted
by McDonough and Braungart - however reducing energy usage should still be strived towards but should be done with care and
consideration not to simply displace the issues.

The only realistic way that PV could be used as a sustainable energy supply in Plymouth is if it is spread across the whole city and
potentially further - on residential and commercial properties, which can be most viably achieved through the creation of an ESCo by
Plymouth City Council.
14
Appendix
The following 12 case Studies are summaries of PCCs
proposed solar installations.
(United Kingdom Tenders, 2013):
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Appendix
EU GIS SUmmary
27
Appendix
Quantity Calculations
As the City Centre uses 15 GWh/yr for heating and 32 GWh/yr according to the 2010, CSE study, when calculated to Megawatts ([47GW
x 1,000] = 47,000MW / [365 x 24]), the required output average is 5.36MW (Average of 128,680 kWh/day).
Taking an average modern Multicrystalline panel with a peak output of 250W, the estimated number of panels running at peak performance
would be (5360000W/250W) = 21,440 Modules.
However this does not take into consideration the estimated effciency of the geographical area the panels are not at peak performance
24/7 365 days a year. Using the EU regulated GIS (Geographical Information System), (JRC European Commission, 2013) and selecting
Crystalline Silicon module type, accessing the Climate-SAF PVGIS database, entering 5360kWp installed output, leaving standard estimated
system losses at 14%, free-mounted modules, sloped at optimum angle and azimuth (See Appendix), the system would be expected to
produce the following energy fgures:
The table shows that in Plymouth the panels at peak output on an average June day produce 23,400kWh per day, where the required
average energy requirement is 128,680kWh per day. Essentially 21,440 modules at peak performance could only supply a fraction of the
power, the city centre would require 5.5 times the number of modules: 117,920. (Option 1)
Month Average Daily Production (kWh)
Jan 7090
Feb 10600
Mar 16700
Apr 22300
May 22700
Jun 23400
Jul 21500
Aug 20300
Sep 18700
(Table summarised from CSE online Calculator, Full
document in Appendix)
28
Even with 117,920 modules, that would only completely supply the required energy for the month of June, even with 5.5 times Decembers
6780kWh (37290kWh), this falls needs to be multiplied 3.45 times to supply suffcient energy at the point of lowest generation throughout
the year (406,824 modules). This would mean that the modules would produce more energy than required throughout the majority of the
year and would be able to supply vast excess amounts to the rest of the grid (Option 2).
Option 1 Summary:
117,920 Modules Placed at Optimum angle (38 degrees) to Optimum Azimuth (0 degrees).
Average Optimum Output: 128,680kWh/day % of Average City Requirement: 100%
Average Minimum Output: 37,290kWh/day % of Average City Requirements: 29%
% Average Yearly Contribution 65%
Option 2 Summary:
406,824 Modules Placed at Optimum angle (38 degrees) to Optimum Azimuth (0 degrees).
Average Optimum Output: 443,946kWh/day % of Average City Requirement: 345%
Average Minimum Output: 128,680kWh/day % of Average City Requirement: 100%
% Average Yearly Contribution 223%
The Percentage Average Yearly Contributions suggest that in order to strike a balance at 100% Average a third option may be considered.
This can be calculated by fnding the mean average between Option 1 and Option 2.
Option 3 Summary:
262,372 Modules Placed at Optimum angle (38 degrees) to Optimum Azimuth (0 degrees).
Average Optimum Output: 286,313kWh/day % of Average City Requirement: 223%
Average Minimum Output: 82,985kWh/day % of Average City Requirements: 65%
% Average Yearly Contribution 100%
29
Appendix
ESCo Implementation
To set-up an ESCo in Plymouth would require additional infrastructure, Private wire connections with metering to LV switchgear in larger
buildings, small local district systems to be set-up as demand requires and metered to residential houses. As well as load equalizing
capacitors and energy storage systems to store excess yields for overnight output, however this as previously noted can be included in
individual home invertors.
To reduce initial outlay costs, connections should be created as demand requires. The ESCo should potentially be set up in partnership
with Fulcrum Power, so as to have a large initial electrical output that can be reduced as the solar yield increases.
Bristol has recently received 2.5million in start-up funding from the European Investment Bank (EIB, 2012) to meet most of the development
requirements for a citywide ESCo that involves major investment into solar energy generation. Plymouth should be eligible for similar
funding.
The ESCo would be arranged with the following objectives:
1. Technical delivery of the implemented solutions;
2. Providing fnance;
3. Providing low carbon energy to end consumers, without a green premium; and
4. Implementing low carbon technologies to compliant LA carbon reduction programme(s).
(I.C.E. (UK), 2010)
Potential issues with the ESCo scheme proposed lie mainly with the thermal network proposed by I.C.E where planning applications are
often more diffcult to acquire than electrical connection points. An additional issue is with the limiting capacity of the initial phase of set-
up where energy would require to be brought from the National Grid in large quantities until such time as the energy produced exceeds
the required volume.
30
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32
Images
Cover Image:
Clean Green Energy Zone, 2012, Solar Cells, http://cleangreenenergyzone.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/solar-cells.jpg [Accessed
03/03/2014]
Other Images:
Google Maps, 2014, Plymouth, https://maps.google.co.uk/maps?safe=off&client=frefox-a&q=plymouth&ie=UTF-8&ei=kIHyUtWgEIT-
y7AaA74HgAg&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ [Accessed 05/02/2014]
Panasonic, 2012, Panasonic to start accepting orders for energy creation-storage linked system for home, http://panasonic.co.jp/corp/
news/offcial.data/data.dir/en120223-3/en120223-3.html [Accessed 05/02/2014]
Smart Solar SW, 2010, Solar Irradiance Map, http://www.smartsolarsw.co.uk/solar-intro.html [Accessed 03/03/2014]
33
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With Thanks to BFC Solutions Ltd and Solvatec AG

Ben Pitcher
10205005
Connecting Sustainable Practices
ARCH 410