137 Colombia Internacional 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165

Neoliberalism, Biopolitics, and the Governance

of Transnational Crime
1

ABSTRACT
The paper argues that policies for controlling transnational crime are a crucial dimension for
understanding neoliberal hegemony in global governance. It takes on the relation established by
Foucault between biopolitics and neoliberalism, in order to reconstruct the discursive formation
framing law enforcement and security strategies beyond the spatiality of the nation-state. The
paper then turns to outlining the practical expressions of this discourse in the governance
techniques deployed to control transnational crime. Overall, this study aims to show how
neoliberal criticism of state power is not coupled with a reduction in governance but, on the
contrary, implies many regulations and strategies for controlling the population.
KEYWORDS
Neoliberalism biopolitics transnational organized crime global governance
Neoliberalismo, biopoltica y gobernanza
del crimen transnacional
Diego Nieto
Universidad Icesi
RESUMEN
El artculo sostiene que las polticas pblicas desarrolladas para el control del crimen transnacional
son una dimensin crucial para entender la hegemona neoliberal en la gobernanza global. A
travs de la relacin establecida por Foucault entre biopoltica y neoliberalismo, se reconstruye la
formacin discursiva que enmarca las estrategias de law enforcement y seguridad que operan ms
all de la espacialidad del Estado-nacin. Posteriormente, se da una mirada a la expresin prctica
de este discurso en las tcnicas de gobierno desplegadas para el control del crimen transnacional.
En su conjunto, el estudio busca sealar cmo la crtica neoliberal al poder del Estado no va de la
mano con la reduccin del gobierno sino que, por el contrario, implica gran cantidad de formas de
regulacin y estrategias de control sobre la poblacin.
PALABRAS CLAVE
Neoliberalismo gubernamentalidad biopoltica control del crimen relaciones trasnacionales
1 This article is a modifed version of the paper presented at the Second Congress of
the Colombian Network of International Relations: International Relations in times
of crises, RedIntercol, Universidad de los Andes, Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano,
September, 28-30, 2011.
Diego Nieto is full-time professor at the Political Studies Department,
Universidad Icesi (Cali, Valle del Cauca). E-mail: danietosa@gmail.com
Digital Object Identifcation
http://dx.doi.org/10.7440/colombiaint76.2012.06
139 Colombia Internacional 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
Neoliberalism, Biopolitics,
and the Governance
of Transnational Crime
Diego Nieto
Universidad Icesi
INTRODUCTION
Can wc csLablish a rclaLionship bcLwccn Lhc incrcasc in orms o crimc
conLrol aL Lhc LransnaLional lcvcl and Lhc risc o ncolibcralism in Lhc lasL cw
dccadcs` I arguc LhaL Lhcrc is an inLrinsically producLivc rclaLion bcLwccn
Lhc dcvclopmcnL o orms o rcgulaLing crimc aL Lhc global lcvcl and Lhc
csLablishmcnL o ncolibcralism as a hcgcmonic way Lo dcal wiLh qucsLions o
govcrnancc. ConLrary Lo Lhc common undcrsLanding o ncolibcralism, in Lhis
arLiclc I aim Lo show how, dcspiLc ncolibcralisms criLicism o sLaLc inLcrvcn-
Lion and Lhc cxccss o govcrnmcnL, ncolibcralism is closcly connccLcd wiLh
Lhc sccuriLizaLion and rc-rcgulaLion o socicLy aL Lhc global lcvcl. Fxamining
Lhc issuc o crimc shows why and how Lhcrc is an ouLrighL connccLion bc-
Lwccn Lhc idcal o rcc-markcL cconomics and sccuriLy as a global conccrn.
To show Lhis, I rsL ouLlinc Lhc mcLhodological sLancc rom which I cn-
gagc wiLh Lhc qucsLions o govcrnancc. Following FoucaulL, I considcr LhaL Lo
undcrsLand Lhc ways in which global govcrnancc cmcrgcs, iL is bcLLcr Lo sLarL
rom Lhc way poliLical problcms o govcrnancc arc consLiLuLcd, oLhcrwisc
known as Lhc problcmaLizaLions o poliLical lic, and Lo ollow Lhcir concrc-
Lion in govcrnmcnL pracLiccs.
In Lhc sccond sccLion, I pursuc Lhis mcLhodological paLh Lo show how
crimc is parL o Lhc poliLics o Lhc lic o populaLions, LhaL is, iLs bopo|tca|
characLcr. I also dispuLc Lhc mainsLrcam undcrsLanding o ncolibcralism
Lo csLablish iLs inhcrcnL rclaLion wiLh Lhc parLicular way crimc has bccn
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Neoliberalism, Biopolitics, and the Governance of Transnational Crime
COLINT 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
govcrncd ovcr Lhc lasL cw dccadcs. Drawing on FoucaulLs ,8-, IccLurcs
aL Lhc Collcgc dc Francc, Te Prth oj Popo|tcs (:oo8), I arguc LhaL wc nccd
Lo conccivc o ncolibcralism as a poliLical raLionaliLy dcviscd or govcrning
populaLionsLhc ccnLral conccrn o biopoliLicsraLhcr Lhan as an idcology
or cconomic Lhcory.
Oncc Lhis analyLical ramcwork is dcncd, Lhc Lhird parL o Lhc arLiclc
sccks Lo cxplain Lhc inLcrdcpcndcnL rclaLion o Lhc issuc o organizcd
crimc, ncolibcralism, and Lhc risc o LransnaLional govcrnancc. Tis sccLion
shows Lhc rolc LhaL ncolibcralism plays in diagnosing Lhc raLional way Lo
govcrn LransnaLional crimc.
Finally, I arguc LhaL i ncolibcralism ramcs our undcrsLanding o crimc,
ncolibcralism also shapcs Lhc govcrnancc Lcchniqucs dcvclopcd Lo dcal
wiLh crimc. Tis parL ouLlincs Lhc main policics, sLraLcgics, and programs
LhaL consLiLuLc Lhc global asscmblagc o sccuriLy and law cnorccmcnL
mcasurcs. Tis parL is Lhc kcy Lo sccing how ncolibcralism, ar rom rc-
ducing rcgulaLion ovcr subjccLs, cxcrciscs various orms o powcr ovcr Lhc
pcoplc o Lhc world.
1. PROBLEMATIZATIONS AS A STARTING POINT
Arming LhaL naLion-sLaLcs acc divcrsc challcngcs Lo Lhcir powcr duc
Lo Lhc LransormaLions cxpcricnccd in Lhc inLcrnaLional arcna is noL as
conLrovcrsial as iL oncc was. How Lo undcrsLand Lhcsc LransormaLions and
Lhc conscqucnccs or powcr rclaLions in Lhc inLcrnaLional sysLcm is sLill,
howcvcr, a maLLcr o much dcbaLc.
My aim is Lo conLribuLc Lo Lhis dcbaLc Lhrough cxamining a spccic prob-
lcm in LransnaLional poliLics: LransnaLional crimc. Tis, o coursc, is a mcLh-
odological choicc, and onc I bclicvc givcs us a vanLagc poinL ovcr oLhcr ap-
proachcs Lo cngagc wiLh global govcrnancc. I draw on FoucaulLs laLcr works
in which hc suggcsLcd LhaL Lo sLudy govcrnmcnL in modcrniLy, wc nccd Lo
rc-Lracc Lhc prob|ematzatons o poliLical issucs LhaL acquirc widc rccogniLion
and auLhoriLy abouL Lhc ways Lo disposc and govcrn Lhc lic o populaLions
(FoucaulL 8, ,). TaL is, i wc arc Lo cxplain shiLs in govcrnancc, wc
oughL Lo sLarL wiLh Lhc spccic conccrns, qucsLions, and inLcndcd answcrs
Lo poliLical problcms in parLicular momcnLs in Lhc hisLory o a givcn socicLy.
141
Diego Nieto
Colombia Internacional 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
Tus, raLhcr Lhan privilcging Lhc rolc o Lhc sLaLc or oLhcr acLors in Lhc
inLcrnaLional sysLcm, I scc iL as morc appropriaLc Lo ask rsL how globaliza-
Lion has comc Lo cxisL poliLically. Tis, in Lurn, obligcs us Lo look aL Lhc is-
sucs and problcms LhaL dcmand ncw orms o poliLical imaginaLion Lo govcrn
bcyond Lhc naLion-sLaLc. Only Lhcn docs iL makc scnsc Lo ask why and how
Lhcy sLrucLurc, in discoursc and pracLicc, LransnaLional govcrnancc. In Lhis
scnsc, issucs such as crimc givc us a concrcLc cnLry or undcrsLanding Lhcsc
LransormaLions in conLcmporary orms o powcr and auLhoriLy.
Morcovcr, in Lhis way wc will bc ablc Lo scc LhaL LransnaLional govcrnancc
is noL limiLcd Lo changcs in sLaLc powcr and Lhc inLcrnaLional sysLcm buL
LhaL iL is aLLachcd Lo longcr LrajccLorics and widcr shiLs in Lhc orms o gov-
crnancc in modcrn Limcs. In Lhis rcgard, FoucaulLs noLion o problcmaLiza-
Lions ocrs a kcy Lo makc scnsc o Lhcsc changcs, problcmaLizaLions givc us
a hisLorical pcrspccLivc on govcrnancc LhaL combincs iLs discursivc raming
and concrcLc cxprcssion in govcrnmcnL pracLiccs and Lcchniqucs.
Tis lasL conLcnLion is whaL makcs Lhis approach disLincL rom oLhcr con-
sLrucLivisL analyscs. Fvcn whcn sharing wiLh Lhcm scvcral cpisLcmological
and mcLhodological prcmiscs, I considcr Lhcy sLill givc Loo much cmphasis,
ciLhcr Lo Lhc mcanings and undcrsLandings acLors givc o problcms in Lhc
inLcrnaLional sysLcm or Lo how Lhcsc discourscs comc Lo dcnc Lhcir idcnLi-
Lics, bchavior, inLcrcsLs, and rulcs o Lhc gamc. In Lhis way, noL only is lcss
aLLcnLion bcing givcn Lo Lhc concrcLc problcmaLizaLions rom which public
policics Lakc orm, buL also Lhc cxaminaLion o how Lhcy maLcrializc in spc-
cic Lcchniqucs o govcrnmcnL has ycL Lo bc morc dccply analyzcd.
:
Tc idca o sLarLing rom problcmaLizaLions o poliLical lic dcmonsLraLcs
sLrcngLhs in Lhis rcspccL. Tis approach docs noL limiL iLscl Lo cxplaining Lhc
daily uncLioning, proccsscs, and powcr cxchangcs bcLwccn acLors in Lhc in-
LcrnaLional arcna. NciLhcr docs Lhis approach considcr iL sucicnL Lo analyzc
2 I must note that constructivism includes a great variety of studies and authors.
Nevertheless, for the most part, I believe the limits exposed above are shared among
them. Even those infuenced by Foucault have yet to work more fully on the ideas he
developed in his late writings on neoliberalism and biopolitics. An account of these
various approaches can be found in Sanchez (2010) and Ruggie (1998; 2009).
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COLINT 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
Lhc mcanings and undcrsLandings LhaL consLrucL Lhc world o Lhcsc agcnLs.
Whcn wc dirccL our rcscarch Lo problcmaLizaLions, Lhis approach providcs
a dicrcnL way o going abouL cxplaining govcrnancc: idcnLiy Lhc rolc LhaL
ratona|tes oj government such as ncolibcralism play in Lhc shiLs o powcr
rclaLions and Lcchniqucs o govcrnancc.
Tis implics LhaL iL is ncccssary Lo csLablish Lhc rclaLion bcLwccn Lwo
inLcrrclaLcd and co-consLiLuLcd domains: on Lhc onc hand, Lhc convcnLion-
govcrncd scLLing o conLrovcrsics and sLrugglcs whcrc Lhc problcms o
poliLical lic cmcrgc and rcproducc (SLcnson , ), and on Lhc oLhcr
hand, Lhc raLionaliLics o poliLical acLion dcviscd Lo govcrn Lhcsc problcms.
Tc ormcr providcs wiLh parLiculariLy and originaliLy such raLionaliLics,
whcrcas Lhc laLLcr arc undcrsLood in an insLrumcnLal scnsc, hisLorical and
noL mcLaphysical, Lhcy arc cmploycd Lo scc how discourscs and pracLiccs
o govcrnmcnL cmcrgc as a ncccssary soluLion or ullling Lhc sLandards
and objccLivcs dcncd by Lhcsc orms o raLionalizaLion o domains o lic
(Drcyus and Rabinow 8:, -o).
Tcsc raLionaliLics o govcrnmcnL or governmenta|tes rccr, Lhcrcorc, Lo
Lhc gcncral analyLical grid o poliLical idcas LhaL givc orm Lo programs and
sLraLcgics o govcrnancc. Hcncc, Lhcsc raLionaliLics arc noL only discourscs
in a sLricLly philosophical or idcological scnsc buL arc also consLiLuLcd by
pracLiccs and Lcchniqucs o inLcrvcnLion, and sLraLcgics o policy ormaLion
and implcmcnLaLion (Rosc and Millcr :, ,). Tc sLudy o Lhcsc govcrn-
mcnLaliLics and all Lhc dicrcnL dimcnsions cnLailcd is whaL dcncs Lhc
mcLhodological disLincLivcncss o our rcscarch.
2. BIOPOLITICS, CRIME, AND NEOLIBERALISM
I shall sLarL rsL wiLh Lhc problcmaLizaLion o crimc in modcrniLy Lo
show why iLs conccpLualizaLion alls wiLhin whaL FoucaulL calls Lhc rcalm o
biopoliLics. Tus, wc will scc in which scnsc crimc mighL bc rclaLcd Lo nco-
libcralism and LransnaLional govcrnancc.
As said bcorc, biopoliLics sLcms rom FoucaulLs rcconsLrucLion o Lhc
cmcrgcncc o Lhc govcrnmcnL o populaLions as a spccic arL o govcrnmcnL
in modcrniLy. TaL mcans LhaL govcrnmcnL acquircs a ncw way o Lhinking
a ncw raLionaliLyabouL Lhc cxcrcisc o powcr, characLcrizcd by an cnscmblc
143
Diego Nieto
Colombia Internacional 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
o insLiLuLions, proccdurcs, analyscs and rcccLions, calculaLions, and LacLics
LhaL havc as iLs LargcL populaLions, as iLs knowlcdgc poliLical cconomy, and
as iLs Lcchnical mcans apparaLuscs o sccuriLy (FoucaulL , -o). Tis
poliLical adminisLraLion o licproLccLing and caring or Lhc hcalLh o
populaLionsis whaL consLiLuLcs bopo|tcs, LhaL is, Lhc consLiLuLion o an
indcpcndcnL domain or cxcrcising orms o poliLical powcr, conccivcd as
bopower, Lhc powcr ovcr lic (FoucaulL :oo, :-o).
Crimc is a crucial phcnomcnon in biopoliLics, or iL dcals wiLh Lhc Lypc o
conducL dccmcd harmul Lo socicLy and Lhc punishmcnLs LhaL guaranLcc Lhc
rcproducLion and susLainabiliLy o biopoliLics in Limc. From Lhc conccrn wiLh
crimc, a grcaL dcal o sLaLisLical and criminological dcvclopmcnLs cmcrgc, as
wcll as law cnorccmcnL insLiLuLions and sccuriLy Lcchniqucs Lo combaL crimc.
In Lhis manncr, crimc is a privilcgcd placc or cxcrcising biopowcr, bccausc
iL acLs on subjccLs so Lhcy rcspccL and pracLicc lic in law-abiding ways, and
whcn Lhis is noL Lhc casc, dcning Lhc programs and sLraLcgics or dcaling
wiLh Lhc group o pcoplc who rcprcscnL Lhc criminals (FoucaulL :oo8, :8).
Hcncc, crimc is dccply involvcd in biopoliLics in modcrn govcrnancc, buL
is iL rclaLcd Lo ncolibcralism` FoucaulL movcd orward in his lccLurcs rom
,8 Lo , Lo arguc LhaL Lhc sLudy o Lhis govcrnmcnL o populaLions Lakcs
us incviLably Lo Lhc sLudy o |bera|sm as Lhc gcncral ramcwork o biopoliLics.
Only wiLh Lhc cmcrgcncc o libcral mcnLaliLics o govcrnmcnL was iL possiblc
or Lhc indcpcndcnL domain o socicLy Lo appcar and bccomc Lhc main Lar-
gcL o poliLical acLion (FoucaulL :oo8, :o-:, ,). Only Lhcn Lhc knowlcdgc o
Lhc cmcrgcnL social scicnccs, sLaLisLics, and dcmography bccamc ccnLral and
providcd a way o rcprcscnLing Lhc auLonomous dynamics o socicLy Lo asscss
whcLhcr Lhcy should or should noL, as wcll as how Lhcy wcrc going Lo bc, an
objccL o adminisLraLion and rcgulaLion (Barry et a|. 6, -o).
AlLhough ar rom bcing subsumcd Lo iL, neo|bera|sm is parL o Lhc Lra-
jccLorics dcvclopcd rom Lhc libcral conccrns wiLh Lhc problcms o Lhc lic
o populaLions, and in Lhis scnsc, wiLh crimc. Ncolibcralism is, abovc all, a
Lcchnology o govcrnmcnL, a way Lo conducL lic, which in our casc works
Lhrough Lhc knowlcdgc o criminology and acLs ovcr subjccLs Lhrough sccu-
riLy apparaLuscs. TaL is why crimc conLrol mcasurcs arc such an imporLanL
caLurc o biopoliLics and ncolibcralism, Lhcy rcprcscnL somc o Lhc mosL
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dcLcrminanL clcmcnLs o Lhc sccuriLizaLion/proLccLion o socicLy Lhrough
managing populaLions and Lhcir subjccLs.
YcL Lhc parLicular characLcrisLic o ncolibcralism lics in LhaL, as a Lcch-
nology o govcrnmcnL, ncolibcralism gocs hand in hand wiLh Lhc globaliza-
Lion o poliLics, Lo Lhc cxLcnL LhaL iL would bc diculL Lo ully grasp onc
wiLhouL Lhc oLhcr. As I will show, onc o ncolibcralisms main characLcrisLics
is LhaL iL proposcs iLscl as a raLionaliLy or govcrning beyond the state, or
govcrnancc bccomcs a qucsLion LhaL involvcs incviLably Lhc way o living
o Lhc populaLion o Lhc world, and noL only o Lhosc conncd Lo Lhc Lcr-
riLorialiLy o Lhc naLion-sLaLc.
3. NEOLIBERALISM AND THE CONTROL OF CRIME: GOVERNANCE
BEYOND THE STATE
WhaL docs iL mcan LhaL ncolibcralism proposcs iLscl as a raLionaliLy or
govcrning bcyond Lhc sLaLc` IL mcans LhaL ncolibcralism has a way o imagin-
ing poliLical problcms LhaL is noL conncd Lo Lhc spaLialiLy o Lhc naLion-sLaLc.
In gcncral Lcrms, FoucaulL always LhoughL o powcr as somcLhing LhaL was
Lo bc sLudicd bcyond Lhc sLaLc, whilc working always wiLhin Lhc naLion-sLaLc
as a spacc o rcccLion. In Lhc casc o ncolibcralism, or iLs parLicular caLurc
o bcing whaL wc could call a sorL o LransnaLional govcrnmcnLaliLy (dcviscd
Lo opcraLc bcyond Lhc sLaLc), wc nccd Lo cxLcnd our rcscarch Lo Lhc issucs
LhaL havc allowcd qucsLions o LransnaLional and global govcrnancc Lo comc
inLo cxisLcncc as a parLicular Lcchnology o rulc (Iarncr and WalLcrs :oo, ).
In Lhc nal analysis Lhcn, transnatona| governance is undcrsLood as a
parLicular orm o poliLical imaginaLion spccically conccivcd Lo rcgulaLc,
conLrol, and cxcrcisc orms o powcr noL only rom, bcLwccn, and ovcr sLaLcs,
buL morc imporLanLly, Lo dcal wiLh Lhc issucs and pracLiccs in Lcrms o which
biopoliLical powcr is cxcrciscd ovcr and Lhrough Lhc LcrriLorics and popula-
Lions living in spaccs bcyond Lhc naLion-sLaLc (Iarncr and WalLcrs :oo, 6).
I arguc LhaL in rcccnL ycars LransnaLional organizcd crimc (TOC) has
bccomc an issuc LhaL scrvcs as a sLarLing poinL or a poliLical imagining
o Lhc LransnaLional. Thc aim is LhaL Lhrough cxamining TOC wc will bc
ablc Lo show how iL shapcs Lhc consLiLuLion o a LransnaLional govcrnancc
o ncolibcral signaLurc.
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Colombia Internacional 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
a. The constitution of organized crime as a threat to global society
Tc rsL poinL wc nccd Lo dcal wiLh is Lhc cxLcnsion o Lhc ncolibcral
raLionaliLy o govcrnmcnL Lo LransnaLional spaccs Lhrough Lhc problcm o
LransnaLional crimc. Tis is an imporLanL clcmcnL wc nccd Lo addrcss, i wc
considcr iL paradoxical Lo arm LhaL ncolibcralism could call or dcploying
rcgulaLions and inLcrvcnLions givcn iLs criLicism o Lhc cxccss o sLaLcs inLcr-
crcncc (FoucaulL :oo8, ,-:).
Tc cxplanaLion o Lhis paradox lics in Lhc connccLion bcLwccn crimc
and biopoliLics. Tc conccrn wiLh Lhc conscqucnccs o ncw orms o crimc
drivcs Lhc dcploymcnL o sccuriLy apparaLuscs in ncolibcralism. How arc Lhcy
jusLicd i ncolibcralism sccks Lo cnhancc rccdom and proLccL socicLy rom
cxccssivc sLaLc inLcrvcnLion` To cxcrcisc powcr, iL is ncccssary Lo dcnc crimc
as a bopo|tca| threat Lo Lhc lic o Lhc pcoplc govcrnmcnLs musL proLccL.
As FoucaulL suggcsLs, iL is aL Lhis poinL LhaL racism inLcrvcncs...IL is aL
Lhis momcnL LhaL racism is inscribcd as Lhc basic mcchanism o powcr, as iL
is cxcrciscd in modcrn SLaLcs. BuL whaL is in acL Lhis modcrn discoursc on
racism` IL is a way o ragmcnLing Lhc cld o Lhc biological LhaL powcr con-
Lrols. !t s a way oj separatng out the groups that exst wthn a popu|aton...Tis
will allow powcr Lo LrcaL Lhc populaLion as a mixLurc o raccs, or Lo bc morc
accuraLc, Lo subdividc Lhc spccics iL conLrols Lo makc possiblc Lhc cxcrcisc o
powcr wiLhin Lhc populaLion iLscl (my cmphasis, FoucaulL :oo, :).
Tus, in Lhis discoursc Lhc cncmics who havc Lo bc donc away wiLh arc
noL advcrsarics in Lhc poliLical scnsc o Lhc Lcrm, they are threats, ether
externa| or nterna|, to the popu|aton and jor the popu|aton. In Lhc biopowcr
sysLcm, Lhc impcraLivc Lo kill is acccpLablc only i iL rcsulLs noL in a vicLory
ovcr poliLical advcrsarics, buL in Lhc climinaLion o Lhc biological LhrcaL Lo
Lhc improvcmcnL o Lhc spccics and racc (my cmphasis, FoucaulL :oo, :).
Wc should noLicc LhaL crimc can vcry oLcn Lurn inLo Lhis kind o LhrcaL
LhaL supporLs sccuriLy and dccnsivc acLions by govcrnmcnLs. Indccd, as
FoucaulL says, Lhc samc could bc said o criminaliLy. Oncc Lhc mcchanism o
biocriminal was callcd upon Lo makc iL possiblc Lo cxccuLc or banish crimi-
nals, criminaliLy was conccpLualizcd in racisL Lcrms (FoucaulL :oo, :,).
My conLcnLion is prcciscly LhaL crimc acquircd Lhis sLaLus in world poliLics
ovcr Lhc lasL cw dccadcs. Flscwhcrc, I havc providcd cvidcncc o Lhis claim
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Lhrough a gcncalogical rcconsLrucLion o Lhc hcgcmonic discoursc o TOC.
Tc idca LhaL organizcd crimc consLiLuLcs a challcngc Lo Lhc sLabiliLy o soci-
cLy is ound in mid-LwcnLicLh-ccnLury Amcrica. InLcrcsLingly, cxamining Lhis
discoursc illusLraLcs how organizcd crimc is conccpLualizcd in racisL Lcrms,
as an enemy that threatened the |je o Amcrican socicLy (NicLo :o:).
Tis scminal conccpLion o organizcd crimc was cs Lablishcd in iLs original
orm in Lhc os by criminolo gisL Donald Crcsscy, who dcscribcd organizcd
crimc as a wcll-kniLLcd, hicrarchical and ccnLralizcd organiza Lion acLing as
an inLcrnaLional conspiracy, sccking proL and powcr, and bound LogcLhcr by
cLhnic or somc oLhcr orm o culLural kinship (Crcsscy 6, x). Tis picLurc
was closcly rcplicaLcd Lhrough Lhc ollowing dccadcs, bccoming Lhc dominanL
ocial rcprc scnLaLion govcrning criminal policics againsL organizcd crimc
cvcr sincc (NicLo :o:, :,-:).
Tis dcniLion o organizcd crimc as an a|en threatenng conspracy againsL
Amcrican socicLy is a Lypical dcniLion o Lhc problcm o crimc as a biopo-
liLical LhrcaL. WhcLhcr pcoplc acc iL daily or noL, a threat originaLcs rom
organizaLional sLrucLurcs wiLh powcr and wcalLh o a dcgrcc sLrong cnough
Lo challcngc Lhc basic sLrucLurcs o socicLy. Tc cxisLcncc o Lhcsc powcrul
cncmics bccomcs an inconLrovcrLiblc acL LhaL rcquircs urgcnL mcasurcs in
ordcr Lo protect t (Fdwards and Cill :oo:a, ::).
Tcsc arc, howcvcr, alicn-cncmics closcly Licd Lo exteror orccs and inLcr-
csLs, buL who opcraLc wthn Amcrican socicLy. I a dangcr cxisLs, iL is noL prod-
ucL o Lhc Amcrican abric, Lhc dangcr comcs as a conspiracy rom cxLcrnal
orccs LhaL LhrcaLcn Lhc rcspccLablc socicLy rom wiLhin and ouLsidc aL Lhc
samc Limc (Fdwards and Cill :oo, :68). Tcrcorc, Lo ghL Lhc LhrcaL, iL is ncc-
cssary Lo acL ovcr Lhc Amcrican populaLion iLscl. Howcvcr, in Lhis discoursc
iL is clcar LhaL Lhc LargcLs o biopowcr will noL bc Amcricans Lhcmsclvcs, buL
Lhc cxLcrior conspiraLors idcnLicd as LhrcaLs: rsL ILalians, and cvcnLually,
Chincsc, Colombians, Mcxicans, 1apancsc, Irish, cLc. (NicLo :o:, :).
In Lhis conLcxL, Lhc problcm o drug trackng cmcrgcs and acquircs un-
prcccdcnLcd signicancc, bccausc iL bccamc Lhc missing link Lo cxplain Lhc
LransormaLion and sLrcngLhcning o organizcd criminaliLy inLo hugc crimi-
nal cnLcrpriscs wiLh inLcrnaLional rcach. As soon as crimcs rclaLcd Lo Lhc
drug Lradc arc dcncd as a LhrcaL Lo socicLy rom inLcrnaLional syndicaLcs
147
Diego Nieto
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o drug Lrackcrs, Lhcy Lurn Lhc analysis o poliLical acLion Lo a problcm
bcyond Lhc naLion-sLaLc LcrriLorialiLy, making iL possiblc Lo conccivc Lhc now
inamous war on drugs (NicLo :o:, o).
In Lhc war on drugs, sLarLcd by Nixon and supporLcd laLcr by Rcagan,
sccuriLy apparaLuscs arc dcploycd bcyond Lhc naLion-sLaLc, noL Lo wagc war
in Lhc classical scnsc o Lhc Lcrm buL in biopoliLical Lcrms, Lo dccnd Lhc lic
o populaLions. Waging war againsL somcLhing likc drugs, and noL againsL Lhc
classic miliLary sLaLc-bound cncmy, is an cxprcssion o Lhc signicancc LhaL
organizcd crimc has Lo undcrsLand conLcmporary sLrucLurcs o LransnaLional
govcrnancc and global sccuriLy. NcvcrLhclcss, only ramcd in biopoliLics, iL is
possiblc Lo makc scnsc o Lhcir purposcs and jusLicaLion. Tc war on drugs
is, or Lhis rcason, onc o Lhc bcsL cxamplcs Lo show Lhc biopoliLical characLcr
o currcnL LransnaLional govcrnancc.
FurLhcrmorc, whcn Lhc diagnoscs and pracLiccs o govcrnmcnL dcviscd
Lo dcal wiLh organizcd crimc and Lhc drug Lrac problcm in Amcrica wcrc
rcplicaLcd and rcachcd worldwidc Lhrough Lhc conccpL o TransnaLional
Organizcd Crimc during Lhc os, Lhc prcscncc o biopoliLics in Lransna-
Lional govcrnancc bccamc cvcn widcr and morc proound. TOC was dcncd
as Lhc ncw LhrcaL by Amcrican sccuriLy cxpcrLs aLcr Lhc cnd o Lhc Cold
War, parL o Lhc uninLcndcd conscqucnccs o globalizaLion. Tus conccivcd,
TOC has cxacLly Lhc samc biopoliLical characLcr o organizcd crimc and drug
Lracking, alLhough Lhc parLiculariLy o TOC lics in LhaL iL LhrcaLcns noL
only Amcrican pcoplc buL also Lhc cnLirc populaLion o Lhc world as ClinLon
argucd in bcorc Lhc UniLcd NaLions Ccncral Asscmbly (NicLo :o:, ).

TOC as a biopoliLical LhrcaL Lo inLcrnaLional socicLy clcvaLcd Lhc objcc-
Livcs o sccuriLizaLion and crimc conLrol bcyond idcnLiying iL wiLh par-
Licular naLional inLcrcsLs. As is cvidcnL in Ko Annans discourscs aL Lhc
Limc, TOC was idcnLicd as Lhc rcason or dcploying sccuriLy sLraLcgics, law
3 Naturally, I am not alone in this assertion that the American conception of organized
crime has been the dominant representation in governments and popular imaginary
alike. Many criminologists and researchers on the history of organized crime have
found the connection between this view and the defnition of security threats to
America and the world in the 1980s and 1990s (cf. Smith 1991; Naylor 1995; Albini
1997; Levi 1998; Woodiwiss 2001, 2003a, 2003b).
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cnorccmcnL LacLics, and crimc conLrol mcasurcs over the popu|aton oj the
wor|d (NicLo :o:, :). Tis challcngc rom globalizaLion bccamc a trans-
natona| government concern, and dcmandcd a orm o poliLical imaginaLion
Lo crcaLc crimc-conLrol mcasurcs and sccuriLy apparaLuscs bcyond Lhc sLaLc.
b. Neoliberalism and the transnational as place of governance:
competence and collective enrichment
Fvcn Lhough criminologisLs and hisLorians o organizcd crimc havc
consisLcnLly poinLcd ouL Lhis Amcrican hcgcmonic discoursc, Lhcy havc rc-
ccLcd lcss rcqucnLly on iLs connccLion Lo Lhc arrival o ncolibcralism in
govcrnmcnL. Tc qucsLion Lhcn is Lo dcnc i Lhcrc is a rclaLion bcLwccn Lhc
risc o ncolibcral govcrnancc in world poliLics and changcs in crimc conLrol
mcasurcs around Lhc world.
In Lhis scnsc, I arguc LhaL oncc organizcd crimc was conccivcd as a biopo-
liLical LhrcaL Lo global socicLy, organizcd crimc bccamc an objccL o rcccLion
rom Lhc ncolibcral way o govcrnancc. Tus, wc can scc how Lhcsc Lwo dis-
courscs work LogcLhcr, Lhc rsL csLablishing Lhc LhrcaL and lcgiLimizing Lhc
dcploymcnL o sccuriLy apparaLuscs, wiLh Lhc sccond cxplaining how crimc
uncLions, dcncs iLs LargcLs, and providcs Lhc bcsL mcasurcs or iLs conLrol.
IcL us scc, in Lhis scnsc, how and why ncolibcralism prob|ematzes Lhc qucs-
Lion o Lhc sccuriLy o Lhc world.
FoucaulL argucs LhaL Lhc ccnLral conccrn o libcralism in Lcrms o inLcr-
naLional spaccs is collccLivc cnrichmcnL and progrcss, which is rcalizcd by
cnsuring LhaL muLual commcrcc and compcLcncc Lakc placc undcr Lhc bcsL
condiLions. Commcrcc and compcLcncc arc Lhc only guaranLors o unlimiLcd
cconomic growLh, libcralisms undamcnLal socicLal policy (FoucaulL :oo8, -
). Tis idca is ccrLainly also prcscnL in ncolibcralism, noL only as iL appcals
or cconomic libcralizaLion policics buL also, morc signicanLly, Lhrough Lhc
dcploymcnL o numcrous cnvironmcnLal rcgulaLions and conLrols on Lhc
condiLions and acLors LhaL guaranLcc maximizaLion o the game oj competton.
Indccd, Lhc disLincLivcncss o ncolibcralism, and pcrhaps onc o Lhc main
dicrcncc rom classical cconomic libcralism, is LhaL compcLiLion bccomcs
a hisLorical objccLivc o govcrnmcnLal arL and noL a naLural givcn LhaL musL
bc rcspccLcd...Lhc markcL, or raLhcr, purc compcLiLion, which is Lhc csscncc o
149
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Colombia Internacional 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
Lhc markcL, can only appcar i iL is produccd, and i iL is produccd by an acLivc
govcrnmcnLaliLy (FoucaulL :oo8, :). Tus, quiLc conLrary Lo Lhc common
vicw, ncolibcralism should noL bc idcnLicd wiLh laisscz-airc, buL raLhcr
wiLh pcrmancnL vigilancc, acLiviLy, and inLcrvcnLion (FoucaulL :oo8, :).
Tc rcLrcaL rom Lhc sLaLc propcr o Lhc ncolibcral agc is also in iLscl a
posiLivc govcrnmcnL Lcchniquc, bccausc Lhc dcgovcrnmcnLalizaLion o Lhc
sLaLc docs noL mcan dc-govcrnmcnLalizaLion o lic per se (Barry cL al. 6,
o). Ncolibcralism aims Lo acLivcly crcaLc Lhc condiLions wiLhin which cco-
nomic rccdom mighL bc pracLiccd in Lhc orm o cnLrcprcncurial and compcLi-
Livc conducL: rsL, via a criLiquc o Lhc conscqucnccs o Lhc inLrusion o Lhc
sLaLc and, sccond, wiLh a wholc array o organizaLional orms and Lcchnical
mcLhods Lo cxLcnd Lhis cld o cconomic rccdom (FoucaulL :oo8, 6, ,).
SLriving or a pcrccL gamc o compcLiLion is Lhc main rcason LhaL in Lhc
cnd rcquircs Lhc acLivc vigilancc, conLrol, and rcgulaLion o spaccs bcyond
Lhc sLaLc. IdcnLiying TOC as a dislocaLing phcnomcnon in Lhis gamc is whaL
makcs LransnaLional spaccs Lhc objccL o ncolibcral rcccLion, Lo cnsurc Lhc
rcducLion Lo a minimum o dcLrimcnLal rcpcrcussions ovcr Lhc idcal o a
socicLy o compcLiLion and cnLrcprcncurs.
c. The neoliberal analysis of crime: rational criminals and
risk environments
Tc conscqucnccs o Lhcsc principlcs arc cvidcnL in Lhc ncolibcral analy-
sis o crimc. Onc o Lhc prcdominanL characLcrisLics o ncolibcralism as a
mcnLaliLy o govcrnmcnL is LhaL ncolibcralism sccks Lo undcrsLand Lhc so-
cial by cxLcnding Lhc raLionaliLy o Lhc markcLLo domains which arc noL
cxclusivcly or noL primarily cconomic (FoucaulL :oo8, :). In Lhis scnsc,
wc can arguc LhaL Lhc ncolibcral analysis o crimc LranslaLcs problcms o
Lhc criminal cld inLo cconomic calculaLion modcls. Tc cconomic modcls o
supply and dcmand and o invcsLmcnL-cosL-proL cxplain social rclaLionships
and individual bchavior, cpiLomizcd in Lhc gurc o Lhc homo economcus or
cnLrcprcncurial subjccL (FoucaulL :oo8, :).
In Lhis ordcr, ncolibcralism dcncs crimc in a way LhaL is noL qualiLaLivc
or moral. In iLs Lcrms, crimc corrcsponds Lo any acLion LhaL makcs an indi-
vidual run the rsk o bcing condcmncd Lo a pcnalLy (FoucaulL :oo8, :). I wc
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ocus on Lhc sidc o Lhc pcrpcLraLor, Lhc criminal is jusL onc morc homo eco-
nomcus in Lhc markcL cnvironmcnL: a modcraLcly raLional and scl-inLcrcsLcd
individual, uncLLcrcd by any moral compass, a consumcr who is alcrL Lo
criminal opporLuniLics and rcsponsivc Lo siLuaLional induccmcnLs whcn Lhcy
arc cosL-cccLivc. In Lhis way, Lhc criminal is sLrippcd o his sociological and
psychological laycrs, and rc-ramcd in a sorL o pscudo-cconomic analysis.
Tc criminal is noL abnormal or Lhc onc Lo bc corrccLcd, buL a raLional ac-
Lor who chooscs a coursc o acLion whcn accd wiLh an cnvironmcnL o crimc
(Carland , 8-, FoucaulL :oo8, :o-).

Tcsc risk cnvironmcnLs or crmnogenc stuatons, as Carland calls Lhcm

(i.c., unsupcrviscd car parks, dcscrLcd ncighborhoods, subway sLaLions, clcc-
Lronic nancial LransacLions, cLc.), bccomc Lhc privilcgcd LargcL o crimc
conLrol undcr ncolibcralism. Crimc is vicwcd as a rouLinc phcnomcnon, parL
o Lhc cvcryday conducL o cconomic and social lic, whcrc counLlcss opporLu-
niLics or illcgal LransacLions cmcrgc. Tcrcorc, Lhc criminal sysLcm docs noL
dcal wiLh criminals dirccLly, buL raLhcr rcacLs Lo paLLcrns o illcgal cxchangcs
in a parLicular cnvironmcnL o crimc (FoucaulL :oo8, :-6, Carland , 8,
Fdwards and Cill :oo, :6,).
CovcrnmcnL acLion dcpcnds on analyzing Lhc cnvironmcnL o gains and
losscsLhc wcll-known cosL-bcncL calculaLionLo which Lhc individual rc-
sponds commiLLing a criminal acL. CovcrnmcnL musL aim Lo channcl him away
by modiying siLuaLional conLrols and manipulaLing inccnLivcs and risks wiLhin
iL, whilc making surc noL Lo disLurb Lhc sLrucLural dynamics o Lhc markcL, LhaL
is, noL limiLing oLhcr individuals rcc prccrcnccs in iL (FoucaulL :oo8, :-6).
d. From the economics of narcotraffc to transnational organized crime
Wc mcnLioncd abovc LhaL Lhc drug-Lrac problcm was csscnLial Lo makc
crimc a LransnaLional issuc. Similarly, drug Lracking playcd a ccnLral rolc
in Lhc dcvclopmcnL o LransnaLional mcchanisms o crimc conLrol, policing,
4 In this case, as with most rational choice approaches, this situational man is not
a preferred form of subjectivity, but quite simply an assumption about the real subjec-
tivity, although one with quite important implications in terms of policy measures as
we shall see.
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Colombia Internacional 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
and sccuriLy (scc parLicularly, Andrcas and Nadclmann :oo6, , ShcpLycki
:ooo, :o). Tcrcorc, looking morc closcly aL Lhc way in which Lhrough Lhc
ncolibcral analysis o Lhc drug Lradc rcgulaLing LransnaLional spaccs bccomcs
a govcrnmcnL conccrn is csscnLial.
OMallcys analysis o ncolibcral discourscs on drug usc has shown LhaL
Lhc inhcrcnL libcral prcccpLs o rcc will, individual choicc, and risk
providc a raLionalc or dcsigning policics Lo conLrol drug Lrac. In Lhis
discoursc, choicc and risk appcar as complimcnLary Lcrms, whcrc Lhc
choicc-making drug-uscr is pcrccivcd as a normal subjccL who sccks plcasurc
Lhrough consuming drugs. His choiccs arc possiblc duc Lo an envronment o
risks and opporLuniLics in which hc is nciLhcr LoLally rcc nor compcllcd Lo
consumc, buL whcrc hc calculaLcs his choiccs among risk-bcaring opLions
(OMallcy , ). Tc govcrnmcnL's duLy is Lo rcducc Lhc risks opcncd Lo
populaLions Lhrough cosL-cccLivc conLrols in Lhc markcL m|eu.
Tus, policics againsL Lhc drug Lradc havc as Lhcir undamcnLal aim rc-
ducing Lhc opporLuniLics or making wrong dccisionsproducLion, Lradc, or
consumpLion. Tc markcL as a sLrucLurc o human inLcracLions is ncvcr Lhc
problcm in iLscl, Lhc markcL is only Lhc cnvironmcnL whcrc raLional acLors
scck Lo ulll Lhcir prccrcnccs (FoucaulL :oo8, :,, OMallcy , :o8).
NcvcrLhclcss, iL is vcry sLriking LhaL Lhc supp|y chan oj drugs is LargcLcd
as Lhc main placc o inLcrvcnLion. Indccd, Lhcsc sLandards dccidcd Lo punish
drug produccrs and Lradcrs much morc sLrongly Lhan consumcrs. AgainsL drug
produccrs and Lradcrs, moralizaLion is rcLaincd Lo mainLain Lhc sLringcnL pu-
niLivcncss o such acLions o crcaLing risk or oLhcrs. Moral rcsponsibiliLy was
rcocuscd on Lhosc dcncd as Lhc crcaLors o harm, Lhc risk produccrs, and
signicanLly rcmovcd rom consumcrs (OMallcy , :o).

5 Focusing on the side of the consumer, OMalley has referred to the idea of a homo
prudens or the responsibilized, security-conscious, crime-preventing subject. This sec-
ond set of processes in crime control would act more determinately on increasing the
promotion of prudentialism and the responsible individual. These aspects help to
make sense of the expansion of demand for private security, but also of the increasing
role played by community and private crime prevention, as well as community-based
policing movements (OMalley 1996). For my purposes, the side of the producer and
trader is the one that provides the key elements of analysis to understand controlling
populations through crime control measures at the transnational level.
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Tc purposc is Lo rcgulaLc Lhis risk cnvironmcnL or Lhc rcc consumcr by
rcducing Lhc opporLuniLics Lo incur in such bchavior. Tis has poinLcd Loward
curLailing Lhc supply o drugs, LhaL is, Lhc producing and Lrading counLrics.
Tc Amcrican narraLion o organizcd crimc as an alicn LhrcaL scrvcs Lhis
purposc vcry cccLivcly as has bccn dcscribcd abovc. Tosc involvcd in Lhc
supply chain arc idcnLicd as carLcls organizcd in Lhc orm o rccklcss inLcr-
naLional cnLcrpriscs conspiring againsL Lhc prospcriLy o global socicLy.
In Lhis way, Lhc alicn characLcr o organizcd crimc is couplcd wiLh Lhc
analysis o a criminogcnic risk siLuaLion LhaL dirccLs iLs LargcLs Loward those
peop|e who represent the supp|y chan juncton: Lhc alicn-cncmics wiLhin Lhc
global populaLion. Tis dccision can bc cxplaincd only by Lhc racisL discoursc
LhaL dcncs who wthn the popu|aton o Lhc world will bc Lhc objccL o bio-
powcr. Tis is Lhc poinL aL which Lhc asscmblagc o Lhc poliLics o Lhc bioc-
riminal and Lhc ncolibcral analysis o crimc mccL mosL clcarly or Lhc rsL
Limc. Hcrc, whcn iL was ncccssary Lo banish inLcrnaLional criminals, govcrn-
ing crimc cnLails miliLary acLiviLics bcyond bordcrs in Lhc war on drugs.
e. Neoliberal analysis of TOC: the global risk situation
Prcciscly bccausc o Lhis, a dominanL narraLivc in Lhc ocial problcmaLiza-
Lion o LransnaLional organizcd crimc cmcrgcs wiLh Lhc cnd o Lhc Cold War.
IL warns LhaL TOC is mcnacing dcmocraLic insLiLuLions, Lhc global cconomy,
and Lhc sLabiliLy o Lhc inLcrnaLional sysLcm (Bigo :ooo, 8,-o, Andrcas and
Nadclmann :oo6, ,).
6
Undcrlying Lhis sLaLcmcnL wc nd Lhc idca LhaL, as glo-
balizaLion bccomcs a rcaliLy, a ncw transnatona| rsk envronment cmcrgcs wiLh
iLs corrcsponding scL o incrcascd opporLuniLics or crimc. Tis dominanL narra-
Livc amounLs Lhcn Lo Lhc rcprcscnLaLion o a ncw global criminogcnic siLuaLion.
As sccn wiLh Lhc drug Lradc, cross-bordcr criminal acLiviLics arc mainly
markcL phcnomcna Lhcmsclvcs. Tcy arc problcmaLic bccausc Lhcy dirccLly
accL Lhc LransnaLional markcL sLrucLurc o compcLiLion and iLs rulcs o
Lhc gamc (FoucaulL :oo8, :,). Undcr ncolibcral rulc, cross-bordcr criminal
6 Academic and expert accounts in which this narrative is expressed are not diffcult
to fnd either (see as some examples: Williams 1994; 2002a; 2002b; Lupsha 1996;
Shelley 1995; 1997; 2005; Sterling 1995).
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Diego Nieto
Colombia Internacional 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
acLiviLics bccomc a poliLical conccrn, noL so much bccausc o moral rcasons
buL or Lhc markcL-disLorLing conscqucnccs, or puLLing aL risk Lhc dynamics
o LransparcnL compcLcncc wiLhin Lhc markcL (FoucaulL :oo8, :o-).
Tus, an array o dissimilar criminal acLiviLics comcs undcr Lhc cyc o
LransnaLional govcrnancc: migraLion, Lhc drug Lradc, nancial LransacLions,
and in gcncral all acLiviLics LhaL accL Lhc proccsscs o lic and Lhc basic
ncolibcral objccLivc o cconomic growLh.
,
Similarly, wiLhin Lhis risk siLuaLion
iL is possiblc Lo idcnLiy Lhc cxisLcncc o raLional criminals as wcll, Lhc homo
economcus o LransnaLional crimc, so Lo spcak, Lhc transnatona| enterprses oj
crme. Tcy arc noL dicrcnL rom any oLhcr cnLcrprisc in Lhc global markcL
LhaL invcsLs in an acLion, cxpccLs a proL rom iL, and acccpLs Lhc risks o a
lossa punishmcnL. Tcy Lakc advanLagc o Lhc possibiliLy o proLing rom
all Lhc acLual and possiblc markcL-illcgal acLiviLics now cmbodicd in Lhc clu-
sivc Lcrm TransnaLional Organizcd Crimc.
Tc boLLom linc is LhaL Lhc LransnaLional bccomcs a rcal spacc o gov-
crnmcnL inLcrvcnLion, an objccL o acLion or LransnaLional sccuriLy appara-
Luscs Lhrough Lhc rcprcscnLaLion o Lhis global criminogcnic siLuaLion and
o organizcd crimc as a LransnaLional cnLcrprisc. AL Lhis sLagc, ncolibcralism
appcars Lo providc Lhc inLcllccLual Lools undcr which Lhc issucs o crimc dc-
mand a LransnaLionalizaLion o govcrnancc.
4. THE ASSEMBLAGE OF TRANSNATIONAL CRIME CONTROL
I havc Lricd Lo highlighL how Lhc dominanL problcmaLizaLions o crimc
arc dccply cnmcshcd in ncolibcral LhoughL. Tc maLcrializaLion o Lhis
ncolibcral arL o govcrnmcnL in whaL wc could call Lhc asscmblagc o appa-
raLuscs LhaL consLiLuLc Lhc rcal cxprcssion o powcr in conLcmporary global
govcrnancc rcmains Lo bc cxposcd.
Pcrhaps iL is Loo much Lo ask Lhis asscssmcnL or an in-dcpLh analy-
sis o all Lhc mcchanisms and programs LhaL givc orm Lo Lhc pracLical
7 There is no room to go in depth about this specifc issue here, but the remarkable
quick growth of the regulations regarding money laundering is clear proof that the
distortion of the market is what matters most in terms of the global governance of
crime (see Beare, 2003).
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conscqucnccs o Lhc ncolibcral govcrnancc o crimc. Tus, my main aim is Lo
characLcrizc how somc o Lhc mosL signicanL oncs rcspond Lo Lhc ncolibcral
raLionalizaLion o lic.
8
Howcvcr, bcorc wc analyzc Lhcm, wc musL highlighL
an imporLanL caLurc in ncolibcral Lcchniqucs o govcrnancc.
In ncolibcral analysis, prcciscly bccausc crimc occurs during Lhc coursc o
rouLinc LransacLions, any crimc-rcducing inLcrvcnLion musL scck Lo prcscrvc
normal lic and busincss as usual. RcgulaLions should noL involvc inLru-
sivc conLrols in Lhc siLuaLion iLscl, or modicaLion o Lhc inLcrcsLs and inccn-
Livcs o Lhc acLors involvcd (Carland , ). As FoucaulL says, Lo mainLain
Lhc markcL in Lhc ordcr o Lhc law, you musL considcr cvcryonc as a playcr
and only inLcrvcnc in an cnvironmcnL sLill loosc cnough or him Lo bc ablc
Lo play (FoucaulL :oo8, :).
Tus, onc o Lhc main caLurcs o ncolibcral Lcchniqucs o govcrnmcnL
is whaL has bccn Lcrmcd government at a dstance: in Lhc scnsc LhaL iLs objcc-
Livcs arc sccn Lo bc bcsL achicvcd wiLh a rcsponsibilizaLion sLraLcgy, in which
auLhoriLics cnlisL oLhcr agcncics and individuals Lo orm a chan oj coordnated
actons LhaL rcach inLo risk cnvironmcnLs. Tcsc acLions prompL crimc-conLrol
conducL on Lhc parL o sclccLcd acLors and crcaLc condiLions Lo makc possiblc
a cld o scl-rcgulaLcd sphcrcs o lic wiLhouL dirccL sLaLc inLcrvcnLion. As wc
shall scc in Lhc ollowing sccLions, Lhrough lighL buL cccLivc indirccL conLrols,
ncolibcralism sccks Lo harmonizc collccLivc goals such as global sccuriLy and
air compcLiLion (Carland , :o, FoucaulL :oo8, :, :, SLcnson , :).
a. Homogenization of criminal law and state reform
In Lhis ordcr, Lhc rsL, and pcrhaps Lhc mosL promincnL sLraLcgy in Lcrms
o Lhc govcrnancc o LransnaLional spaccs, is Lhc homogcnizaLion o rcgimcs
o prohibiLion. Tis is whaL FoucaulL calls Lhc juridicaLion o Lhc world in
Lcrms o Lhc organizaLion o a markcL (FoucaulL :oo8, 6). Tis, clcarly, is an
aspccL LhaL has accLcd govcrnancc in a gcncral scnsc, buL iL is imporLanL Lo
scc iLs spcciciLy in Lhc casc o crimc.
8 This account is not defnitive, and seeks to serve more as a framework for analyzing
the current tendencies in policing and crime control. Therefore, they constitute, for
now, guidance for further comparative and case study research.
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Diego Nieto
Colombia Internacional 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
As sLaLcd aL Lhc ouLscL, in Lhc conLcxL o biopoliLics prohibiLion rcgimcs
arc mainly a mcchanism, a Lcchniquc or dcploying sccuriLy sLraLcgics
(FoucaulL ,8, o). Crimc is a lcgal conccpL, aL lcasL in Lhc scnsc LhaL whaL
counLs as crimc is dcncd by Lhc law, as arc Lhc mcasurcs and pcnalLics ac-
cordingly dcviscd. Tcrcorc, law oughL Lo bc Lhc rsL mcchanism govcrning
all Lhc oLhcrs, iL is Lhc basic Lool o acLion and dcploymcnL o LacLics.
RcccnL rcscarch in crimc conLrol and law cnorccmcnL has madc cvidcnL
Lhc movc Loward Lhc Amcrican modcl around Lhc world. Criminal jusLicc
prioriLics, as wcll as modcls o criminalizaLion and criminal invcsLigaLion, arc
cxporLcd Lo orcign govcrnmcnLs as a rcsulL o Lhc incrcascd homogcnizaLion
o criminal law. Tc growLh o inLcrnaLional prcssurcs cannoL bc undcrcs-
LimaLcd ciLhcr: Lhc raLicaLion o Lhc UniLcd NaLions ConvcnLion AgainsL
TransnaLional Organizcd Crimc, and bcorc LhaL, Lhc ConvcnLions againsL
Drug Trac Singlc ConvcnLion on NarcoLic Drugs (6), Lhc ConvcnLion
on PsychoLropic SubsLanccs (,), and Lhc ConvcnLion AgainsL IlliciL Trac
in Drugs and PsychoLropic SubsLanccs (88) havc all prcsscd Loward Lhc
homogcnizaLion o acLion againsL LransnaLional crimc (c. Nadclmann o,
, Andrcas and Nadclmann :oo6).
Along Lhcsc lincs, wc havc also wiLncsscd an imporLanL movc Loward
policics or improving sLaLc insLiLuLions. CcrLainly, susLaincd in Lhc idca
LhaL Lhc cxplosion o Lradc and invcsLmcnL across bordcrs has wcakcncd
somc sLaLcs capaciLy Lo conLrol, moniLor, and rcgulaLc Lhcir rcspccLivc
ronLicrs, onc o Lhc mosL imporLanL programs has bccn improving ccnLral
insLiLuLions o crimc conLrol in Lhcsc placcs. Tcsc programs LargcL, cspc-
cially, rcgions considcrcd unprcparcd Lo livc up Lo Lhc Lask o rcLaining Lhc
undcsircd cccLs o globalizaLion.
In parLicular, wc scc Lhc cmcrgcncc o mcchanisms o coopcraLion and
aid Lo improvc Lhcsc sLaLcs capaciLy Lo cnorcc prohibiLion rcgimcs, as
wcll as oLhcrs aimcd aL rcorming Lhc sLaLcs criminal sysLcms. CcrLicaLion
proccsscs as wcll as rcquircmcnLs Lo ulll ccrLain insLiLuLional and law
cnorccmcnL sLandards Lo obLain moncLary and inrasLrucLurc aid and
Lraining arc somc o Lhc mosL signicanL insLanccs. As wc havc sccn, Lhcsc
counLrics arc noL Lo bc dcncd as poliLical cncmics, as whcn communism
was around, raLhcr, Lhcsc arc || regons, dangerous, weak or ja|ed states,
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COLINT 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
whosc populaLions and insLiLuLions, givcn ccrLain hisLorical circumsLanccs,
havc a ccrLain procliviLy Lo all prcy Lo criminal sLrucLurcs, and Lhcrcorc
Lo bccomc a risk Lo global socicLy.
NaLion-sLaLcs arc noL sccn in Lcrms o rea|po|tk, in a zcro-sum gamc o
miliLary powcr, buL raLhcr in Lhcir abiliLy Lo pcrorm a sorL o govcrnmcnLal
rcdisLribuLion ovcr populaLions upward Lo inLcrnaLional insLiLuLions and
downward Lo rcgional and local organizaLions. In Lhis casc, Lhc naLion-sLaLc
acLs noL only as an apparaLus buL also as a symbolic spaLialiLy LhaL rcLains a
coordinaLion and rcdisLribuLion rolc (SLcnson , 6). For insLancc, Lhc is-
suc o corrupLion has convcnicnLly bccn linkcd Lo poor cconomic growLh and
low poliLical sLabiliLy. In rcsponsc, orms o acLuarial and cconomic jusLicc,
libcralizaLion, and privaLizaLion havc bccn ocrcd as Lhc prccrrcd policics
rom such imporLanL LransnaLional insLiLuLions such as Lhc InLcrnaLional
MoncLary Fund (IMF) and Lhc World Bank (Bcarc :oo, ).
Tcsc mcasurcs arc accompanicd by Lhc cxLcndcd usc o managcmcnL, au-
diLing, and accounLing Lcchniqucs LhaL ulll Lhc ncolibcral aim o cnabling
a markcL or public scrviccs Lo bc csLablishcd auLonomous rom ccnLral
conLrol (Barry cL al. 6, ). Tcsc dcvclopmcnLs supporL Lhc claim LhaL in-
sLcad o Lhc so-callcd rcLrcaL o Lhc sLaLc, whaL wc cxpcricncc is a sLrcngLhcn-
ing o Lhc aculLics o Lhc inLcrnaLional sysLcm Lo cnorcc Lhc laws prcscribcd
by Lhc global ramc o rcgulaLions and prohibiLions.
b. Risk prevention and intelligence-led police
AnoLhcr scL o Lcchniqucs wc nd rccr morc dirccLly Lo Lhc Lypc o in-
LcrvcnLions LhaL an analysis o crimc as an cnvironmcnLal risk would imply.
Hcrc, using sccuriLizaLion and survcillancc mcchanisms dcmands Lhc sys-
LcmaLic gaLhcring o inormaLion and sLaLisLics o Lhc LargcLs singlcd ouL as
causcs o crimc raLcs. Tcsc LargcLs, as could bc cxpccLcd rom Lhc cconomic
grid o analysis, arc akin Lo Lhc acLors in Lhc markcL cconomy: ncLwork
LransacLions, cusLomcrs and supplicrs, Lhc procccds and asscLs o crimc,
succcssul criminals and cnLcrpriscs o crimc, and Lhc abscncc o cccLivc
guardians or siLuaLional conLrols.
Tus, rsL, wc havc somc o Lhc basic invcsLigaLivc mcLhods LhaL rcly on
Lhc usc o idcnLicaLion and inormaLion-gaLhcring Lcchniqucs rclaLcd Lo
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Diego Nieto
Colombia Internacional 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
) targetng career crmna|s and enterprses oj crme, or Lhc supplicrs o crimc
such as kingpins and maa bosscs. Tcsc Lcchniqucs arc now widcly applicd
around Lhc world, and Lakc Lhc orm o undcrcovcr and sLing opcraLions, Lhc
culLivaLion o inormanLs, wircLapping, and convcrsaLion moniLoring, or
cxamplc. Sccond, wc nd anoLhcr sLraLcgy aimcd aL puLLing Lhcsc carLcls
ouL o busincss by conscaLing and scizing :) the assets and proceeds oj crme,
clcarly Lhc samc cxLcnsion o Lhc cconomic grid, only Lhis Limc applicd Lo Lhc
commodiLics susLaining global cnLcrpriscs.
Tc undamcnLal raLionalc undcrlying Lhcsc Lwo pracLiccs is consLrucL-
ing pcrsonal dossicrs and prolcs o suspccLcd populaLions and carccr
criminals. Tcsc pracLiccs arc mcanL Lo ccd policc inLclligcncc sLraLcgics
Lo rcducc risk gurcs Lhrough prcvcnLivc mcasurcs. Similarly, iL builds on
Lhc idca LhaL inormaLion and inLclligcncc gaLhcring should noL bc Lhc cx-
clusivc compcLcncc o policc orccs, ciLhcr, and cvcn lcss o Lhc sLaLc, buL
mainly LhaL civil socicLy musL Lakc rcsponsibiliLy iLscl, spccically Lhrough
collaboraLing and coordinaLing corLs wiLh nancial, hcalLh, and wclarc
insLiLuLions (Naylor :oo, :6,).
AnoLhcr vcry signicanL cnvironmcnLal orm o conLrol acLs on ) the
movement oj popu|atons around Lhc globc. IibcralizaLion policics havc bccn
accompanicd by Lcchniqucs and programs associaLcd wiLh conLrolling migra-
Lion and airporL acLiviLics LighLcning bordcr conLrols. AlLhough Lhcsc prac-
Liccs would noL normally bc associaLcd wiLh rcc-markcL ncolibcralism, iL
should bc clcar by now LhaL Lhcy arc widcly compaLiblc wiLh Lhis raLionaliLy.
Tc proccssing o visa applicaLions, or insLancc, a rcquisiLc or ciLizcns o
somc counLrics Lo Lravcl Lo spccic parLs o Lhc world, dcrivcs rom Lhc idca
o sysLcmaLically LargcLing suspccLcd populaLions. Tcy also scrvc Lo gaLhcr
as much inormaLion as possiblc Lo rcducc and prcvcnL possiblc risks rom
Lhcsc movcmcnLs. Tis, o coursc, includcs a similar consLiLuLion o daLabascs
by Lravcling agcncics and airlincs, as wcll as biomcLric and nancial proling
by migraLion occs across Lhc world.
UndoubLcdly, Lhc cxLcndcd usc o communcaton techno|oges Lo incrcasc
Lhc quanLiLy and rapidiLy o Lhc ow oj njormaton bcLwccn spaLially dis-
pcrscd poinLs is Lhc backbonc o Lhc wholc disposiLivc. IL allows Lhc cxisLcncc
o many rcgulaLions wiLhouL Lhc nccd Lo puL Lhis sysLcm o survcillancc
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COLINT 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
undcr Lhc dirccL conLrol o Lhc inLcrnaLional sLaLc-sysLcm (Barry cL al. 6,
). Tis opLimizaLion o gaLhcring and classiying inormaLion is whaL has
bccn dcscribcd as Lhc movc Loward an ) nte||gence-|ed policing paradigm
LhaL consLiLuLcs a ccnLral Lool in LransnaLional policing.
SignicanLly, Lhis paradigm prcscnLs iLscl in Lhc dcpoliLicizcd and
managcrial languagc propcr or acLuarial logic. IL dcncs iLs Lasks accord-
ing Lo pro-acLivc and risk-bascd cccLivc inLcrvcnLions in LargcLcd suspccL
populaLions. InLclligcncc lics in local policc sLaLisLics, vicLim survcys, and
crimc paLLcrn analysis LhaL classiy placcs and siLuaLions as hoL spoLs
o crimc or low-raLc sccurc arcas. FnvironmcnLal risk indcxcs arc crcaLcd
Lo calculaLc dcgrccs o vulncrabiliLy in all Lhcsc placcs. IL is commonplacc
now Lo usc cxLcnsivc clccLronic survcillancc, spccial sccuriLy soLwarc,
daLabasc maLching, closcd-circuiL Lclcvision (CCTV) camcras, and many
oLhcr Lcchnologics (Carland , :o, scc also: HaggcrLy and Fricson ,,
:ooo, Cill :ooo, ShcpLycki :oooa).
c. A community of knowledge: cooperation and training initiatives
Thc argumcnLs discusscd Lhus ar imply LhaL cxpcrLisc plays a un-
damcnLal parL in LranslaLing socicLy inLo an objccL o govcrnmcnL. This
is Lhc amous powcr-knowlcdgc Lhcsis LhaL FoucaulL claboraLcd in all
his works. Indccd, onc o Lhc domains whcrc Lhc issuc o acLion-aL-a-
disLancc cxprcsscs iLscl morc clcarly is in Lhc proccss o consLiLuLing a
communty oj expertse (Barry cL al. 6, ). Thcy arc a kcy clcmcnL or
cxplaining how Lhc micro and local lcvcl is rcconnccLcd wiLh sLraLcgics o
powcr aL a molar-macro lcvcl, in ccnLrcs o calculaLion o risk such as
Lhc commissions or sLudying crimc, inLcr-govcrnmcnLal planning insLi-
LuLions, and INTFRPOI.
Tis communiLy o knowlcdgc is builL rom Lwo undamcnLal sLraLcgics
in Lhc casc o LransnaLional crimc. FirsL, wc havc tranng ntatves LhaL
disciplinc a communiLy o cxpcrLs rcgarding a scL o policing pracLiccs. In
Lhis casc, LransnaLional law cnorccmcnL has slowly grown a communiLy o
knowlcdgc by ollowing on Lhc Amcrican corLs Lo cxporL sharcd cxpcrLisc
by scLLing up inormaLion ccnLcrs, as wcll as providing scholarships Lo law
cnorccmcnL ocials rom many counLrics around Lhc world.
159
Diego Nieto
Colombia Internacional 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
Sccond, Lhcrc is Lhc consLiLuLion o broadcr ncLworks o inormaLion
sharing Lhrough rcgularizing orms o njorma| cooperaton bcLwccn policing
bodics. Andrcas and Nadclmann (:oo6) arguc LhaL a LransnaLional criminal
law cnorccmcnL communiLy bascd on cxpanding cross-bordcrs govcrnmcn-
Lal ncLworks wiLh sharcd Lcchnical and invcsLigaLivc cxpcrLisc has bccomc
an incrcasingly imporLanL Lhough oLcn ovcrlookcd and poorly undcrsLood
dimcnsion o global govcrnancc (). Similarly, ShcpLycki (:ooa) claims LhaL
wc wiLncss Lhc conormaLion o an inLcrnaLional o LcchnocraLic cxpcrLs
whosc sLraLcgic analysis accLs Lhc raming o policc prioriLics in local com-
muniLics around Lhc world (,).
Wc could cvcn say LhaL Lhc wholc conccpL o naLional jurisdicLions
sucrs an imporLanL LransormaLion, as Lhc prolicraLion o Fxtradton
Treates and Mutua| Lega| Assstance Treates (MIAT) makcs Lhc claims o
sLaLcs Lo cxLraLcrriLorial jurisdicLion a much morc rcqucnL pracLicc LhaL
docs noL nccd Lo undcrgo rcgular diplomaLic channcls oncc acccpLcd by
Lhc parLics involvcd.
d. Global security: police-military assemblages in the wars on
drugs and terror
Finally, buL noL lcss imporLanL, Lhcrc is much hisLorical cvidcncc in rcccnL
ycars Lo supporL Lhc claim LhaL Lhc movc Loward an inLclligcncc-lcd polic-
ing has also mcanL morc cxLcnsivc usc o miliLary hardwarc, pcrsonncl, and
sLraLcgics or law cnorccmcnL Lasks, as wcll as Lhc rising sLaLus o policing
issucs in diplomacy and sccuriLy discourscs (Andrcas and Nadclmann :oo6,
, HaggcrLy and Fricson ,, :ooo, ShcpLycki :ooo).
As Bcarc argucs, Lhcsc blurring o Lhc ronLicrs bcLwccn naLional sccuriLy
and criminal inLclligcncc cannoL bc scparaLcd rom Lhc connccLion csLab-
lishcd bcLwccn criminal organizaLions, moncy-laundcring acLiviLics, drug
Lracking, and Lcrrorism, cspccially aLcr ScpLcmbcr (Bcarc :oo, xvii).
Tcchniqucs and sLraLcgics or waging war acquirc grcaL poliLical promincncc
whcn crimc is considcrcd Lhc main orm o nancing poliLical violcncc and
Lcrrorism. AcLiviLics such as drug Lracking and moncy laundcring link Lcr-
rorism and organizcd crimc, and Lhus bring LogcLhcr crimc conLrol sLraLcgics
wiLh miliLary Lcchniqucs Lo ghL Lhcm.
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Neoliberalism, Biopolitics, and the Governance of Transnational Crime
COLINT 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
ALypical cnLcrpriscs o war, such as Lhosc againsL drugs and Lcrror,
involvc policing as much as convcnLional soldicring and sLraLcgics or
waging war. Indccd, Lhc paradoxical usc o Lcchniqucs o war in so many
clds which wcrc normally Lhc compcLcncc o law cnorccmcnL auLhori-
Lics, and vicc vcrsa, has bccomc cvcn morc cxpliciL in Lhc agc o Lcrror.
Tis is Lhc consLiLuLion o whaL I call the transnatona| po|ce-|aw enjorce-
ment/m|tary-securty asscmblagc, which in many clds has displaccd Lhc
m|tary-dp|omatc apparaLus LhaL uscd Lo rcgulaLc Lhc rclaLions bcLwccn
sLaLcs and guaranLcc Lhc csLablishmcnL o Lhc cquilibrium and sccuriLy o
Lhc inLcrnaLional arcna in modcrniLy.
Tis complcx Lopic is diculL Lo Lacklc propcrly hcrc. Succ Lo say LhaL iL
has drawn Lhc aLLcnLion o many auLhors working wiLhin FoucaulLs ramc-
work, or insLancc, Michacl Dillon and oLhcr commcnLaLors havc inLcrprcLcd
Lhis phcnomcnon as Lhc asscmblagc bcLwccn orms o acLuarial and scl-
rcgulaLory Lcchnologics wiLh Lhosc o dcspoLic rulc and cocrcivc sovcrcign
powcr, LhaL is, bcLwccn Lhc biopowcr o osLcring and prcscrving lic and Lhc
sovcrcign powcr Lo kill (c. Dcan , Hindcss :ooo, Dillon and Ncal :oo8,
Dillon :oo, Dillon and Rcid :oo, Rcid :oo8).
CONCLUSION: SECURITY BEYOND NEOLIBERALISM
In Lhc conLcxL o biopoliLics, crimc has a signicanL placc Lo makc scnsc
o whaL is aL sLakc in global govcrnancc. Crimc discloscs aL lcasL Lwo vcry
imporLanL dimcnsions: rsL, how Lhc idca o a LransnaLional govcrnmcnLaliLy
is LhoughL o Lhrough dcning LhrcaLs Lo Lhc global socicLy, and sccond, LhaL
powcr ovcr subjccLs is cxcrciscd Lhrough various mcchanisms dcrivcd rom
Lhcsc racisL discourscs o criminal LhrcaLs.
Many o us havc cxpcricnccd Lhcsc mcchanisms o conLrol cxposcd in
Lhc lasL parL o Lhc arLiclc, whcrc Lhc car o Lcrror and crimcLypical
biopoliLical discourscsLriggcrs orms o rcgulaLions and survcillancc
LhaL go wcll bcyond Lhc ighL againsL organizcd crimc and Lcrrorism iLscl.
Thcsc mcchanisms disciplinc subjccLs and conLrol populaLions, dcvisc
policics LargcLing and classiying dangcrous placcs and pcoplc, and in
Lhc cnd dividc Lhc world bcLwccn Lhc rcspccLablc and Lhc ouLlaw and
rccklcss populaLions.
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Diego Nieto
Colombia Internacional 76, julio a diciembre de 2012: 137-165
Tis lasL poinL is criLical, and Lhc placc o ncolibcralism in Lhis discoursc
cannoL bc undcrcsLimaLcd. Ncolibcralism has a vcry spccic dcniLion o
Lhc cLhos o Lhc rcspccLablc individual, and Lhcrcorc, o Lhc valuablc ways
o cnjoying rccdom. For all ncolibcralisms dccnsc o individual rccdom,
iL is signicanL Lo scc how, whcrcas cnLrcprcncurs and millionaircs arc
wclcomcd Lo cnjoy Lhc bcncLs o globalizaLion (and accordingly policing
mcchanisms arc dcsigncd), Lhc vasL majoriLy o Lhc populaLion sucrs all
Lhcsc conLrols and Lhc scvcrc conscqucnccs o diusc wars such as Lhosc
on drugs and Lcrror.
Tis is Lhc grcaL paradox o biopoliLical powcr in ncolibcral poliLics:
Lo cnhancc individual rccdom, ncolibcralism musL dcploy many orms o
powcr ovcr subjccLs. As FoucaulL says abouL Lhc inLcrplay in libcralism bc-
Lwccn rccdom and apparaLuscs o sccuriLy: Tc problcms o whaL I shall
call Lhc cconomy o powcr pcculiar Lo libcralism arc inLcrnally susLaincd,
as iL wcrc, by Lhis inLcrplay o rccdom and sccuriLy... Lhc horscmcn o Lhc
Apocalypsc disappcar and in Lhcir placc cvcryday dangcrs appcar, cmcrgc,
and sprcad cvcrywhcrc... Lhcrc is no libcralism wiLhouL a culLurc o dangcr
(FoucaulL :oo8, 6, 6,).
Thc ncolibcral raLionaliLy o crimc conLrol cpiLomizcs Lhis paradox,
illusLraLing how Lhc homo economcus has bccomc Lhc grid and inLcracc
bcLwccn Lhc individual and Lhc Lcchnologics o powcr dcsigncd or gov-
crning Lhc populaLion. In Lhis way, Lhanks Lo Lhis undamcnLal conncc-
Lion bcLwccn Lhc problcms o Lhc markcL and Lhc problcms o sccuriLy
and crimc, a rc-LcrriLorializaLion o orms o powcr Lakcs placc. Thc global
asscmblagc or govcrning crimc consLiLuLcs Lhc cxLcnsion o a poliLical
imaginaLion o rccdom Lo Lhc producLion o subjccLs and populaLions
Lhrough sccuriLy apparaLuscs.
My conLcnLion is LhaL i wc considcr Lhcrc is somcLhing qucsLionablc,
normaLivcly and in Lhc pracLical conscqucnccs broughL abouL by Lhc mccha-
nisms o policing and sccuriLizaLion dcvclopcd ovcr Lhc lasL cw dccadcs
(lcL alonc Lhc wars on drugs and Lcrror), wc cannoL scparaLc our criLicism
rom a proound cxaminaLion o Lhc ncolibcral raLionaliLy undcrlying Lhcm.
Tis also dcmands wc musL rc-imaginc Lhc inLcrplay bcLwccn rccdom and
sccuriLy bcyond ncolibcralism.
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