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DOI: 10.1177/0020872811429953
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Brownlee and Nuelle Novik
John R. Graham, Eriko Fukuda, Micheal L. Shier, Theresa J.B. Kline, Keith
northern social workers' satisfaction with work and profession
Demographic, work-related, and life satisfaction predictors of
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International Social Work
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The Author(s) 2011
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DOI: 10.1177/0020872811429953
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i s w
Demographic,
work-related, and life
satisfaction predictors
of northern social
workers satisfaction
with work and profession
John R. Graham
University of Calgary, Canada
Eriko Fukuda
Micheal L. Shier
University of Pennsylvania, USA
Theresa J.B. Kline
Keith Brownlee
Lakehead University, Canada
Nuelle Novik
University of Regina, Canada
Corresponding author:
John R. Graham, Faculty of Social Work, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada T3R 0H1.
Email: jrgraham@ucalgary.ca
429953ISW56510.1177/0020872811429953Graham et al.International Social Work
2011
Article
at University of Bucharest on December 4, 2013 isw.sagepub.com Downloaded from
Graham et al. 589
Abstract
Social workers in northern Canada were surveyed about work and professional
satisfaction. Career commitment, turnover, and organizational citizenship
predicted organizational satisfaction. Total satisfaction was associated with
turnover. Research and theory in social work on remote communities should
extend beyond characteristics of work, profession, and environment to
include personal life factors.
Keywords
northern, remote, rural, satisfaction, social work, subjective well-being (SWB)
Researchers have identified considerable challenges for effective practice in
northern Canadian jurisdictions, such as geographic dispersal (Delaney and
Brownlee, 1995), social worker adjustment (Zapf, 1993), and the socio-political
subordination of the needs of the north to the needs of the south (Schmidt,
2000). Recruitment and retention of social work and other health and social
care professionals are long-standing challenges in the north. Established social
work practice guidelines and theories are often insufficient to explain the
challenges, dilemmas, and unique considerations of northern contexts (Graham
et al., 2008). Understanding the experiences of social work practitioners in
unique geographic and cultural contexts is necessary for improved methods
of social work practice worldwide. This research draws on theoretical notions
of localization and adaptation of the social work knowledge base in relation
to the socio-cultural and socio-political context of direct practice. In relation to
our study sample, as theory and methods for northern social work continue
to be developed, a critical question remains: what sustains people for a career
in northern (or other areas of remote or isolated) practice?
Unfortunately, few have made solid recommendations for change, and
fewer still have sought to identify and capitalize upon positive factors that
may exist in northern Canadian social work settings that support practitioner
well-being. Most literature, instead, focuses on the negative local environment
aspects of remote communities that impact social worker dissatisfaction and
eventually workplace turnover or burnout. For instance, emerging scholarship
on northern social work practice has staked a claim of particularity to practice
in small, remote Canadian towns. It is a literature based mostly on conjecture
and personal experience. With recruitment and retention as longstanding
problems in rural areas, we nonetheless still know little regarding what might
encourage people to practice, and to remain in the north (Delaney et al., 1997).
Given ongoing challenges and difficulties faced by social workers operating
in a system characterized by limited resources and cutbacks, and the potential
590 International Social Work 56(5)
for an impending shortage of practicing social workers, particularly in the
north, understanding how the workplace and professional associations can be
restructured to support the well-being of practicing social workers is critical
in ensuring the long-term viability of social services in northern Canadian
communities. While this research focuses on northern Canadian social work
practice, it provides a useful conceptualization of how to better understand
practitioner well-being in other unique contexts or in similar rural and remote
contexts, globally. Many practitioners worldwide work in isolated communi-
ties and understanding what contributes to their satisfaction is important to
maintain levels of social services in similar remote areas.
To understand the influence of this context this study asked the question:
to what extent is social worker satisfaction predicted by work-related factors,
life satisfaction, and key demographic variables? Participants practicing social
work within northwestern Ontario and the Northwest Territories, Canada,
representing different fields of social work, participated in the survey. This
allowed us to determine whether regional differences in the territorial and
provincial north (a primary contextual factor of practicing social work in
Canadas north) exist in the factors influencing satisfaction. We also considered
how the area of practice within the Canadian territorial and provincial northern
contexts, influences the experiences of social workers.
Literature review on satisfaction and northern
social work practice
The literature on social work in northern and rural or remote communities,
while growing, remains sparse and uneven (Brownlee et al., 2010; Delaney
and Brownlee, 2009; Green et al., 2003). This is a similar finding in other
literature reviews of diverse practice settings; whether investigating the unique
socio-cultural aspects of a particular community or of a cultural group
(Bradshaw and Graham, 2007; Graham, 2006; Graham and Shier, 2009). With
regard to northern Canadian social work practice, a primary focus of scholar-
ship has been to investigate the factors related to individuals and communities
in these remote and rural settings that impact principles and methods of social
work practice (Delaney and Brownlee, 1995, 1996; Green, 2003; Ingebrigtson,
1992; Lonne and Cheers, 2004); but only a small portion of this research has
focused on the experiences of practitioners working in these communities.
Much of this scholarship, though, describes the experiences of practition-
ers in relation to the social work profession negatively and as conflict-ridden.
This conflict has been described primarily in three ways: 1) conflict between
the professional training of practitioners and the realities of the communities
of practice (Graham et al., 2008; Lehmann, 2005); 2) conflict between the
Graham et al. 591
ethical guidelines of the profession and practitioner behavior in these more
isolated communities (Brownlee, 1996; Daley and Doughty, 2006; Halverson
and Brownlee, 2010; Miller, 1998); and 3) conflict between the practitioners
personal lives and their professional roles within these communities (Galbreath,
2005; Gripton and Valentich, 2004; Pugh, 2007). Researchers have also
documented, in an effort to prepare practitioners for the realities of direct
practice, the unique negative experiences individual practitioners might face
moving to more isolated communities (Zapf, 1993). Also, many social work
practitioners in northern communities face additional stressors when they work
with large Aboriginal communities and have been trained in models of practice,
theory, and methods that conflict with traditional ways of knowing in Aboriginal
communities (Brownlee et al., 1997). Further analysis of non-English scholar-
ship would be an important contribution to determine if other remote or socio-
culturally distinct social environments are similarly represented.
What this previous scholarship demonstrates is that Canadas geographic
north provides a unique context of social work practice and has a multitude
of challenges that can impact practitioner well-being. This leads to the ques-
tion of: how can we better understand, and ultimately improve life and work-
place satisfaction for northern social work practitioners? This level of specificity
in the extant literature is nonexistent, and so one needs to turn to scholarship
dealing with broader, non-northern, non-rural, non-remote geographies.
Social work has long been seen as a stressful occupation, and burnout in
social workers has received copious research attention. The experience of
burnout has been associated with numerous factors, both personal and organi-
zational. One example is role conflict between practitioners advocacy-related
roles and their roles within organizations and in direct practice with service
users (Coyle et al., 2005; Lloyd et al., 2002; Um and Harrison, 1998).
Organizational factors such as workload burden (Levert et al., 2000), the influ-
ence of funding sources (Arches, 1991), inadequate administration, and a lack
of social support, particularly within the organization (Lozinskaia, 2002), have
also been shown to have an impact on burnout across the helping professions.
Social work practitioners in northern communities are faced with insecure
funding sources, are required to offer multiple forms or types of service, and
may lack a level of support from colleagues and supervisors consistent with
what exists in areas where a larger quantity of social workers are practicing.
The degree of job satisfaction amongst social work practitioners in northern
communities is highly important since these individuals operate in far fewer
numbers than those found in more southern Canadian communities. But job
satisfaction is not the only consideration for measuring factors that contribute
to social worker satisfaction. For instance, this literature demonstrates that
there are several factors related to the work environment, professional
relationships, and the personal lives of the practitioners that might contribute
to their overall well-being (see also Graham and Shier, 2010a, 2010b; Shier
and Graham, 2011a). Likewise, each aspect of satisfaction (i.e. life, job,
or professional) impacts the others (Rode, 2004).
From a theoretical standpoint, the following pages build on subjective
well-being (SWB), a long-standing social scientific concept that captures how
people evaluate their lives, and includes variables such as life satisfaction, lack
of depression and anxiety, and positive moods and emotions (Diener et al.,
2003). Individual SWB depends on achieving satisfaction in numerous domains
including health, finances, leisure, and work (Kehr, 2003; Keyes and Waterman,
2003; Poloma and Pendleton, 1990; Reid, 2004; Van Praag et al., 2003).
Given the dominant role that ones occupation plays in modern identity, it is
understandable that occupational factors have a significant impact on SWB.
For instance, Graham et al. (2007) and Graham and Shier (2011b) found that
social workers in one Canadian province identified important aspects of
their profession such as professional collaboration and development that
contributed to positive subjective well-being. Along with professional satisfac-
tion, work-related variables (including social work attachment, career com-
mitment, intentions to turnover, and organizational citizenship) and life
satisfaction were tested to determine the extent to which each influences
overall social worker satisfaction with their work and profession.
Also, geography has been found to have an influence on professional
practice in northern communities; location impacts practitioners access to
resources and professional training, development, and supervision (Brownlee
et al., 2010). Geography, as Graham (1996) points out, can also influence
life satisfaction and psycho-social well-being: social workers may be subject
to periods of burn-out, morbid introspection, self-doubt, anxiety, loneliness;
these, moreover, may be exacerbated by a northerners rural or remote prox-
imities (p. 95). Like geography (or location), other demographic variables
such as age, gender, and area of practice might also affect overall practitioner
satisfaction. For instance, older people might have increased cognitive
capabilities of dealing with adverse life situations, and therefore improving
overall levels of subjective well-being. As for gender, discrimination in the
labor market might limit opportunities female workers have for upward
mobility, and subsequently impacting workplace satisfaction. Finally, area
of practice can affect perceptions of worker autonomy and creativity; both
factors that might impact practitioner-perceived well-being for both their
workplace and the profession (Shier and Graham, 2010). For instance, in
their study of social worker subjective well-being, Kline and Graham (2009)
found individuals working in child welfare agencies to be significantly less
satisfied than those working in other areas of practice such as non-profit or
community based work.
Graham et al. 593
Methods
Design and procedures
The research utilized a cross sectional, explanatory research design. Following
procedures outlined by Dillman (2000), participants received a personalized
survey package that included a cover letter that had a detailed explanation
of the research rationale and researchers contact information in the event of
questions, survey, refusal card, and a stamped return envelope. The surveys
were marked by identifying numbers that were assigned to potential participants.
Two weeks after the initial mailing, reminder postcards were sent to thank the
participants for returning the survey and to encourage non-respondents to
reply. Two weeks following the postcard mailing, replacement surveys were
sent to participants that had not yet responded. Final letters were mailed to
non-responders two weeks after this, inquiring again about their participation
in the study and asking them to return the blank questionnaire if they did not
wish to participate. The number of items on the survey and its format were
designed to minimize survey fatigue. This study received ethics certification
from the lead investigators university ethics review board.
Sampling and recruitment
According to Coates and Morrison (1992), Canada has two norths. The first
north is the vast region of Canadas three territories, the Northwest Territory,
Nunavut and the Yukon Territory. The second consists of the provincial norths
in all but Canadas Maritime Provinces. Our research consciously captures
both norths, through research in northwestern Ontario and the Northwest
Territories, respectively.
Participants were recruited with the assistance of professional social work
associations in the Northwest Territories and northwestern Ontario. These
associations provided the contact information for all registered social workers
in their jurisdiction that agreed to be contacted to participate in research.
The total response rate for returned surveys with data (after the total
population size is adjusted for those that are retired and/or no longer practic-
ing social work) was approximately 66 percent. From the Northwest Territories
43 of the 60 registered social workers returned their surveys. Eight of those
were returned blank (six as a result of initially being sent to the wrong address,
one identified being retired completely, and one identified as no longer prac-
ticing social work), and one practitioner only returned a partial survey. As a
result, 34 surveys were usable and included in the analysis. From northwestern
Ontario 63 of the 78 registered social workers returned their surveys. Six of
those were returned blank (three practitioners identified being retired and
not currently practicing, two were sent to the wrong address, and one prac-
titioner returned the instrument blank with no comments). As a result, 57 surveys
were usable and included in the analysis. This provided an effective response
rate of 66 percent.
Measures
Social worker satisfaction. Kline and Grahams (2009) Social Worker Satisfac-
tion Scale (SWSS) was used to measure overall satisfaction with work- and
profession-related aspects of social workers lives, in a sample of social
workers in Alberta, Canada. This is a 22-item scale measuring three dimensions:
1) satisfaction with organizational environment (10 items, e.g. My organiza-
tion actively provides a climate of wellness in my workplace); 2) satisfaction
with professional associations (six items, e.g. my professional associations
provide opportunities for professional education and development); and
3) satisfaction with workload (six items, e.g. I feel I can cope with my
workload). All questions used a five-point Likert scale (ranging from strongly
disagree to strongly agree). Factor analysis done by Kline and Graham (2009)
shows satisfactory construct validity. Internal consistency reliability is also
satisfactory, reported for each of the dimensions as: satisfaction with orga-
nizational environment ( = 0.8); satisfaction with the professional associa-
tions ( = 0.76); and 3) satisfaction with workload ( = 0.77).
Social work attachment. An adapted seven-item measure, originally created
by Allen and Meyer (1990) and Meyer et al. (1993) on a sample of manufac-
turing and university employees, to assess affective occupational commitment,
was used in this study. The measure assesses the emotional attachment respon-
dents currently have to the social work profession. The wording of the items
were adapted by Graham et al. (in press) to be relevant for this study popula-
tion. All questions used a five-point Likert scale (ranging from strongly disagree
to strongly agree). Sample items include: I enjoy discussing the social work
profession with people outside it and I do not feel like part of the family
in the social work profession. High scores indicate higher levels of social
work attachment. In previous research with social workers, Graham et al. (in
press) found that the internal consistency of the scale was = .80.
Career commitment. Four items measuring occupational commitment identi-
fied by Blau (1985) (used initially on a sample of nurses) were used to assess
the extent that respondents were committed to their occupations as social
workers. The four items are: 1) I intend to leave my occupation as soon as
possible; 2) If I could do it all over again, I would choose to work in the same
Graham et al. 595
occupation; 3) I think a lot about leaving my occupation; and 4) I volunteer
for committees external to the organization, but within the profession. This
measure differs from the Social Work Attachment measure in that it focuses
only on general attitudes towards choice of occupation. High scores indicate
lower levels of career commitment.
Intentions to turnover. A seven-item measure was utilized, composed of items
from two scales (see McCloskey and McCain, 1987; Mueller et al., 1992),
initially developed with a sample of nurses and other health professionals.
The items inquire about respondents attitudes towards leaving their current
employment situations, and is therefore a measure of an individuals percep-
tion of whether or not they will leave for some other employment opportunity
or other life situation. It was adapted by Kline and Graham (2009) for the
social workers as a study group. Four of the seven items used a five-point
Likert scale (ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree). The remain-
ing three items ask respondents to: 1) rate the likelihood they will be working
at their current job a year from the date of the survey (five-point Likert with
responses ranging from very likely to not likely at all); 2) rate their intention
to leave the job in the near future (five-point Likert scale with responses
ranging from I will definitely not leave to I will definitely leave); and 3)
rate their plans for staying with the organization (five-point Likert scale
with responses ranging from I intend to stay until I retire to I intend to
leave as soon as possible). High scores indicate an increased intention to
turnover. Graham et al. (in press) found the internal consistency reliability
of the scale to be = .92.
Organizational citizenship. Smith et al.s (1983) seven-item measure of organi-
zational citizenship behaviour was used (initially developed from a sample of
employees at a large private sector bank). Organizational citizenship is a measure
of how engaged individuals are with their place of employment. All questions
used a five-point Likert scale (responses range from strongly disagree to strongly
agree). Sample items include: I help others who have heavy workloads, and
I volunteer for committees internal to the organization. The internal consis-
tency of this measure was found by Graham et al. (in press) to be = .54.
Life satisfaction. A five-item scale was used that was developed by Diener et al.
(1985) on a sample of undergraduate students and older persons. The measure
assesses general life satisfaction, and is representative of how individuals
perceive their overall well-being in life. All questions used a five-point Likert
scale (responses range from strongly disagree to strongly agree). Sample items
include: If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing; So far
I have gotten the important things I want in life. Graham et al. (in press) found
the internal consistency of the scale was = .80 when used on a similar study
population.
Demographic variables. Respondents were asked to identify their gender (male
or female), age range (the intervals between range categories were assumed
to be equivalent, spanning a 10-year period between 19 and greater than 65),
type of employer (i.e. child welfare, health, or non-governmental organization,
with the reference category as other), and location (Thunder Bay, Yellowknife,
or rural and/or remote, with the reference category being a town/community
with less than 30,000 people). For the category of location the cities of Thunder
Bay and Yellowknife were the most densely populated areas in our study.
Results
Participants
Ninety-one social workers responded to the survey from Northwest Territories
and northwestern Ontario, Canada. The sample included 14 males (15.4%)
and 74 females (81.3%). Three participants (3.3%) did not report their gender.
The participants age groups, education levels, and primary employers are
reported in Tables 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
From these tables, all appears to be what might be expected. For instance,
the frequency in each age category seems acceptable and what one might
expect considering the varying educational levels of the practitioners in
Table 2. Social workers in northern communities in Canada appear to work
more in government mandated social welfare programs such as child welfare
and health as opposed to the non-profit and private sector (for comparison,
see Graham et al., in press).
Table 1. Age group.
Age groups Frequency Percentage Valid percent
1925 3 3.3 3.4
2635 14 15.4 15.7
3645 21 23.1 23.6
4655 33 36.3 37.1
5665 17 18.7 19.1
65 and above 1 1.1 1.1
Total 89 97.8 100.0
Graham et al. 597
Table 2. Education level.
Education Frequency Percentage Valid percent
Diploma 10 11.0 11.2
BSW 32 35.2 36.0
MSW 37 40.7 41.6
PhD 2 2.2 2.2
Other SWRK 3 3.3 3.4
Other non-SWRK 5 5.5 5.6
Total 89 97.8 100.0
Table 3. Employer.
Employer Frequency Percentage Valid percent
Child welfare 22 24.2 25.0
College/university 3 3.3 3.4
Health care region 27 29.7 30.7
NGO 7 7.7 8.0
Private sector 1 1.1 1.1
Self-employed 8 8.8 9.1
Other 20 22.0 22.7
Total 88 96.7 100.0
Table 4. Descriptive statistics for the SWSS and the SWSS subscales.
Subscales N M SD
SWSS 91 3.41 .48
Organizational Satisfaction 91 3.51 .68
Associational Satisfaction 91 3.33 .57
Workload Satisfaction 90 3.36 .62
Descriptive statistics
The means and standard deviations of the Social Worker Satisfaction Scale
(SWSS) and its three subscales are presented in Table 4. In addition, the
means and standard deviations of the various subjective well-being scales
are presented in Table 5.
The standard deviations demonstrate the amount of variability from the
mean (or average) from each of these measures. Of particular interest is
the standard deviation of the intention to turnover variable in Table 5, which
demonstrates that people tend to vary across the entire scale of the measure
for intention to turnover.
Internal consistency reliability
Internal consistency of the SWSS and its subscales were examined with
Cronbachs coefficient alpha. Based on Nunnallys (1978) recommendation,
one of the three subscales of the SWSS, Organizational Satisfaction, showed
satisfactory reliability ( = .84). However, the two other subscales,
Associational Satisfaction ( = .68) and Workload Satisfaction ( = .61),
showed lower than desired reliabilities. Cronbachs coefficient alpha for the
total SWSS ( = .84) was also deemed satisfactory. Unreliable measures
lower the likelihood of finding significant results. Thus, although the two
subscales showed lower than desired reliability, we opted to go ahead with
our analyses knowing that our tests would have reduced power.
The bivariate correlations between variables are noted in Table 6. As
expected we see that there are significant negative relationships between
intention to turnover and the miscellaneous measures of satisfaction. Likewise,
we see there are positive associations between some of the occupational and
workplace factors and the measures of satisfaction.
The results from Table 6 also show that for future research the measure
of social worker satisfaction (SWSS) would be useful in its entirety as an
overall measure of social worker satisfaction with work and profession, rather
than based on its individual subscales. Although, a possible explanation for
the lower reliability of two of the three subscales is the small sample size
included in this analysis.
Multiple regression
Using PASW Statistics 17, four separate sets of standard multiple regression
analyses were performed to determine the extent of the effect that individual
Table 5. Descriptive statistics for the various subjective well-being scales.
Dimensions of various subjective well-being scales N M SD
Life satisfaction 91 3.73 .63
Social desirability 91 3.41 .51
Social work attachment 90 3.37 .64
Organizational citizenship 90 3.72 .56
Career commitment 90 3.77 .69
Intentions to turnover 90 2.32 .99
Graham et al. 599
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variables had on social worker satisfaction. The composite measure based
on the 22-item SWSS and three subscales (i.e. organizational satisfaction,
associational satisfaction, and workload satisfaction) were the criterion vari-
ables while gender, age, employer, location, social work attachment, occu-
pational commitment, turnover, organization citizenship, and life satisfaction
were predictors.
First, the composite measure based on the 22-item SWSS was used as the
criterion variable, with the socio-demographic and work-related variables entered
as predictors. Table 7 indicates that the predictors explained 38.1 percent of
variation in social workers satisfaction (SWS) measured by the SWSS. Social
workers employed by child welfare services reported significantly lower levels
on SWS. In addition, the SWSS showed a negative relationship with turnover,
thus social workers with higher rates of intention to turnover had lower overall
satisfaction as measured by the SWSS.
Table 7. Multiple regression predictors of subjective well-being and various
well-being satisfaction.
Predictors entered SWSS
(22 items)
Organizational
satisfaction
Associational
satisfaction
Workload
satisfaction

Demographic
Gender
a
.016 .066 .037 .035
Age .216 .202 .125 .076
Employer
Child welfare .295* .190 .179 .329*
Health .201 .219 .124 .081
NGO .123 .081 .160 .073
Location
Yellowknife .066 .148 .153 .014
Thunder Bay .110 .022 .260 .013
Remote Area .106 .070 .068 .142
Work-related
Social work attachment .015 .007 .100 .012
Career commitment .015 .258* .284* .246
Turnover .495*** .575*** .133 .180
Organization citizenship .025 .245* .144 .182
Life satisfaction .135 .207 .005 .051
R
2
.381 .397 .283 .229
= Standardized coefficients.
Reference group:
a
female; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
Graham et al. 601
Second, organizational satisfaction was used as the criterion variable and
the same predictors were used in the next multiple regression analysis. As
shown in Table 7, the predictors explained 39.7 percent of variation of the
organizational satisfaction among the social workers. Organizational satisfac-
tion showed a negative relationship with career commitment and intention
to turnover, which suggests that social workers with higher rates of career
commitment and/or increased intentions to turnover had lower organizational
satisfaction. In addition, organizational satisfaction was positively predicted
by organization citizenship; social workers with higher rates of organizational
citizenship reported higher rates of organizational satisfaction.
Regarding associational satisfaction, the predictors explained 28.3 percent
of variation of the associational satisfaction (see Table 7). Associational
satisfaction showed a positive relationship with career commitment; social
workers with higher rates of career commitment had higher associational
satisfaction.
In terms of workload satisfaction, the predictors explained 22.9 percent
of the variation of workload satisfaction (see Table 7). Social workers who
were employed by child welfare services reported significantly lower levels
of workload satisfaction.
Four additional regression models were tested for differential levels of
social work satisfaction, organizational satisfaction, associational satisfaction,
and workload satisfaction between urban and remote locations in the northern
area. None of these models produced significant effects; thus we have no
evidence of differences in the social work satisfaction, organizational satis-
faction, associational satisfaction, and workload satisfaction for those social
workers employed in urban or remote settings.
Discussion and conclusion
This research is a beginning point, and given the sample size it remains largely
exploratory. It helps us to think about a multitude of factors that appear to
impact social work practitioner satisfaction with their work and their profes-
sion in northern and remote communities. There are a number of other con-
tributing factors to satisfaction and well-being that this study did not assess,
and these might explain some of the respondent satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
For instance, previous research suggests that there are varied personal reasons
weighing on the decisions of health professionals to move into rural and
remote communities to practice (Manahan et al., 2009). Current satisfaction
that people have of those factors related to these personal reasons were not
assessed in this current study, and could be a further contributing factor to
overall levels of respondent satisfaction. Indeed, Graham and Shier (2010a)
found several personal factors that contributed to the overall satisfaction in
their study of the subjective well-being of social workers practicing in Alberta,
Canada.
Furthermore, while social workers face a number of unique challenges
while practicing in northern, rural, and remote communities, most qualitative
research has found that these practitioners tend to be satisfied with their work
and their professional roles (Pugh, 2007). The present study found the same
result; social workers practicing in both urban northern and remote and rural
northern communities tended to be satisfied with their work and professional
roles. These are consistent with findings of social workers practicing in
Alberta, Canada (Kline and Graham, 2009).
The regression results did not identify many significant relationships
between the independent variables and the dependent variable of social worker
satisfaction. Working in child welfare was a predictor of social worker satis-
faction with work and profession, and more specifically satisfaction with
workload. Also, several of the work-related factors were found to be significant,
but mostly in relation to overall organizational satisfaction. Location either
urban or rural/remote did not seem to be a predictor of overall satisfaction
of work and profession. This is an important finding considering the emphasis
placed on the geographic aspects of practicing in northern rural and remote
communities. Instead, community size creates a context which might determine
or impact key socio-cultural and socio-political interactions within the social
environment, which then in turn impacts practitioner well-being. This finding
is consistent with previous research on the interpersonal aspects of social work
practice in northern rural and remote communities (Delaney and Brownlee,
1995, 1996; Green, 2003; Ingebrigtson, 1992; Lonne and Cheers, 2004).
The generalizability of these findings is limited because of the small sample
size. While the respondents represented more than a majority of the target
population under study, the small number of participants makes it difficult to
determine relationships when the effect sizes are small. Also, the results appear
to confirm that there is a problem of possible suppression for the variables
Organizational Satisfaction and Career Commitment, as the regression
shows the opposite direction of prediction compared to the zero-order correla-
tion. We checked for multicolinearity, and found that this was not a problem
r = .169 (p = .112), but with the sign change from the bivariate association
this might lead to policy and theory implications where we would be saying/
concluding the opposite of what we should. Future research should try to get
a larger sample, which may help with this issue.
Even with these limitations the study uncovered interesting findings about
what factors need to be considered when assessing social worker satisfaction
in northern communities: whether the community is urban or rural/remote.
Graham et al. 603
There likely are many other indicators of satisfaction that need to be considered
and investigated how they are manifested in a northern social work context.
Current literature which focuses primarily on job satisfaction and satisfaction
with professional roles and abilities omits a number of facets that might attract
social workers to come work in Canadas northern regions. The present manu-
script offers some enticing possibilities regarding the extent and significance
of SWB as a factor in the lives of social work practitioners in northern, rural,
and remote regions of Canada. Similar issues should be considered in other
areas or contexts of social work practice with unique challenges.
This research was based on two theoretical frameworks. The first, the concept
of subjective well-being is comprehensive and includes multiple domains or
aspects of an individuals life. When attempting to understand overall perceived
happiness of social workers it is important to consider variables beyond work-
place satisfaction including things like professional satisfaction and personal
life satisfaction. The findings from this research support this point. An individual
social worker may have high levels of subjective well-being and still be dis-
satisfied with their workplace. They may have the ability to deal with adverse
work or personal life experiences that impacts their overall perceived well-being.
The second theoretical framework the research is developed from, and supports
further, is that of localization of social work education and professional devel-
opment. The localization of social work practice considers the local context
and environment in which social workers practice and live their day-to-day
life. While our research did not capture this construct effectively, future research
should investigate in greater detail the implications of the physical and socio-
cultural environment of practicing in distinct or unique contexts on overall
practitioner perceived well-being.
Funding
We acknowledge the generous support for this research from the Social Sciences and
Humanities Research Council of Canada, who provided full funding for the project.
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Author biographies
John R. Graham, PhD, RSW, is Murray Fraser Professor of Community Economic
Development, Faculty of Social Work, University of Calgary.
Eriko Fukuda, PhD, is a Research Assistant in the Division of Applied Psychology,
University of Calgary.
Micheal L. Shier, MSW, is a PhD student at the University of Pennsylvanias School
of Social Policy and Practice.
Theresa J.B. Kline, PhD, is a Professor in the Department of Psychology at the
University of Calgary.
Keith Brownlee, PhD, is a Professor in the School of Social Work at Lakehead
University.
Nuelle Novik, PhD, RSW, is an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Social Work at
the University of Regina.

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