42 www.aiche.

org/cep June 2011 CEP

Computational Methods
V
ariable-speed centrifugal compressors are used in a
wide variety of industries and applications, including
natural gas pipelines and processing plants, oil refn-
eries and chemical plants, air-separation units, refrigeration
and air conditioning equipment refrigerant cycles, gas tur-
bines and auxiliary power generators, and many more. Some
natural gas plants, for example, employ a propane-precooled,
mixed-refrigerant natural gas liquefaction process consisting
of a classical propane liquefaction cycle that precools both
the natural gas feed and the mixed refrigerant followed by a
mixed-refrigerant liquefaction cycle that provides the low-
temperature refrigeration needed to liquefy the natural gas.
Compression is a key element of both refrigeration cycles.
Dynamic process simulation offers many tangible and
intangible benefts (1). Integrating the turbomachinery
controls (TMC) into the dynamic simulation of a compressor
system enables the engineer to select properly sized equip-
ment that can cope with transient conditions (surge conditions
in particular), reduces commissioning time through pre tuning
of the regulatory controls, improves operator training by
exposing operators to realistic simulated operating scenarios,
and provides verifed startup and shutdown procedures during
site acceptance testing before startup takes place (2).
Dynamic simulators for modeling processes that involve
gas compression require a rigorous unit-operation model of
a centrifugal compressor. The performance maps provided
by compressor manufacturers are a critical element of this
model. This article explains how to use the performance
maps for variable-speed, fxed-inlet guide-vane centrifugal
compressors for the dynamic simulation of a compressor
system.
Performance maps and their use in simulation
A performance map describes how a compressors poly-
tropic head and power vary with volumetric suction fowrate
and rotational speed for a specifc set of suction condi-
tions (i.e., fuid molecular weight, pressure, temperature,
compressibility, and isentropic exponent at the inlet of the
compressor). Manufacturers typically provide performance
maps as two sets of performance curves a series of plots
of polytropic head vs. volumetric suction fowrate, and a cor-
responding series of power vs. fow plots. Each pair of curves
corresponds to a different rotational speed, and all pertain to
the same suction conditions.
Performance maps may be constructed for more than one
set of suction conditions. Figure 1 presents two performance
maps for a high-pressure mixed-refrigerant compressor for
a natural gas liquefaction process. The top performance
map corresponds to design operation, and the bottom map
corresponds to derime operation, which removes rime (the
granular ice that forms when supercooled droplets freeze
rapidly on contact with a cold surface) from the compressor.
These maps were generated from data obtained by manually
digitizing the performance maps provided by the manufac-
turer; the irregularities in the curves are a result of the manual
digitization process.
Process simulators combine the performance maps with
material and energy balances and thermodynamic relation-
ships to predict the performance of the compressor under
various operating scenarios. However, the performance
maps supplied by the manufacturer are not broadly useful for
process simulation because, strictly speaking, they apply only
at the suction conditions and rotational speeds for which they
Transforming the performance maps to a
reduced coordinate system that is independent
of suction conditions and rotational speeds
allows these curves to be accurately incorporated
into a process simulator.
Grant Stephenson
Honeywell Process Solutions
Integrate Compressor
Performance Maps
into Process Simulation
Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
CEP June 2011 www.aiche.org/cep 43
were constructed. Process simulation requires prediction of
the compressors performance not just at these suction condi-
tions and speeds, but over the compressors entire operating
range, from surge to stonewall, at varying suction conditions
and rotational speeds.
Some process simulators ignore the fact that the perfor-
mance maps relate to specifc suction conditions, or allow
users to enter multiple performance maps in tabular form and
synthetically transition between them as the suction condi-
tions change. However, as shown in Figure 2, the perfor-
mance maps for different suction conditions can be quite
different. In this instance, the scales for power differ by more
than an order of magnitude. Using the performance map for
design operation at all operating conditions will certainly
yield poor results for derime operation.
Varying rotational speed can be handled somewhat bet-
ter than varying suction conditions, for example, by linear
interpolation and extrapolation on an irregularly spaced
nonrectangular grid. Although linear interpolation can yield
reasonable results, linear extrapolation breaks down as the
rotational speed moves further away from the lowest and
highest speeds for which performance curves were con-
structed. This limits the utility of the performance maps to
normal operating speeds.
Volumetric flowrate, cfm
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
3,760 rpm
3,850 rpm
3,950 rpm
4,000 rpm
P
o
l
y
t
r
o
p
i
c

H
e
a
d
,

f
t

Design Operation
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
P
o
w
e
r
,

h
p

Volumetric flowrate, cfm
3,760 rpm
3,850 rpm
3,950 rpm
4,000 rpm
Design Operation
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
P
o
l
y
t
r
o
p
i
c

H
e
a
d
,

f
t

3,760 rpm
3,850 rpm
3,960 rpm
4,000 rpm
Volumetric flowrate, cfm
Derime Operation
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
P
o
w
e
r
,

h
p
3,760 rpm
3,850 rpm
3,960 rpm
4,000 rpm
Volumetric flowrate, cfm
Derime Operation
p Figure 1. These performance maps represent design (top) and derime (bottom) operation of a high-pressure, mixed-refrigerant compressor.
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
P
o
l
y
t
r
o
p
i
c

H
e
a
d
,

f
t

Volumetric flowrate, cfm
Design
Derime
Design and Derime Operation
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
P
o
w
e
r
,

h
p
Design
Derime
Volumetric flowrate, cfm
Design and Derime Operation
p Figure 2. Superimposing performance maps reveals that the power vs. suction owrate relationships for design and derime operation are very different.
Article continues on next page
Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
44 www.aiche.org/cep June 2011 CEP
Computational Methods
If the unit-operation model of the compressor does not
adequately account for variation in the suction conditions
and rotational speed, the predictions of the process model in
which it is used for example, the speed and shaft power
needed to achieve a specifed (controlled) discharge pres-
sure will certainly be fawed, and may even be misleading.
If the process model is used in a dynamic simulation study,
the trajectories for the operating variables will be incorrect,
possibly signifcantly, which could lead to false conclusions.
Simulation-based training using a model that misrepresents
the actual process behavior could cause an operator to make
incorrect operating decisions.
Transforming the performance maps
The challenge, therefore, is to fnd a way to make the
performance maps applicable over the entire range of suc-
tion conditions and speeds encountered in the operation of
the compressor. This can be achieved by transforming the
performance maps to a coordinate system that is independent
of both suction conditions and rotational speed. This transfor-
mation involves two steps.
First, dimensional analysis is used to construct a coordi-
nate system that is independent of suction conditions (3).
A key aspect of this analysis is the identifcation of a set
of dimensionless parameters in which the pertinent forces
can be accurately represented.
Functional relationships are set up in which polytropic
head (H
p
) and shaft power (P) are the dependent variables
and volumetric fowrate (Q) and rotational speed (w) are
the independent variables. The suction conditions and the
compressor size are incorporated into the functions by includ-
ing viscosity (m), density (r), and acoustic velocity (a) at the
suction of the compressor and the diameter (d) of the com-
pressor as additional independent variables. These functional
relationships are represented as:
H
p
= f
0
(Q, w, m, r, a, d) (1)
P = f
1
(Q, w, m, r, a, d) (2)
Each of these relationships involves seven dimensional
parameters. Using the Buckingham Pi Theorem and assum-
ing turbulent fow, they can be simplifed to:
H
p,n
= f
2
(Q
n
, w) (3)
P
n
= f
3
(Q
n
, w) (4)
where the subscript n denotes a dimensionless variable.
Although this dimensionless coordinate system was
developed for compressor control, it is equally applicable to
process simulation.
Next, a modifed form of the Fan Laws is applied to
further transform the dimensionless coordinate system to one
that is also independent of rotational speed. The Fan Laws
of centrifugal pumps or fans, also known as the Affnity
Laws, express the infuence of changes in rotational speed,
diameter, and density on volumetric fowrate, head (H) (or
pressure), and shaft power. When the fan diameter and the
fuid density at the fan suction are constant, the Fan Laws can
be expressed as:
Q
1
/Q
2
= w
1
/w
2
(5a)
H
1
/H
2
= (w
1
/w
2
)
2
(5b)
P
1
/P
2
= (w
1
/w
2
)
3
(5c)
It follows from these relationships that when H/w
2
and
P/w
3
are plotted against Q/w, the performance curves for a
given set of suction conditions reduce to a single curve for
head and a single curve for power. However, because the Fan
Laws do not strictly apply to compressors, a modifed form
of the Fan Laws must be used.
The resulting coordinate system, referred to as the
reduced coordinate system, has as its dependent variables
the transformed (reduced) polytropic head (H
p,r
) and reduced
power (P
r
), and as its independent variable the reduced volu-
metric suction fow (Q
r
). In the reduced coordinate system,
the performance curves for polytropic head and for power at
different suction conditions are each represented by a single
p Figure 3. A reduced performance map aggregates a series of performance curves into a single curve in the reduced coordinate system.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Reduced Volumetric Suction Flow
R
e
d
u
c
e
d

P
o
l
y
t
r
o
p
i
c

H
e
a
d
Design
Derime
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
R
e
d
u
c
e
d

P
o
w
e
r
Reduced Volumetric Suction Flow
Design
Derime
Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
CEP June 2011 www.aiche.org/cep 45
aggregate curve, as shown in Figure 3. These aggregate
curves are expressed as:
H
p,r
= f
4
(Q
r
) (6)
P
r
= f
5
(Q
r
) (7)
Transforming the performance maps to the reduced
coordinate system is very powerful. Consider the following
modeling scenario. Given the suction conditions, rotational
speed, and volumetric suction fow for a particular operat-
ing condition (real or simulated), the reduced volumetric
suction fow is calculated by applying the transforma-
tions, calculating frst Q
n
and w
n
, and then Q
r
. The reduced
polytropic head and reduced power corresponding to the
reduced volumetric suction fow are then determined from
the aggregate performance curves, i.e., from f
4
(Q
r
) and
f
5
(Q
r
), respectively. The polytropic head and power in
engineering units are then easily calculated by inverting the
transformations, frst calculating H
p,n
and P
n
, and then H
p

and P. Transforming the performance maps provided by the
compressor manufacturer, which strictly apply only at their
corresponding suction conditions and rotational speeds, to
reduced coordinates in this way enables performance curves
for polytropic head and power that are particular to different
operating conditions (i.e., suction conditions and rotational
speed) to be constructed.
To make a reduced performance map (i.e., the aggre-
gate curves of reduced polytropic head and reduced power)
more useful, the aggregate curves need to be represented
by appropriate functions whose parameters are ftted to the
reduced data.
Functional representation of
the reduced performance map
Based on a visual inspection of Figure 3, a quadratic
function appears to be a good choice for representing the
aggregate performance curves for both polytropic head,
f
4
(Q
r
), and power, f
5
(Q
r
). However, experience has proven
otherwise. A quadratic function is not a suitable representa-
tion of the aggregate power curve, which is not symmetric
about the perpendicular line through its apex. In addition, a
quadratic function ftted to the data typically will not extrap-
olate through the origin a necessary physical constraint. A
quadratic function is also not a suitable representation of the
aggregate curve of polytropic head at low values of reduced
volumetric suction fow, where it becomes nearly linear.
The next likely choice of functional form would be a
higher-order polynomial. However, high-order polynomials
can wobble, even within the range of the data being ftted,
and they may not extrapolate well both signifcant disad-
vantages for process simulation.
Experience has shown that a very good ft is obtained
when the aggregate performance curves are divided into
three segments representing the surge, normal, and stone-
wall regions of the performance curves and the segments
are represented by the functions listed in Table 1.
The functions parameters and the segments end points
are determined by ftting the curves to the reduced data.
This yields smooth, piecewise-ftted curves, as shown in
Figure 4. The functions ft the curve segments well, and they
extrapolate well for both low and high reduced volumetric
suction fows. Although fowrates below the reduced surge
fow are not physically meaningful, reasonable extrapola-
tion to low fows is required to ensure robust solution of the
compressor unit-operation model. Reasonable extrapolation
in the stonewall region facilitates robust solution up to the
stonewall fow.
Design
Derime
Fitted
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
R
e
d
u
c
e
d

P
o
l
y
t
r
o
p
i
c

H
e
a
d
Reduced Volumetric Suction Flow
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
R
e
d
u
c
e
d

P
o
w
e
r
Reduced Volumetric Suction Flow
Design
Derime
Fitted
p Figure 4. The surge, normal, and stonewall operation segments of the aggregate performance curves can be represented by different functions.
Table 1. The aggregate performance curves
can be divided into segments,
each represented by a different functional form.
Curve Segment Polytropic Head Power
Surge Exponential Quadratic
Normal Power Power
Stonewall Quadratic Quadratic
Article continues on next page
Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
46 www.aiche.org/cep June 2011 CEP
Computational Methods
Using the reduced performance map
in dynamic process simulation
As stated previously, accurately simulating the behavior
of processes that include centrifugal compressors requires
process simulators that rigorously model these devices over
their entire range of suction conditions and rotational speeds,
from surge through stonewall operation.
Figure 5 is a typical compressor loop fowsheet devel-
oped using such a simulator. Figure 6 presents details for
compressor unit operation K-100, which has been confgured
as a centrifugal compressor using the reduced coordinate sys-
tem representation of the performance maps. The polytropic
head performance map for this compressor, Figure 7, was
constructed from the reduced aggregate performance curve
for polytropic head at the existing suction conditions. The
speeds for which performance curves are plotted were speci-
fed by the modeling engineer using the speed curves selector
on the right-hand side of the window.
The current operating point, represented by the red dot, is
superimposed on the performance map. In dynamic simula-
tion, the operating point moves as the suction conditions,
rotational speed, and/or discharge pressure vary. For the
purpose of illustration, a transfer function (the K-100 speed
block of the fowsheet) was applied to cause the rotational
speed to oscillate, as depicted by the green line on the strip
chart in Figure 8. The red and blue lines in Figure 8 represent
the dynamic responses of the volumetric suction fow and the
polytropic head.
15
17
1
3
4
6
5
7
10
11 12
13 14
8 9
16
2
VLV-103
VLV-100
VLV-102
VLV-101
V-101
MIX-100
MIX-101
K-100 E-100
V-100
TEE-100
RCY-1
R
PIC-100
LIC-100
Q-100
Q-101
K-100
Speed
K-100
Surge
Controller
p Figure 5. This compressor loop owsheet was created by a process simulator that rigorously models compressors over their entire operating range.
p Figure 6. The Parameters page of the Design tab for compressor
K-100 provides design details for this equipment.
3.5e+004
3.0e+004
2.5e+004
2.0e+004
1.5e+004
1.0e+004
5.0e+004
0.00
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
H
e
a
d
,

m
Flowrate, actual m
3
/h
Head Curves
2,800 rpm
3,200 rpm
3,400 rpm
2,800 rpm
Operating Point
p Figure 7. Compressor K-100s performance map for polytropic head
was constructed from the reduced aggregate polytropic head curve at the
existing suction conditions, at various speeds.
Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
CEP June 2011 www.aiche.org/cep 47
In addition to integrating reduced performance maps
into its mathematical model of the centrifugal compressor
unit operation, it is crucial that the process simulator also
provide a tool to assist the engineer in transforming the dig-
itized performance curves into the reduced coordinate sys-
tem, that is, in creating the aggregate performance curves
and ftting the parameters of the functions that represent
these curves. Without such a tool, this task would simply
be too daunting, and the value associated with the reduced
coordinate system representation of the performance maps
would not be realized.
1.800e
+004
1.500e
+004
1.200e
+004
9,000
6,000
2,995 3,000
3,360 (rpm)
2.152e+004 (m)
1.328e+004 (m
3
)
3,005
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

F
l
o
w
r
a
t
e
,

m
3
/
h
Minutes
p Figure 8. This strip chart records the dynamic responses of polytropic
head (blue) and volumetric suction owrate (red) to variations in rotational
speed (green).
Literature Cited
1. Stephenson, G., et al., Proft More from Process Simulation,
Chem. Processing, 72 (8), pp. 2326 (Aug. 2009).
2. Willetts, I., and A. Nair, Using High-Fidelity Dynamic Simu-
lation to Model Compressor Systems, Chem. Eng. Progress,
106 (4), pp. 4448 (Apr. 2010).
3. Batson, B. W., Invariant Coordinate Systems for Compressor
Control, presented at the International Gas Turbine and Aeroen-
gine Congress and Exhibition, Birmingham, U.K. (June 1996).
GRANT STEPHENSON is an Engineering Fellow with Honeywells Automa-
tion Control Solutions business, where he serves as the global
process simulation architect for Honeywell Process Solutions. He
has worked in the eld of process simulation for more than 35 years,
with particular interest in dynamic simulation, equation-oriented
modeling and simultaneous solution of owsheet models, and the
application of modeling and optimization to plant operations. He
is the originator of the dynamic simulation engine of the Shadow
Plant simulator and is a pioneer of the hybrid solution architecture
and its application to large-scale dynamic simulation. Before joining
Honeywell, he held positions with DuPont Canada, Atomic Energy
of Canada, the Univ. of Western Ontario (in the engineering facultys
Systems Analysis Control and Design Activity, SACDA, group), and
SACDA Inc. He holds an MSc degree in applied mathematics from the
Univ. of Western Ontario.
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Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)