4118ENV Climate Change

Policy







D U E D A T E :
1 0 / 2 8 / 2 0 1 3
Kari-Ann WEST
S2759193
GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY, GOLD COAST

4118ENV Climate
Change Policy:
Adaptation Assignment
WEST, Kari-Ann
s2759193
GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY, GOLD COAST
4118ENV Climate Change Policy: Adaptation Assignment
1 Table of Contents | Kari-Ann West s2759193

Table of Contents
Table of Contents 1
List of Figures 1
List of Tables 1
1.0 Introduction 2
2.0 Climate Change Issues in Queensland 3
3.0 Adaptation Issues in Queensland 5
4.0 Legislation Screening 6
4.1 Commonwealth Government 6
4.2 Queensland State Government 7
4.3 Local Governments 9
5.0 Coordination and Cooperation 11
6.0 Policy Improvements 12
7.0 Conclusion 14
8.0 References 15
Appendix 1 17

List of Figures
Figure 1: Angry Summer Events Snapshot (Commonwealth of Australia, 2013, p.4)............................................. 3
Figure 2: Record breaking rainfall in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria (Commonwealth of Australia,
2013, p.6; BoM, 2013b) ......................................................................................................................................... 4
List of Tables
Table 1: Barriers to Effective Climate Change Adaptation (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p. 19) ................... 5
Table 2: Examples of Potential Federal Policy Reforms in helping to address climate change adaptation
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.14) .............................................................................................................. 7
Table 3: Natural Hazards and Climate Change Adaptation strategies of the 'SEQ Regional Plan 2009'
(Queensland Government, 2009a, p.44) ............................................................................................................... 8
Table 4: Examples of potential State Policy Reforms in helping to address climate change adaptation within
Queensland (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.14) .......................................................................................... 8
Table 5: Power of Local Governments (Queensland Government, 2009a, pp. 18-19) ........................................... 9
Table 6: Examples of potential local Policy Reforms in helping to address climate change adaptation on a local
scale (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p. 14) ................................................................................................. 10
Table 7: Policy Phases, Issues and Improvements (Althaus et al., 2007) ............................................................ 12



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1.0 Introduction
As climate change and global warming continue to exceed scientific expectations, the debate of whether
anthropogenic climate change is happening and if it is the cause of recent extreme weather phenomenon is still a
problem (Lloyd & Subbarao, 2011).
According to scientific reports and government departments such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Garnaut
Review, there is no debate, anthropogenic climate change is real (IPCC, 2012a; CSIRO, 2010). Anthropogenic
climate change is due to the large quantities of CO
2
levels in the atmosphere, a direct result of an international
dependency on crude oil and fossil fuels (Lloyd & Subbarao, 2011). Anthropogenic climate change has been
identified as an international challenge and needs to be addressed at a local, national and international level
(United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 2013).
In Australia, the impacts of climate change are beginning to be noticed, with an increase in extreme weather
events, heatwaves, heavy rainfall and flooding inundating the social, economic and environmental resources of
Australias states and territories (IPCC, 2012a).
In Queensland, the last decade has shown a significant increase in climate related weather events including an
increase in bushfires, cyclones, heavy rainfall and flooding (Commonwealth of Australia, 2013).
This report examines the different levels of government, their powers and interest in climate change adaptation
and what each level of government should be doing in order to help address the impacts of climate change on a
local, state and national level.













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2.0 Climate Change Issues in Queensland
In the summer of 2012/2013 Australia experiences a series of record breaking extreme weather events, including
heatwaves, severe bushfires, extreme rainfall and damaging flooding, attracting the title of the Angry Summer.
According to the Climate Commission (2013), [the] conditions during the Angry Summer were made worse by
climate change (Commonwealth of Australia, 2013, p.1). In this rapidly changing climate, all weather events are
influenced by climate change. The climate system is different than it was 50 years ago and this change influences
the nature, impact and intensity of weather events (Commonwealth of Australia, 2013, p.1; Trenberth, 2012).

Australias Angry Summer of 2012/2013 confirms that climate change is already having adverse effects on
Australias states and territories (Commonwealth of Australia, 2013, p.1); refer to Figure 1 below for a snapshots
of the extreme weather events during the Angry Summer. Climate change in Australia will have significant
impacts on the people, property, communities and the environment if the different levels of government fail to
address climate change and adaptation strategies.
Figure 1: Angry Summer Events Snapshot (Commonwealth of Australia, 2013, p.4)


According to the IPCC (2012), extreme hot weather and heavy rainfall will become more frequent and severe
over the coming decades. The summer of 2012/2013 was the hottest summer on record; temperature records
were broken within every state including Queensland, refer to Figure 1 for more information (Commonwealth of
Australia, 2013, p.4; Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) 2012; BoM, 2013). A significant increase in temperatures for
prolonged periods can be damaging to human health, flora and fauna, ecosystems, critical infrastructure and
agriculture (Commonwealth of Australia, 2013, p.4). According to the PwC (2011), [h]eat kills more Australians
than any other extreme weather event.
Along with extremes in temperature, comes a significant increase in bushfire probability. Bushfires are a vital and
natural element of the Australian landscape although can have adverse effects on biodiversity, human health,
property, economic activity and infrastructure (Commonwealth of Australia, 2013, p.5). Bushfire susceptibility
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increases with prolonged periods of reduced rainfall and extreme heat (Clarke et al., 2012). According to Clarke
et al. (2012), climate change is increasing the length of fire seasons (Clarke et al., 2012). As bushfires are
increasing in intensity and frequency throughout Australia and Queensland, it is important to note that climate
change is an influencing factor, as this can help communities in implementing adaptation strategies such as,
reducing fire hazard in drier months and increasing awareness (Commonwealth of Australia, 2013, p.5).
Within the past decade extreme weather events are becoming more intense and frequent; this includes intense
rainfall events (IPCC, 2012a; IPCC, 2012b; CSIRO, 2010; Commonwealth of Australia, 2013). The Climate
Commission (2013) states, [o]ver the last few years the east coast of Australia has experienced a number of
intense rainfall events, triggering large floods that have cost lives, damaged property, inundated ecosystems and
caused significant dislocation to local and regional communities.
In the past few years, Queensland has experienced extreme rainfall throughout the state resulting in catastrophic
state-wide flooding in 2011 and again in 2013. In the 2012/2013 summer extreme rainfall occurred over the east
coast of Queensland, resulting in severe flooding (BoM, 2013b). This event saw the Brisbane river catchment
amounts recorded similar to those observed during the 2011 floods, however the dry lead-up period resulted in
lesser flooding to some areas compared to the 2011 floods (BoM, 2013b). The 2013 flooding was a result of
former tropical cyclone Oswald moving south, just inland of the Queensland coast (BoM, 2013c), tropical cyclone
occurrence, increased intensity and frequency also an impact of climate change (Commonwealth of Australia,
2013, p.6). Refer to Figure 2 below for information on rainfall and Queensland locations.
Figure 2: Record breaking rainfall in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria (Commonwealth of Australia, 2013, p.6; BoM,
2013b)

The climate within Australia and Queensland is becoming increasingly unstable and therefore action must be
taken towards adaptation in order to prevent significant social, economic and environmental damage caused by
the impacts of climate change.
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3.0 Adaptation Issues in Queensland
As previously mentioned the issue of climate change is real and will have serious impacts on Australians (IPCC
2013, CSIRO, 2010; Commonwealth of Australia, 2010). The problem with climate change is that it is viewed as a
political hot potato. Climate change is considered a wicked problem (Head, 2008; Howes and Dedekorkut-
Howes, 2010). According to Head (2008, p.1), [s]ome of the most different policy problems [such as climate
change] of the modern era have been described as complex, intractable, open-ended and wickedboth the
nature of the problem and the preferred solution are strongly contested. In order for climate change to be
addressed appropriately, effectively and efficiently, it is essential that farsighted political leaders and governments
work in collaboration with the business and community sectors to develop innovative approaches to addressing
major issues such as climate change (Head, 2008, p.1)
For an appropriate, effective and efficient response to climate change adaptation to be achieved, certain barriers
need to be addressed. Howes et al. (2013, p.1) identify three main barriers to achieving this,
1. the impacts of both disasters and climate change are difficult to predict at the local level and require
well-coordinated whole-of government responses, as well as the support of the private sector and the
community.
2. the structure of the Australian federal system of government discourages cooperation between and
within the different levels of government.
3. while a comprehensive response is urgently needed, policymaking processes tend to favour piecemeal
change. (Howes et al., 2013, p.1)

A barrier to effective climate change adaptation is identified as the, restricting of ability to identify, evaluate or
manage risks. (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.18) Table 1 below identifies a number of potential barriers in
achieving effective climate change adaptation.

Table 1: Barriers to Effective Climate Change Adaptation (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p. 19)
BARRIER DECRIPTION EXAMPLE
Market Failures A market failure is a condition that
prevents markets from allocating
resources to the uses or areas where
they are most highly valued.
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2012,
p.19)
Insufficient or inadequate information
on climate change impacts for
households, businesses, other
organisations and governments to
make well informed adaptation
decisions. (Commonwealth of
Australia, 2012, p.19)

Policy and Regulatory Barriers Regulation or lack of regulation that
inhibits effective adaptation.
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2012,
p.19)
Lack of integration of building and
planning regulation could create a
barrier to adaptation where neither
system appropriately manages a
particular risk to property (such as
flooding).(Commonwealth of Australia,
2012, p.19)
Governance and Institutional
Barriers
Poor governance arrangements and
coordination between governments and
agencies. (Commonwealth of Australia,
2012, p. 19)
Legal liability of councils when land-
use planning decisions relating to land
that is subject to future climate change
risks. (Commonwealth of Australia,
2012, p.19)
Behavioural and Cognitive Barriers Individual information processing and
decision making (Commonwealth of
Australia, 2012, p.19)
Individuals may struggle to weigh up
the costs and benefits of climate
change adaptation actions where
potential damages are uncertain and
occur over long timeframes.
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2012)
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4.0 Legislation Screening
In this section of the report, the current legislation such as the Australian Constitution and Local Governments Act
2009 have been reviewed in order to establish what each level of government within Australias roles and powers
are in achieving effective climate change adaptation.
Sections 51 and 52 of the Australian Constitution, stipulates the powers of the Commonwealth of Australia,
including the power of the Commonwealth to enforce international treaties such as the United Nation Framework
Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol.
As recognised by the Australian Constitution, powers not specified for the Commonwealth of Australia are given
directly to the states and territories.
The Australian Constitution does not comment on the powers of Australias local governments, however specific
legislations such as the Queensland Local Government Act 2009 and furthermore the Local Government and
Other Legislation Amendment Act 2012 provides specifics on local governments responsibilities and powers.
Sections 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 below provide details on what each level of government is, what their responsibilities
and specific powers are; how each level of government is currently addressing the issues of adapting to climate
change and what approach each level of government should be taking in order to address these issues.
4.1 Commonwealth Government
According to the Australian Constitution, [t]he Constitution confers the power to make laws [by] the
Commonwealth Parliament (Commonwealth of Australia, 1957, p.6).
Sections 51 and 52 of the Australian Constitution identify the powers of the Commonwealth Parliament and
particular subjects that laws are available to made. Section 51 of the Australian Constitution stipulates, [t]he
Parliament shall, subject to this Constitution, have power to make laws for the peace, order, and good
government of the Commonwealth (Commonwealth of Australia, 1957, p. 14).
The subjects mentioned previously include the following; bankruptcy; defence; external affairs; foreign, trading
and financial corporations; immigration; interstate and international trade; interstate industrial conciliation and
arbitration; marriage and divorce; and taxation (Commonwealth of Australia, 1957, p.6). Refer to Appendix 1 for
the complete list of Commonwealth Parliament powers and exclusive powers.
The power to influence subjects such as; criminal law; education; the environment and roads are given to States
and Territories (Commonwealth of Australia, 1957, p. 6), refer to Section 3.2 for information of State and
Territories powers. In relation to climate change adaptation, the Australian Constitution contains no specific
details on the subject or related Commonwealth powers however can influence State decisions under powers
such as external affairs (xxix) through keeping terms of international treaties such as the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol (Commonwealth of Australia, 1957, p.6).
Adapting to Climate Change in Australia: Australian Government Position Paper was a response to the impacts
of climate change by the former Labour Governments Department of Climate Change (Commonwealth of
Australia, 2010). The position paper was the former Labour Governments vision for adapting to the impacts of
climate change (Commonwealth of Australia, 2010, p.3). The position paper recognises, [a]dapting to the
impacts of climate change will be a substantial ongoing challenge for all Australians well into the future this
challenge will require contributions from governments at all levels, businesses, communities and individuals
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2010, p.3).
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Due to the recent change to a Liberal Government, the Department of Climate Change has since been abolished
and therefore the previously mentioned position paper is no longer of high priority due to different government
agendas.
To ensure appropriate, effective and efficient adaptation to climate change, governments at all levels should be
advocating the impacts of climate change and promoting the implementation of risk management plans and
practices, as well as ensuring collaboration between all levels of government, business and community sectors as
well as ensure sufficient flexibility in policy and regulatory systems to allow businesses, communities and
households to manage the risks of climate change (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.14).
On a national level, the Commonwealth government should be reforming federal policy to assist businesses,
governments and households in dealing with the impacts of current climate and extreme weather events.
According to the Commonwealth of Australia (2012, p.14), [t]hese reforms would also build adaptive capacity to
respond to future climate impacts. Examples of such reforms are found below in Table 2.
Table 2: Examples of Potential Federal Policy Reforms in helping to address climate change adaptation (Commonwealth of
Australia, 2012, p.14)
EXAMPLES OF FEDERAL POLICY REFORMS
reducing incentives in tax, transfer and regulatory arrangements that impede the mobility of labour and capital
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.14)
reducing tax and regulatory distortions in insurance markets (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.14)
conducting a public review, sponsored by COAG, to develop appropriate, effective and efficient adaptive
responses for existing and potential communities that face significant climate change risks. (Commonwealth of
Australia, 2012, p.14)

4.2 Queensland State Government
Under the Australia Constitution, the six states and territories of Australia; Australian Capital Territory, Northern
Territory, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia were the former six colonies
(Commonwealth of Australia, 1957). Before federation each colonies had their own constitution, and although
bound by the Australian Constitution still hold the right to retain their state constitutions (Commonwealth of
Australia, 1957).
According to the Australian Constitution (1957), [u]nder the constitutions of each of the States, a State
Parliament can make laws on any subject of relevance to that particular State. Subject to a few exceptions, the
Australian Constitution does not confine the matters about which the States may make laws.
This entitles the States and Territories to hold more power than the Commonwealth, as the States and Territories
are able to pass more laws on a wider range of subjects than the Commonwealth. However the Commonwealth is
generally regarded more powerful due to its position and social standing (Commonwealth of Australia, 1957).
The Australian Constitution allows the Commonwealth to provide the States and Territories monetary grants, this
power allows the Commonwealth to retain power over the States and Territories and influence subjects within the
States and Territories power, without having direct power over such subjects. (Commonwealth of Australia, 1957,
pp. 6- 7).
The Queensland Government has the power to implement state and region wide climate change adaptation plans
and policies and guidelines. The South East Queensland (SEQ) Regional Plan 2009 was a regional plan which
included a series of key issues areas and desired regional outcomes for each, with plans and policies to achieve
these outcomes, the SEQ Regional Plan 2009 includes a section on sustainability and climate change.
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The desired regional outcome for sustainability and climate change within the SEQ Regional Plan 2009 (2009a)
states, The region grows and changes in a sustainable manner generating prosperity, maintaining and
enhancing quality of life, minimising the use of resources, providing high levels of environmental protection,
reducing greenhouse gas emissions and becoming resilient to natural hazards including the projected effects of
climate change and oil supply vulnerability.
Table 3 below outlines the relevant principles, policies and programs proposed for natural hazards and climate
change adaptation as stated in the SEQ Regional Plan 2009.
Table 3: Natural Hazards and Climate Change Adaptation strategies of the 'SEQ Regional Plan 2009' (Queensland Government,
2009a, p.44)
1.4 NATURAL HAZARDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
Principle

Increase the resilience of communities, development,
essential infrastructure, natural environments and economic
sectors to natural hazards including the projected effects of
climate change.


1.4.3 Planning schemes and development decisions shall be
in accordance with the Queensland Coastal Plan, including
the range of potential sea level rises.
Policies

1.4.1 Reduce the risk from natural hazards, including the
projected effects of climate change, by avoiding areas with
high exposure and establishing adaptation strategies to
minimise vulnerability to riverine flooding, storm tide or sea
level rise inundation, coastal erosion, bushfires and
landslides.
Programs

1.4.4 Align and coordinate the implementation of regional
policies to increase resilience to and reduce risks from
natural hazards, including the projected effects of climate
change, through the SEQ Climate Change Management
Plan.

1.4.2 Reduce the risk from natural hazards, including the
projected effects of climate change, by establishing
adaptation strategies to minimise vulnerability to heatwaves
and high temperatures, reduced and more variable rainfall,
cyclones and severe winds, and severe storms and hail.

1.4.5 Develop performance criteria for the planning and
design of development and infrastructure to manage risks
from natural hazards and climate change.

Within the SEQ Regional Plan 2009, the SEQ Climate Change Management Plan was mentioned. These two
documents will be getting renewed with a higher focus on different issues areas due to the recent change to a
Liberal Government and different government agendas.
As previously mentioned governments at all levels should be working together and advocating the severity and
impacts of climate change in order to promote climate change adaptation practices throughout all sectors
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.14).
On a state level, the Queensland government should be reforming state policy and ensuring collaboration
between all local governments and regions as well as other states and the Commonwealth. Examples of such
reforms are found below in Table 4.
Table 4: Examples of potential State Policy Reforms in helping to address climate change adaptation within Queensland
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.14)
EXAMPLES OF STATE POLICY REFORMS
increasing the quality and availability of natural hazard mapping. (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.14)
clarifying the roles, responsibilities and legal liability of local governments, and improving their capacity to manage
climate risks. (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.14)
developing a work program to consider climate change in the building code. (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012,
p.14)
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4.3 Local Governments
As stipulated by the Queensland Local Government Act 2009 (Queensland Government, 2009b, p. 18), [a] local
government is an elected body that is responsible for good rule and local government of a part of Queensland.
Queensland comprises of 73 local governments including city, regional, shire and aboriginal shire councils
throughout the state (Queensland Government, 2013).
Queensland Local Government Act 2009 identifies the following powers in which the local governments of
Queensland possess. Table 5 below shows the specific powers of Australian local governments as identified by
the Queensland Local Government Act 2009.
Table 5: Power of Local Governments (Queensland Government, 2009a, pp. 18-19)
Powers Of Local Governments Generally
(1)
A local government has the power to do anything that is necessary or convenient for the good rule and local
government of its local government area.
(2) However, a local government can only do something that the State can validly do.
(3) When exercising a power, a local government may take account of Aboriginal tradition and Island custom.
(4)
A local government may exercise its powers
(a) inside the local government area; or
(b) outside the local government area (including outside Queensland)
(i) with the written approval of the Minister; or
(ii) (ii) as provided in section 10(5).
(5)
When a local government is exercising a power in a place that is outside its local government area, the local
government has the same jurisdiction in the place as if the place were inside its local government area.
(6)
Subsections (7) and (8) apply if a local government is a component local government for a joint local
government.
(7)
Despite subsection (1), a local government may not, within the joint local governments area, exercise a
power for which the joint local government has jurisdiction.
(8) However, the local government may exercise the power as a delegate of the joint local government.

According to the information provided above in Table 5 by the Queensland Local Government Act 2009 (2009,
p.19), [a] local government has the power to do anything that is necessary or convenient for the good rule and
local government of its local government area.
In relation to the issues associated with adapting to climate change, local governments have the power to
develop relevant plans and policies that are necessary or convenient for the good rule and local government of
its local government area (Queensland Government, 2009b). Climate Change Adaptation Plans, Climate Change
Management Plans and Disaster Risk Management Plans are examples of this (Coastal Councils, 2010; Gold
Coast City Council (GCCC) 2009; Howes & Dedekorkut-Howes, 2010).
At current, some local governments are establishing and implementing Climate Change Adaptation plans and
policies however due to a lack of direct funding and resources provided by State and Commonwealth
governments, these adaptation strategies lack incentive (Howes & Dedekorkut-Howes, 2010; Matthews, 2011;
Steel & Gleeson, 2009).
In order to adapt to climate change appropriately, effectively, and efficiently best practice adaptation management
plans need to be adopted by local governments throughout Queensland and Australia as a whole to increase
resilience and decrease vulnerability (Howes & Dedekorkut-Howes, 2010; and Matthews, 2011).
.
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Governments at all levels should be collaborating and working together and encouraging climate change
adaptation practices throughout all sectors (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.14).
On a local level, each local government area (LGA) government should be reforming local planning schemes and
policies as well as collaborating with other LGA and regions as well as the State and Federal Governments.
Examples of such reforms are found below in Table 6.
Table 6: Examples of potential local Policy Reforms in helping to address climate change adaptation on a local scale
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p. 14)
EXAMPLES OF LOCAL POLICY REFORMS
reviewing emergency management arrangements in a public and consultative manner, to better prepare for
natural disasters and limit resultant losses. (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.14)
designing more flexible land-use planning regulation. (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.14)
aligning land-use planning with building regulation. (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, p.14)





















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5.0 Coordination and Cooperation
As the climate change debate continues, critical time is being wasted to start taking preventative actions. The
actions of this decade will greatly influence the extent of climate change and severity of associated impacts such
as extreme weather event for future generations (Commonwealth of Australia, 2013, p.2).Within Australia and
throughout the world the urgency to invest in clean energy and take other measures to reduce emissions of
greenhouse gases is at an all-time high. (Commonwealth of Australia, 2013, p.2)
In Australia, the impacts of climate change such as extreme weather events, heatwaves, heavy rainfall and
flooding are inundating the social, economic and environmental resources of the local communities within the
States and Territories (IPCC, 2012a).
As previously mentioned above, one of the main barriers in adapting to climate change in the lack of collaboration
between the levels of government, businesses and community sectors within Australia (Howes et al, 2013).
According to Howes et al (2013, p. 19), [t]he underlying dynamic of the Australian political system is an on-going
vertical power struggle between the three tiers of government. This has been particularly fierce when it comes to
complex issues related to the environment that cut across local, state and national boundaries To make best use
of scares public resources is to establish an integrated and collaborative national response across all levels of
government (AFAC 2012).

Howes et al (2013, p. 9) identify a list of institutional reforms to approve integration and collaborations between
the levels of government and organisations,

1. a new funding mechanism that would encourage collaboration between and across different levels of
government, as well as promoting partnerships with business and the community;
2. improving community engagement through new resilience grants run by local councils;
3. embedding climate change researchers within disaster risk management agencies to promote
institutional learning; and,
4. creating an inter-agency network that encourages collaboration between organisations (Howes et al,
2013, p. 9).























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6.0 Policy Improvements
Within Australia, the policy cycle includes eight phases, those phases include; identifying issues, policy analysis,
policy instruments, consultation, coordination, decision, implementation, and evaluation (Althaus et al, 2007,
p.40). According to Althaus et al. (2007, p.40), each phase is represented within the cycle, as policy is a wheel
continually turning (Althaus et al., 2007, p. 40). However as previously mentioned, there are barriers which
expose the limitations within each phase on the policy cycle (Bridgeman and Davis, 2003).

Table 7 below identifies each phase of the policy cycle as shown by Althaus el al. (2007), the policy issues
associated with each policy phase and potential improvements to ensure a more collaborative approach to
climate change adaptation across all levels of government, businesses and community sectors.

Table 7: Policy Phases, Issues and Improvements (Althaus et al., 2007)
POLICY PHASE POLICY ISSUES POLICY IMPROVEMENTS
Identifying Issues
Issue can be difficult to determine, or
identified too late;
Influence of media and the market
on policy issue identification.


Provide all participants with an equal say. A
collaborative approach across all levels of
government, business and community
sectors would achieve this (Commonwealth
of Australia, 2012).

Policy reform across all levels of
governments to identify and address climate
change adaption issues effectively
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2012).
Policy Analysis
Lack of knowledge and
understanding
Lack of transparency
Lack of resources
Time frame limitations

Provide ongoing communications and
information sharing between all levels of
government, business and community
sectors through a collaborative approach
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2012).

Policy reform across all levels of government
to enhance cooperation, coordination and
transparency (Commonwealth of Australia,
2012).

Policy
Instruments
Lack effectiveness
Cannot solve wicked problems
(Head, 2008)
Require appropriate funding and
resources


Policy reform across all levels of government
is well structured, and enhances cooperation,
coordination and transparency between all
sectors (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012).

Consultation
Costly and time consuming
Bias representation of interest
groups and stakeholders
Marginalised groups are often not
represented
Change in decision making control

Provide further education and trust of the
policies through a collaborative transparent
process.

Provide opportunities to influence policy and
decision making.
Coordination
Costly and time consuming
a lack of coherence in policies
Inter-department conflicts on issues
and policies
Policy reform across all levels of government
is enhances cooperation, and coordination,
while provides consistent goals between all
sectors (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012).
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Decision
Can be bias and without evidence

Provide input from all interests groups,
including scientific evidence, ensuring that
best practises are implemented without bias
through a collaborative approach
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2012).
Implementation
Lack appropriateness, effectiveness
and efficiency (Althaus et al. 2007)
Lack of communication and
cooperation

Provide improved communication and
cooperation between all levels of government
Provide ongoing communications and
government, business and community
sectors through a collaborative approach
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2012).

Evaluation
Costly and time consuming
Uncertain policy goals
Inadequate data

Provide aligned goals between all levels of
government, business and community
sectors with evaluation during multiple stages
through a collaborative approach
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2012).

Provide all levels of government, business
and community sectors with clean and
consistent feedback of climate change
adaptation policies through a periodic report
across all levels of government through a
collaborative approach (Commonwealth of
Australia, 2012).













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7.0 Conclusion

There is no debate whether anthropogenic climate change is happening; just an overwhelming amount of
scientific evidence to support that it is (Lloyd & Subbarao, 2011).
The impacts of climate change are already influencing Australian shores, with Australias states and territories
bearing the social, economic and environmental repercussions (IPCC, 2012a).
The last decade alone has shown a substantial escalation in climate related weather events including a surge in
bushfires, cyclones, heavy rainfall and flooding for Queensland (Commonwealth of Australia, 2013).
This report examined the powers and levels of interest in climate change adaptation across the different levels of
government. This report also identified what each level of government should be doing in regard to addressing
climate change adaptation, the barriers impacting climate change adaptation and the limitations of the current
Australian policy cycle.



















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8.0 References
Althaus, C., Bridgman, P. and Davis, G., 2007, The Australian Policy Handbook, 4th edition, Allen & Unwin,
Sydney.
Bridgman, P. and Davis, G. 2003, What use is a policy cycle? Plenty, if the aim is clear, Australian Journal of
Public Administration, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 98-102.
Bureau of Meteorology, 2012, Improving Australias climate record, (online), Available: <http://www.bom.gov.au/
water/news/article.php?id=63>
Bureau of Meteorology, 2013a, Special Climate Statement 44 extreme rainfall and flooding in coastal
Queensland and New South Wales, (online) Available:
<http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/statements/scs44.pdf>
Bureau of Meteorology, 2013b, Tropical Cyclone Oswald, (online) Available:
<http://www.bom.gov.au/announcements/sevwx/qld/ qldtc20130117.shtml>
Clarke, H., Lucas, C. and Smith, P., 2012, Changes in Australian fire weather between 1973 and 2010,
International Journal of Climatology. Vol. 10, p.1002
Commonwealth of Australia, 1957, Australian Constitution, Overview and Notes by the Australian Government
Solicitor, Canberra.
Commonwealth of Australia, 2010, Adapting to Climate Change in Australia: An Australian Government Position
Paper, Department of Climate Change, Canberra.
Commonwealth of Australia, 2012, Barriers to Effective Climate Change Adaptation: Final Inquiry Report, No. 59,
The Productivity Commission, Canberra.
Commonwealth of Australia, 2013, The Angry Summer, The Climate Commission, Canberra.
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation and Bureau of Meteorology, 2012, State of the
Climate, (online), Available: <http://www.csiro.au/Outcomes/Climate/ Understanding/State-of-the-Climate-
2012.aspx>
Head, B., 2008, Wicked problems in public policy, Public Policy, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 101-118.
Howes, M. and Dedekorkut-Howes, A. 2010, From White Shoes to Waders: Climate change adaptation and
government on the Gold Coast, Australasian Political Studies Association Conference, 27-29 September,
Melbourne University: Melbourne.
Howes, M., Grant-Smith, D., Reis, K., Bosomworth, K., Tangney, P., Heazle, M., McEvoy, D. & Burton, P., 2013,
Rethinking disaster risk management and climate change adaptation, National Climate Change Adaptation
Research Facility, Gold Coast, pp.1-53
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007, Climate change 2007: Synthesis report, fourth assessment
report, IPCC, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2012a, Climate change 2012: Synthesis report, fifth assessment
report, IPCC, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
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Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2012b, Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to
Advance Climate Change Adaptation, A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York,
NY, USA, pp. 119 pp.
Lloyd, B. & Subbarao, S, 2011, Can the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) deliver?, Energy Policy, vol. 39,
pp. 1600 1611.
Matthews, T., 2011, Climate Change Adaptation in Urban Systems: Strategies for Planning Regimes, Urban
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Queensland Government 2009a, South East Queensland Regional Plan 2009, Brisbane, Accessed 22
nd
October,
2013
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<http://www.dlg.qld.gov.au/local-government-directory/>
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Appendix 1

Table 8: Commonwealth powers (Australia Constitution, 1957, pp.14-15)
Section 51 Powers of the Parliament, Australian Constitution (1957, pp. 14 -15)
(i) trade and commerce with other countries, and among the States;
(ii) taxation; but so as not to discriminate between States or parts of States;
(iii) bounties on the production or export of goods, but so that such bounties shall be
uniform throughout the Commonwealth;
(iv) borrowing money on the public credit of the Commonwealth;
(v) postal, telegraphic, telephonic, and other like services;
(vi) the naval and military defence of the Commonwealth and of the several States, and the
control of the forces to execute and maintain the laws of the Commonwealth;
(vii) lighthouses, lightships, beacons and buoys;
(viii) astronomical and meteorological observations;
(ix) quarantine;
(x) fisheries in Australian waters beyond territorial limits;
(xi) census and statistics;
(xii) currency, coinage, and legal tender;
(xiii) banking, other than State banking; also State banking extending beyond the limits of
the State concerned, the incorporation of banks, and the issue of paper money;
(xiv) insurance, other than State insurance; also State insurance extending beyond the
limits of the State concerned;
(xv) weights and measures;
(xvi) bills of exchange and promissory notes;
(xvii) bankruptcy and insolvency;
(xviii) copyrights, patents of inventions and designs, and trademarks;
(xix) naturalization and aliens;
(xx) foreign corporations, and trading or financial corporations formed within the limits of the
Commonwealth;
(xxi) marriage;
(xxii) divorce and matrimonial causes; and in relation thereto, parental rights, and the
custody and guardianship of infants;
(xxiii) invalid and old-age pensions;
(xxiiiA) the provision of maternity allowances, widows pensions, child endowment,
unemployment, pharmaceutical, sickness and hospital benefits, medical and dental
services (but not so as to authorize any form of civil conscription), benefits to students
and family allowances;
(xxiv) the service and execution throughout the Commonwealth of the civil and criminal
process and the judgments of the courts of the States;
(xxv) the recognition throughout the Commonwealth of the laws, the public Acts and records,
and the judicial proceedings of the States;
(xxvi) the people of any race for whom it is deemed necessary to make special laws;
(xxvii) immigration and emigration;
(xxviii) the influx of criminals;
(xxix) external affairs;
(xxx) the relations of the Commonwealth with the islands of the Pacific;
(xxxi) the acquisition of property on just terms from any State or person for any purpose in
respect of which the Parliament has power to make laws;
(xxxii) the control of railways with respect to transport for the naval and military purposes of
the Commonwealth;
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(xxxiii) the acquisition, with the consent of a State, of any railways of the State on terms
arranged between the Commonwealth and the State;
(xxxiv) railway construction and extension in any State with the consent of that State;
(xxxv) conciliation and arbitration for the prevention and settlement of industrial disputes
extending beyond the limits of any one State;
(xxxvi) matters in respect of which this Constitution makes provision until the Parliament
otherwise provides;
(xxxvii) matters referred to the Parliament of the Commonwealth by the Parliament or
Parliaments of any State or States, but so that the law shall extend only to States by
whose Parliaments the matter is referred, or which afterwards adopt the law;
(xxxviii) the exercise within the Commonwealth, at the request or with the concurrence of the
Parliaments of all the States directly concerned, of any power which can at the
establishment of this Constitution be exercised only by the Parliament of the United
Kingdom or by the Federal Council of Australasia;
(xxxix) matters incidental to the execution of any power vested by this Constitution in the
Parliament or in either House thereof, or in the Government of the Commonwealth, or
in the Federal Judicature, or in any department or officer of the Commonwealth.