Organic solar cells: Dye Sensitized Solar Sells (DSSC)

The world is under the threat of global warming because of using fossil fuels such as coal and
oil. Today, the reflections of global warming on daily life are seen as climate change, increase
/ sudden decrease on the average of temperature and drought signals. Studies of the
production of clean, sustainable and low-cost energy has gained speed because of the reasons
such as limitation of fossil fuel resources and increasing the amount of money to be paid to
purchase this energy type. For this purpose, solar cells which convert solar energy to usable
energy have become the focus of attention. Requirements and necessary processes in this area
has been included in the report of Energy and environmental technology strategy, vision
2023 project by energy and environmental technology strategy group of The Scientific and
Technological Research Council of Turkey. Nowadays, organic solar cells are taking
inorganic based solar cells place.

Organic solar cell is a device which absorbs light from the sun with a layer of organic
molecules and directly converts electric energy. In summary, the devices are called solar cells
or photovoltaic cells, which produce electrical energy from sunlight by using the photovoltaic
effect of semiconductors. Solar cells can produce as much electricity as a few kW to several
MW depending on the system used. The battery usually combines three separate layers such
as semiconductor, dye and electrode. Polymers, dyes, pigments and liquid crystals are
included in the organic materials used in solar cells. Conducting polymers are well known and
studied class from the stand point of their photo-physical properties among these materials.

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) ,which are regarded as the latest technology in solar cells,
was found in 1991 by Gratzel and O'Regan. For this reason, such batteries are called Gratzel
cell. The interest in the dye-sensitized solar cells has increased with this development.







Previous studies show that an ideal solar cell material should carry the following
characteristics:


1) Should have a band range within of 1 to 1.7 eV
2) Direct band to be spaced,
3) Easily producable,
4) Not contain non-toxic substances,
5) Have a good photovoltaic conversion efficiency,
6) Have high absorption coefficient,
7) Stability.

In commercial applications, the biggest problem is chemical stability. Organic solar cells
have quite an advantage compared to inorganic solar cells that they are easily producible, low-
cost and applicable on large surfaces. Gaining flexibility to battery by using different material
allows to increase its scope of application area. In addition, , synthesis of organic compounds
with more superior features from different reactant and reagents leads to the rapid
development of this technology thanks to the developments in organic chemistry. Batteries
which conjugated polymers are using as organic material because it has a higher molar
absorption coefficient than the inorganic based cells.

Organic photovoltaic cells have several types. These are:

1. Single-layer organic photovoltaic cells 2. Two-layer photovoltaic cells










3. Bulk heterojunction type photovoltaic cells 4. Cascading heterojunction
photovoltaic cells





Organic solar cells, which are often studied nowadays consist of the donor (D)-acceptor (A)
double-layer structures placed between two electrodes. Excitation with electron transitions
between the acceptors LUMO and the donors HOMO, charge separation and transmitting it
to the electrodes with an electric field formation cause the formation of a photo-current and
photovoltaic. The transmission is realized at a distance up to 10 nm because stimulation of
organic material and transmission life is too short. In the case of this distance is further away
from 10 nm, photo-current lost and solar cell efficiency is reduced. For this reason, organic
films should be thin extremely. Considering this situation, organic batteries recently prepared
as bulk heterojunction". Donor and acceptor type compounds are mixed and in this way
facilitate the transmission is provided by increasing the contact surface of the donor-acceptor.

Dye sensitized solar cells, which are based organic molecules instead of polymer, consists of
conductive material for pores of TiO
2
layer and the semiconductor film forming by sensitizing
of the glass surface of the coated nano-crystal conductive structure (typically TiO
2
, ZnO and
SnO
2
as an alternative to) with organic dye (Figure 1.1).





Figure 1.1. Organic dye-based solar cells (DSSC)



Organic dye-based solar cells begin to run via absorption of light by the dye molecules which
are adsorbed on the TiO
2
nano-crystal. Dye molecule pass the excited state by the light
absorbtion and excited dye molecule forwards an electron to the conduction band (CB) of
Titanium Oxide. Transmitted electrons pass through nano-crystalline network in TiO
2
film
and reach the transparent electrode, and from there pass across the external circuit. Dye
cations which are formed by transferring electrons of dye to the TiO
2
conduction band is
reduced to neutral by electrolyte contains a redox pair. Oxidized electrolyte is reduced by an
electron from platinized electrode (coming from external circuit). In this way, during the
operation of solar cells based on organic dyes, the net charge is zero at all times. Thus a
chemical change does not occur. At the end of this electron transfer processes occurs photo-
current. To obtain a continuous flow of organic dye-based solar cell, oxidation-reduction
processes need to repeat this cycle, constantly.




Figure 1.2. Working principle of organic dye-based solar cells (DSSC)

The dyes, used in organic dye-based solar cells by coating TiO
2
surface, should contain some
basic features to convert solar energy to the electrical energy with high efficiency. These are:

1. Dye must absorb the light in the visible region (400-700 nm). In this case, dye
achieved the bandwidth, 1.35 eV, which is required for single-layer solar cells.
2. The dye must have strong absorption on the surface of the semiconductor.
3. Excited state energy of the dye must be slightly over from TiO
2
conduction band and
energy difference must be sufficient to permit the transfer of electrons. Also, ground
state energy level of the dye must be slightly below the reduction-oxidation potential
of the electrolyte. This is necessary to obtain photo-voltage (conversion of solar
energy to the electric energy) in a high level and maintain a minimum level of energy
losses.
4. Electron transfer from the excited state of the dye to the TiO
2
conduction band must be
very fast to avoid reactions allows the damping such as fluorescence and
phosphorescence. Excitation of the molecule preferably should be metal-to-ligand-
charge transfer (MLCT) type.
5. The dye adsorbed TiO
2
surface must be stable for a long time in the working
conditions (the interface of the semiconductor-electrolyte).
6. The dye should be good solubility and must contain a functional group to bind the
surface of the semiconductor.
7. In solar cell, light must only absorbed by dye molecule. The other layers
(semiconductor or electrolyte) should not absorb the light. This situation leads to side
reactions and may adversely affect the stability and efficiency of the battery.

A wide variety of dyes are used in organic dye-based solar cells (DSSC) such as porphyrins,
phthalocyanines, polypyridyls, coumarins, indoline, triphenylamines, conjugated polymers ,
peyrlenes. The highest yield is still polypyridyl ruthenium derivatives (Gratzel battery).
Although polypyridyl ruthenium dyes have the highest yield obtained until now, these are not
suitable for the battery systems. Limitations of using polypyridyl ruthenium derivatives are
difficulty of their synthesis procedure, requirement of high-cost starting materials, low molar
absorption coefficients and a very narrow range of the absorption in visible spectrum. Organic
dyes have higher the molar absorption coefficient than ruthenium-based chromophores and
have a very variety of modification alternatives. This provides the synthesis of dyes which can
absorb the light in desired range of spectrum.




Figure 1.3. Some structures which are possible to use in organic solar cells

Some of the items, which are very frequently used in daily life, became obtaining energy by
using solar cells;



Picture.1.1. A laptop running thanks to a computer with integrated solar cells




Picture.1.2. Bag with integrated solar cell



Picture.1.3. Propeller ornaments working thanks to integrated solar cells




Picture 1.4. Light bulb glowing thanks to the glass with integrated solar cells














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