MACHINING MACHINING

Cutting and Grinding

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
components fitting accurately require
accurate mating surfaces
most common method of providing
accurate surfaces is by metal removal -
machining
machining is wasteful since
material waste
time waste
To reduce machining cost To reduce machining cost
avoid excess specifications
make initial rough shape as accurate as
possible e.g. die casting of a piston
reduces machining
economical balance between initial
shaping and final machining -
depending on the requirement
MACHINING METHODS MACHINING METHODS
many !!
these lectures focus on common
machines (versatile, commonly found in
most workshops)
lathe
milling
shapers
sawing
drilling
grinding
Schematic of face milling Schematic of face milling
Tool exerts
large force
along AB and
the metal shears
off
Tool Angles / chip formation Tool Angles / chip formation
relief angel - avoid friction / scuffing of
surface
tip angle - gives strength to tool
rake -( can be negative)
smaller rake hot highly deformed chip
Larger rake less deformed chip but
reduced tool strength
chip formed by localised shear process
over very narrow regions
slip plane
Function of coolant (oil/water Function of coolant (oil/water
emulsion) emulsion)
extracts heat
lubricant
improves surface finish
TOOL MATERIAL TOOL MATERIAL
metal cutting involves high local stress,
sliding friction and considerable heat
generation
tool material needs to combine
hardness, strength (toughness) and
good wear resistance at elevated
temperature
TOOL LIFE TOOL LIFE
primary wear - for running in
secondary wear - normal operation
tertiary wear - leading to accelerated
wear
L
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Dovetail slide Dovetail slide
Holding the work securely is actually a big deal and
there is a whole chapter of DeGarmo about it
Basic rules of metal cutting Basic rules of metal cutting
Strong cutting tool with good support
Strong m/c to avoid bending / twisting
Strong dovetail slideways to give strong
support
Non excessive depth of cut
Hold the workpiece securely
Take cutting force into consideration it
may deform the workpiece
Workpiece Workpiece holding considerations holding considerations
Chip removal
Access for cutting tool
Design the component to facilitate
holding during machining
Avoid / reduce frequency of work
removal
Necessity to make specialised jigs for
work holding
SHAPERS / PLANERS SHAPERS / PLANERS
horizontal - push cut / pull cut
vertical - cutting slots / keyways
special - for special shapes
planers - workpiece moves past one or
more stationary cutting tools
planes / shapers low in productivity -
tasks can often be done by milling m/cs
LATHES LATHES
very versatile m/cs
primarily for turning, facing
can also perform drilling, external /
internal threading
Manual Lathe Manual Lathe
MILLING M/C (horizontal / MILLING M/C (horizontal /
vertical) vertical)
surface generated as workpiece is fed
to a rotating cutter in the direction
perpendicular to the axis to the cutter
conventional (up milling) - cutter rotates
against the direction of the feed
climb (down milling) - cutter rotates in
the direction of the feed - less clamping
force but shows cutting teeth marks
DRILLING / REAMING DRILLING / REAMING
counterflowof chips makes lubrication &
cooling difficult - accuracy difficult
to obtain a true & accurate hole :
centring & countersinking
drilling
true the hole with boring tool
final sizing with a reamer
ABRASIVE MACHINING ABRASIVE MACHINING
chips removed by small cutting edges
that are integral parts of abrasive
particles
grinding is the most common abrasive
machining process
Grinding ratio can range from 20 to 80:1
Grinding Grinding
cylindrical grinding (grinding between
centres) - for external surfaces
centreless grinding
large grinding wheel does the actual
grinding
small wheel (regulator wheel) controls the
rotation & longitudinal motion of the
workpiece
workpiece held by the cutting force
Centreless Centreless grinding grinding
Centreless Centreless Grinding Grinding
thrufeed - workpiece of constant
diameter fed through
infeed - regulator wheel retracted to
grind different diameters
endfeed - both grinding wheel and
regulator wheels are tapered to grind
tapered workpiece
ball - a formed grinding wheel used with
a grooved regulator wheel to impact
random rotation / grinding
HONING HONING
used to size and finish bored holes,
removing common errors left by boring
remove tool marks left by grinding
NON TRADITIONAL M/C NON TRADITIONAL M/C
traditional machining involves
compressive shear chip formation -
large amount of energy required
problems of distortion and cooling
holding the workpiece can lead to
distortion
delicate machining process e.g. semi-
conductor chips require NTM
Different NTM Different NTM
Chemical Process - e.g. photochemical
Electrochemical Process
Mechanical Process - e.g. ultrasonic
Thermal Process - electron beam / laser
beam / electrical discharge
Chemical Machining Chemical Machining
immerse workpiece in a chemical
reagent
material removed by microscopic
electrochemical cell action, as in
corrosion or chemical dissolution of a
metal
Electrochemical machining Electrochemical machining
material removed by anodic dissolution
with a rapidly flowing electrolyte
tool is cathode / workpiece is anode -
both must be electrically conductive
electrolyte (e.g. NaCl, KCl) circulated
rapidly, sweeps away fine cuttings
tool (cathode) made of copper, brass or
stainless steel
Ultrasonic Machining Ultrasonic Machining
ultrasonically vibrate to force abrasive in
a slurry against workpiece
tool is reverse image of the workpiece
boron carbide, aluminiumoxide, silicon
carbide commonly used as grit material
can cut virtually any material
Electrodischarge Electrodischarge (EDM) (EDM)
sparks generated erode the shape of
tool into the workpiece
dielectric fluid (kerosene) flushes chips
and confines the spark
dielectric fluid insulates between tool/
work; spark conductor; coolant; flushing
EDM EDM
Advantages :
applicable to all
conductive materials
melting pt.,
hardness,
brittleness - no
problem
relatively simple to
make holes of any
shape
virtually zero forces
Disadvantages :
produces a thin,
hard recast surface
if workpiece is brittle
at room temp., the
surface may contain
fine cracks caused
by thermally induced
stresses