EFFECTS OF WOMEN LITERACY ON COMMUNITY HIV/AIDS

LEVEL OF CONTROL IN KENYA: A SURVEY OF ELDORET TOWN

By

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF

. IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE AWARD OF A ..
DEPARTMENT OF ..
UNIVERSITY
DATE..
DECLARATION
Dec!"!#$%& 'y C!&($(!#e
I declare that this project is my original work and that it has neither been presented in any
other institution for examination and/nor for the award of a certificate. That no part of this
work shall be reproduced without the consent of the author and/or that of the ..
University.
N!)e: .
.
S$*&.. D!#e
Dec!"!#$%& 'y S+,e"-$.%"
I declare that this project has been submitted for examination with my authority as
.. University upervisor.
N!)e: ..
S$*&.. D!#e
ii
DEDICATION
To my family members! relatives and colleagues
iii
ACKNOWLED/EMENT
I would like to first of all acknowledge the presence of "lmighty #od for giving me the
grace and power to write this research project. I would like to acknowledge the effort of my
supervisor . for wise guidelines commitment! advice and
encouragement throughout this work. I could also appreciate my parents through their
commitment s both morally and financial assistance.
.. University! and the $unicipal %ouncil of &ldoret all deserve my kind and
heartfelt appreciation! were it not for them this .. would have not been
possible.
'n the other hand I would also dedicate my project to all my fellow students of
for their wise guidelines! motivation! criticism and encouragement in
.
iv
ABSTRACT
$any people are still suffering from (I)/"I* infections despite all those control and
management strategies in place for people affected by (I)/"I*. %ommunity responses to
the (I)/"I* pandemic already include self+sacrificing home+based care for the sick and
the matter+of+fact integration of orphans into already stressed extended families. The
educational programme on (I)/"I* control may have a considerable impact on increasing
consistent control and management of (I)/"I*. &ven with the much published information
in the media! electronic! and or print media! there are still people! especially women and the
vulnerable groups! suffering from the disease. *oes women literacy protect against (I)
infection through the health skills and disease related information it transmits to learners! or
is there something inherent in the very process of becoming more literate that helps
themselves protect against infection, -hile they are clearly right to argue that the increased
knowledge! information and awareness that education provides are important protectors
against infection! it is believed that the general impact of education in and of itself may be
the most significant factor. It is either they are health illiterate or ignorant or even lacking
resources to help tackle this challenge. Therefore the purpose of this study was to investigate
on the impacts of -omen .iteracy on (I)/"I* control in /enya.
The objective of this study was to find out the forms of health literacy types of women on
(I)/"I*. The findings of the study will be useful to policy makers on (I)! which would
result in the legislative acts which provide protection to government employees! labour
organi0ations! the educational sector! and private entities. The study was guided by the theory
of (ealth .iteracy developed by -ood! 123334. To achieve the objectives of the study!
survey research design was adopted and the focus of this study was cross+sectional. The
study was carried out at selected community health centres in &ldoret Town. &ldoret is a
town in western /enya and the administrative centre of Uasin #ishu *istrict of 5ift )alley
6rovince. The total population is approximately 7893 employees of the surveyed community
health centres. The participants in this study were :878 192; females! and <=; males4 from
selected community health centres in the entire &ldoret town. The study targeted a cross
section of employees from various departments across all levels and areas of work. The
researcher distributed the >uestionnaires randomly! which were clarified and explained
ade>uately to the respondents. The >uestionnaires were collected on agreed dates. It used
tables! charts! percentages! and chi s>uare was also be used in analysis the .ikert scaled data.
The study found out that educationally disadvantaged women were not able to access
information on (I)/"I* control due to socio+economic pressures. The results of the survey
clearly indicated a significant gap in knowledge about (I) prevention among women.
?irstly! more effective measure should be taken to ensure and subsidi0e female adolescents to
finish twelve years of compulsory educations@ this will not only reduce women entering in to
commercial sex but will increase protection use among 6rotections and their clients.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
C%&#e&# P!*e
*eclaration..............i
*edication..ii
"cknowledgement............iii
"bstract.iv
Table of %ontents..v
.ist of ?igures..vii
.ist of Tables..........viii
.ist of "bbreviations and "cronymsix
'perational *efinitions of Terms......x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
:.3 Introduction..........:
:.: Aackground to the tudy..........:
:.2 tatement of the 6roblem.<
:.8 'bjectives of the tudy7
:.9 5esearch Buestions..........=
:.< 5esearch (ypotheses...=
:.C ignificance of the tudy.=
:.7 cope and .imitations of the tudy.D
:.7.: The cope of the tudy.D
:.7.2 .imitations of the tudyD
:.= Theoretical ?ramework......:3
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.3 Introduction::
2.: (istorical *evelopment of .iteracy...::
2.2 The Theoretical ?ramework.......:8
2.:.: The %oncept of (I)/"I* %ontrol:9
2.8 5eview of .iterature......:<
2.9 Issues affecting access to literacy programmes.........:<
2.< The impact of -omen literacy on (I)/"I* control...:C
2.C The ambiguous role of literacy in the context of (I)/"I*.........:7
2.7 "ccess to (ealthcare and (ome $anagement of (I)......:7
2.= Information .iteracy on (I)/"I* 6revention of Transmission.........:=
2.D .iteracy on 6revention of (I)/"I*:D
2.:3 The Impact of .iteracy and the (I)/"I* %ontrol2:
2.:3.: Using literacy to protect against (I) infection22
2.:: ummary of .iterature.....28
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESI/N AND METHODOLO/Y
8.3 Introduction....2<
8.: 5esearch *esign.2<
8.2 The tudy "rea..2<
8.8 Target 6opulation...2C
8.9 ample i0e and ampling Techni>ues.2C
8.< *ata %ollection 6rocedure.27
vi
8.C *ata %ollection Instruments..27
8.C.: Buestionnaire..2=
8.7 6ilot tudy..2D
8.7.: )alidity of the Instruments.....2D
8.7.2 5eliability of the Instruments..2D
8.= *ata "nalysis.83
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION0 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
9.3 Introduction....8:
9.: *emographic Information..8:
9.:.: .iteracy of 5espondents.82
9.:.2 5espondents "ge *istribution82
9.:.8 5espondents $arital tatus82
9.:.9 5espondents &ducational .evel..88
9.:.< 5espondents .ength of tay in the *epartment.88
9.2 6resentation of #eneral Information..89
9.8 /nowledge on (I)/"I* Transmission...89
9.9 ources of information on (I)/"I*...8<
9.< /nowledge on (I)/"I* 6revention...8C
9.C Impact of (I)/"I* on the &ducation ector and
5espondents in 6articular..87
9.7 5espondentsE %oping $echanisms....87
9.= 6ercentage distribution of respondents by age and
knowledge of (I) transmission8=
9.D 6ercentage distribution of respondents by education
and knowledge of (I) transmission..8D
9.:3 6ercentage distribution of respondents by duration
and knowledge of (I) transmission...93
9.:: 6ercentage distribution of respondents by last
weekEs income and knowledge of (I) transmission..9:
9.:2 6ercentage distribution of respondents by area and
knowledge of (I) transmission.9:
9.:8 6ercentage distribution of respondents with
participation in activity of (I) prevention program
by knowledge of (I)/"I*92
9.:9 6ercentage distribution of respondents by self
perceived risk and knowledge of (I) transmission92
9.:< "ssociation between safe sex practice and socio
demographic characters98
9.:CF 6ercentage distribution of safe sex practice of
-omen literacy by socio demographic factors!
programmatic factors! psycho+social factors and
knowledge of (I) transmission..99
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSIONS0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
<.3 Introduction9C
<.: *iscussions of ?indings.9C
<.2 %onclusions97
vii
<.8 5ecommendations..9D
<.9 uggestions for further tudies..9D
5eferences<3
"ppendices...<8
viii
LIST OF FI/URES
F$*+"e P!*e
?igure 9.:F 5espondentsE %oping $echanisms.8=
ix
LIST OF TABLES
T!'e P!*e
Table 8.:F ampling ?rame......27
Table 9.:F .iteracy *istribution of 5espondents.82
Table 9.2F 5espondents "ge *istribution82
Table 9.8F *istribution of 5espondents $arital tatus88
Table 9.9F *istribution of 5espondents .evel of &ducation88
Table 9.<F .ength of tay in the *epartment..89
Table 9.CF /nowledge on (I)/"I* Transmission8<
Table 9.7F ources of Information on (I)/"I*8<
Table 9.=F /nowledge on (I)/"I* 6revention....8C
Table 9.DF 5espondentsE $ost 5eferred ource of
Information on (I)/"I*..8C
Table 9.:3F Impact of -omen .iteracy on (I)/"I* %ontrol..87
Table 9.::F 6ercentage distribution of respondents by
age and knowledge of (I) transmission 1GHD3=4...8D
Table 9.:2F 6ercentage distribution of respondents by
education and knowledge of (I) transmission 1GH=D24.8D
Table 9.:8F 6ercentage distribution of respondents by
duration and knowledge of (I) transmission 1GHD3=4...93
Table 9.:9F 6ercentage distribution of respondents by
last weekEs income and knowledge of (I) transmission.9:
Table 9.:<F 6ercentage distribution of respondents
by area and knowledge of (I) transmission 1GHD3=4.9:
Table 9.:CF 6ercentage distribution of respondents with
participation in activity of (I) prevention program by
knowledge of (I)/"I* 1GHD3<4...92
Table 9.:7F 6ercentage distribution of respondents by self perceived
risk and knowledge of (I) transmission..92
Table 9.:=F 6ercentage distribution of safe sex practice of
-omen literacy by socio demographic factors!
programmatic factors! psycho+social factors and knowledge
of (I) transmission..99
x
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
AIDS+ "c>uired immune deficiency syndrome
ART1 "ntiretroviral treatment
BSS +Aehavioral urveillance urvey
HIPAA1 (ealth Insurance 6ortability and "ccountability "ct
ILY1International .iteracy Iear
SPSS +tatistical 6ackage for ocial ciences
SSA1 ub+aharan "frica
STI.+exually Transmitted Infections
IEC+Information! &ducation and %ommunication
CCB+%ommunication for %hange of Aehaviour
xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
2.3 I&#"%(+c#$%&
This chapter gives provides the background of the study! the statement of the problem! the
objectives of the study! the research >uestions! hypotheses of the study! the significance of the
study! the scope and limitation of the study and finally theoretical framework.
2.2 B!c4*"%+&( #% #5e S#+(y
There is a popular assertion that information is power! wealth and most importantly good health
and that good health is a prere>uisite for wealth and power ac>uisition. %orrect information has
the ability to make a U+turn in the life of an individual! family! community! region and the
nation at large if properly exploited. Information and conse>uently health is an indispensable
instrument for individual/national/regional/global development. ustainable development
re>uires a healthy and vibrant workforce empowered with the right kind of information and
tools.
"c>uired immune deficiency syndrome 1"I*4 is a major public health problem. In 2337!
worldwide over 88 million people were infected with human immunodefiency virus 1(I)4! the
cause of "I*. In the same year! an estimated 2.7 million new infections occurred. UG"I*!
1233=4 estimated that 2 million people died from "I*+related illnesses in 2337. ub+aharan
"frica 1"4 is the worst affected area! with some countries still experiencing an expansion of
the epidemic. The prevalence of (I) varies enormously within "F it is much higher in east
and southern "frica than in west and central countries.
(I)+positive people will develop "I* within = to :3 years after infection and die one to two
years later! unless they take antiretroviral treatment 1"5T4. They die from opportunistic
infections such as tuberculosis! from cancer! or from general weakening and wasting. (I) is
transmitted by unprotected sexual contact! by needle exchange in intravenous drug use! and
through vertical transmission from mother+to+child. If infected blood comes into contact with
an open wound intravenous drug use or blood transfusions4! (I) can be transmitted. The
transmission of (I) from mother+to+child can occur during pregnancy! at childbirth or during
breastfeeding. -ithout preventive treatment! the transmission rate from mother+to+child before
:
or during birth is around 2< percent. This can be reduced to one percent if antiretroviral drug
treatment and caesarean section are available.
6revention through reducing risk behaviour is the key in reducing (I) infection! since "5T
treatment coverage in the developing world remains low and after more than 23 years of
research an effective vaccine is not yet available. $oreover! "5T does not cure the patient and
the viral load may return to high levels after treatment is stopped. The different behavioural
interventions to prevent (I) transmission are described below. (ealth education can impact
the (I) prevalence by changing risk behavior. J"A% campaignsE are an example of health
education in which people are advised to delay sexual debut or abstain from sex 1" from
"bstinence4! to reduce the number of partners and stick to one partner 1A from Ae faithful4! and
to use protections.
Unfortunately! the "A% approach has only occasionally achieved significant behavior change
and it continues to be debated among experts in (I) prevention. %orrect use of latex
protections reduces the risk of sexual transmission of (I) by about =<;. If protections are
used consistently! the effectiveness can be as high as D<;. *isadvantages of protections are
that they are not always accepted! and that they need a continuous supply. 6rotections are also
not used if pregnancy is wanted. The use of protections depends on the type of partnerF it is
often higher during commercial sex contacts than with regular partners. The uptake of other
physical barriers! such as female protections and diaphragms! has been modest. *iaphragms
may in the future play an important role as a mechanism to deliver antimicrobial or
antiretroviral products.
"mong the alternative educational delivery systems currently being explored is the use of
interactive radio. The appointment of itinerant respondents! based at central schools! who
oversee tutors engaged by community groups! is another. 5ecogni0ing that the standard formal
school system is not ade>uately e>uipped to meet the needs of all children! some communities
have established their own schools! with their own respondents! curricula and management
structures. " community+based school may be able to respond very rapidly to community and
learner needs and may benefit from the commitment fostered by local ownership and control.
2
Aut community based schools run the risk of becoming second+rate educational institutions
serving only the poorest students.
There is the especially troubling possibility that governmental education authorities may view
the establishment of such schools as absolving them of responsibility for the education of the
communities they serve and thus for some of those most in need of public assistance. The
world is therefore is looking for viable techni>ues of eradicating the scourge! this calls for more
awareness campaigns which is done through health literacy capacity buildings. (ealth literacy
is crucial if patients are to benefit from health care. 6eople who cannot read or understand the
words used to describe health problems! diagnostic tests! medications! and directions for care
experience yet another source of confusion in negotiating the health care system and are
significantly handicapped in the tasks of self+care or caring for family members.
The state of general functional literacy in the United tates is not high. "ccording to the
Gational "dult .iteracy urvey 1/irsch! et. al.! :DD84! nearly half of all adult U.. citi0ens have
difficulty with reading skills. The state of health literacy can be even lower than general
functional literacy because the medical vocabulary people encounter in health care settings or
in the news is more complex than that of other areas of life! and because changes in the nature
of illness from episodic to chronic conditions and in health care delivery now re>uire patients
to be active participants in their care. ?or example! the patient is the primary caregiver in
diabetes.
The health care provider assists the patient! since nearly all diabetes care occurs outside the
formal health care environment. In addition to self+care for illness! patients must now make
critical life choices on entrance into the health care system. %onsent to treatment! (ealth
Insurance 6ortability and "ccountability "ct 1(I6""4 acknowledgements! advanced
directives! health history forms! and assignment of responsibility all must be completed before
entering the patient treatment area. The actual instructions for care! directions to other facilities
for diagnostic procedures known by either mystifying initials or KhardL names like
Kcomputeri0ed tomography!L and prescriptions and product inserts that appear to be written in a
8
foreign language are difficult enough for educated people but can be overwhelming to those
with limitations in health literacy.
The only health literacy research focused on a rural population 1$ontalto et. al.! 233:4 was
conducted to assess the literacy level of a clinic population and the resultant adjustments in care
made by the health care providers. (ealth care providers who are aware of the very real ill
effects of low health literacy may be more willing to consider it in their care. -illiams! Aaker!
6arker! and Gurss 1:DD=4 compared the health literacy of people with hypertension and diabetes
to knowledge about the disease and found that only around half of those with inade>uate health
literacy knew important clinical signs re>uired for disease self+management. #lycemic control
was worse for people with diabetes and health literacy problems according to chillinger et al.
123324. The combination of inade>uate health literacy and chronic illness! such as diabetes!
reduces the likelihood that people will participate in their care to the extent needed for effective
disease management 1%hwedyk! 23384.
The complexity of adherence to (I) therapies is made more difficult for those with low health
literacy. Interventions directed at those with low health literacy were recommended after health
literacy was identified as an independent predictor of missed drug doses for (I)+seropositive
men and women 1/alichman! et. al.! :DDD4. It is important that new methods are developed for
women to protect themselves! since it may be difficult for them to negotiate protection use.
6r&6 pills and microbicides are good options! since they can be used before sexual intercourse!
and women themselves can be in control. Unfortunately! safe and effective microbicides have
not been found yet. " recent review of microbicides trials showed that four trials were stopped
prematurely due to poor safety and efficacy. 'ne completed trial showed no reduction in (I)
ac>uisition and in an ongoing study a low dose trial arm was discontinued.
ome fear that the use of new (I) interventions may lead to risk compensation that is the
increase in risk behavior when people feel themselves protected by the new intervention. This
is especially important if new interventions are only partially effective! which most often the
case is. 5isk compensation due to a false sense of security has been reported in vaccine safety
trials and could also occur in male circumcision and 6r&6. "dditional information and
9
education should be provided to people who visit health care centers to obtain their pills or to
undergo circumcision. " recent study showed that participating in a 6r&6 trial in #hana
decreased risk behavior! probably as a conse>uence of counseling and associated protection
provision
6roblems with health literacy also increase the costs of care. %ompared with persons with
ade>uate health literacy! persons of low health literacy experienced greater difficulty in
navigating the health care system 1-eiss! :DDD4! <3; more hospital admissions 1Aaker!
-illiams! 6arker! and %lark! :DD=4! and more errors in personal health management 1-illiams!
et. al.! :DD=4. &stimates of 233: expenditures for health care as a result of low literacy ranged
from M82+<= billion 1%enter for (ealth %are trategies! 23384.
2.6 S#!#e)e&# %7 #5e P"%'e)
$any people are still suffering from (I)/"I* infections despite all those control and
management strategies in place for people affected by (I)/"I*. The government is also
challenged by the scourge as it needs large capital resources to alleviate the (I) situation in the
country. %ommunity responses to the (I)/"I* pandemic already include self+sacrificing
home+based care for the sick and the matter+of+fact integration of orphans into already stressed
extended families. %ommunity participation+which would be vital to social development
whether or not there were an (I)/"I* crisis+must also be central to the transformation of the
education delivery system in response to the challenges of (I)/"I*.
The educational programme on (I)/"I* control may have a considerable impact on
increasing consistent control and management of (I)/"I*. -ith stigmati0ation and
discriminatory attitude towards people living with (I)/"I*! it is difficult to approach these
individuals in the community setting with preventive efforts and safe sexual practices.
?urthermore! the public campaigns and advertisement on (I) and its prevention! often carried
in the electronic media do not get to majority of the populace because of poor access to such
facilities. This could account for the poor knowledge of (I) found at baseline among our
respondents.
<
The impressive increased consistency (I)/"I* control during the follow up period
demonstrated how efficacious such intervention programme for (I) positive individual. -ith
such good knowledge! respondents that engage in risky sexual practices like multiple sex
partners will appreciate the need for consistent protection use to prevent (I) and TIs. (igher
educational attainment which no doubt will increase the knowledge of (I) transmission is also
a significant predictor of consistent protection use. *espite the absence of a medical vaccine
against (I) infection! society has at its disposal a Nsocial vaccineO! the vaccine of education.
everal strategies have been established to expound on the notion of good health through user
friendly health information packages and these include the I&% 1Information! &ducation and
%ommunication4 or %%A 1%ommunication for %hange of Aehaviour4 amongst others. To
achieve better health for the greater majority of the population the right kind of information
must be obtained through a variety of channels basically involving research. " well designed
study will produce information that targets specific problems thus improving on decision
making and conse>uently a positive >uality of life. %onversely! poorly collected data
misinforms and breeds bad policies with resultant adverse effects on the population.
'nce the right information has been generated! it has to be packaged in a user friendly manner
that will be better understood by the end users or the community. 'nce this information is
understood the resultant effect is appropriate health education of the individual! family or
community. ?or example! in the past! children presenting with convulsions either from
infections or particularly from cerebral malaria were taken to pit toilettes and their heads
inserted through the hole for some period. This was thought to cure the child of some bad spirit
or the underlying ailment. Thanks to information and education! parents now know that
convulsing children should be sponged with water to bring down their body temperature before
they are rushed to the nearest health care facility. This information has reduced the high fatality
rate of convulsing children as was the case in the past. (ealth information can therefore avoid
health epidemics and also improve on the >uality and efficiency of health care service delivery
by providing tools to help health care professionals deliver the highest >uality of care.
C
&ven with the much published information in the media! electronic! and or print media! there
are still people! especially women and the vulnerable groups! suffering from the disease but are
not aware of how to handle the situation. *oes women literacy protect against (I) infection
through the health skills and disease+ related information it transmits to learners! or is there
something inherent in the very process of becoming more literate that helps themselves protect
against infection, -hile they are clearly right to argue that the increased knowledge!
information and awareness that education provides are important protectors against infection!
we believe the general impact of education in and of itself may be the most significant factor. It
is either they are health illiterate or ignorant or even lacking resources to help tackle this
challenge. Therefore the purpose of this study was to investigate on the impacts of -omen
.iteracy on (I)/"I* control in /enya.
2.8 O'9ec#$-e. %7 #5e S#+(y
The general objective of this study was to investigate on the impact of women literacy on
(I)/"I* control in /enya.
The specific objectives includedF
i4 To find out the forms of health literacy types of women on (I)/"I*
ii4 To find out the causes of -ork 6lace+.iteracy related (I) control
iii4 To examine if there exist strategies of elimination of (I) in work places
iv4 To examine how education has contributed to the existence and/or non+existence of
-ork 6lace+.iteracy related (I) control behaviours
2.: Re.e!"c5 Q+e.#$%&.
The general research >uestion of this study wasF what is the impact of education on women
(I) control in the work places,
The specific research >uestions includedF
i4 -hat are the types of (I) control common in the work places,
ii4 -hat are the causes of -ork 6lace+.iteracy related (I) control,
iii4 -hich strategies are used to eliminate (I) in work places,
iv4 (ow education has contributed to the existence and/or non+existence of -ork
6lace+.iteracy related (I) control behaviours,
7
2.; Re.e!"c5 Hy,%#5e.e.
H3
2
: -ork 6laces are prone to (I)s
H3
6
: There is no association between education and (I) in work places
2.< S$*&$7$c!&ce %7 #5e S#+(y
The findings of the study will be useful to policy makers on (I)! which would result in the
legislative acts which provide protection to government employees! labour organi0ations! the
educational sector! and private entities that employ :< or more workers. In addition to the issue
of e>ual pay! prohibitions against literacy+based (I) control apply to health and insurance
benefits! vacation pay! bonuses and stock options! and reimbursement for business+related
travel expenses. In :DD8! passage of the ?amily and $edical .eave "ct entitled workers to job
security/restoration during approved absences related to personal and family medical
emergencies. This legislation also acknowledged for the first time that attending to sick family
members wasnOt just the purview of women.
-omen in "merica were first granted the right to vote in :D23. Ay :D9=! the United Gations
had developed and implemented the Universal *eclaration of (uman 5ights! giving women
world+wide the right to vote when it stated that P&veryone has the right to take part in the
government of his country! directly or through freely chosen representatives. The will of the
people shall be the basis of the authority of government@ this will be expressed in periodic and
genuine elections which shall be by universal and e>ual suffrage and shall be held by secret
vote or by e>uivalent free voting procedures. Thus the study will add value to the knowledge of
the current campaigns against (I) in the work places! politics! and socio+economic activities.
2.= Sc%,e !&( L$)$#!#$%&. %7 #5e S#+(y
2.=.2 T5e Sc%,e %7 #5e S#+(y
The study was carried out in selected organisations in &ldoret town! 5ift )alley 6rovince. This
area of coverage was reliable in obtaining the information suitable to achieve the objectives of
the study. " larger coverage would have been essential! as it would have reduced the degree of
sampling error thus improving on the findings but the small area was opted for. "lso the study
was based on the theoretical framework in which only the variables under the theory would be
=
considered for (I) in work places created a smaller scope of coverage for the study. This
means that any variable! or phenomenon outside this scope whether important would not be
considered for investigation.
2.=.6 L$)$#!#$%&. %7 #5e S#+(y
everal limitations may have affected the outcomes of this research. ?irst! selection bias may
have excluded those who were unable to read who did not want to reveal their literacy
problems. If this did occur! the results would have yielded an even greater literacy problem
within the rural clinic clientele. hame and embarrassment are common among those with
literacy difficulties! and making the choice not to participate in a study in which the patient
would perform poorly is a self+protective mechanism. Those who attempt to conceal their
literacy difficulties are at increased risk for treatment failure if they are unable to follow written
prescriptions.
econd! the proportion of ethnic minorities in the sample was not large enough to represent
rural "frican "mericans. ?urther research should strive to achieve diversity in the sample to
assess if a difference exists in the health literacy of rural dwellers based on ethnicity.
?inally! vision of the participants was not assessed and may have affected the performance of
some of the participants! although none indicated difficulty during data collection. 'ne of the
most common reasons given for inability to complete forms is vision difficulty. KI forgot my
glassesL may actually mean KI cannot read these words.L "ssessment of visual acuity by the
researchers will ensure that the word recognition is not limited by inability to see the printed
words.
2.> T5e%"e#$c! F"!)e?%"4
The study was guided by the theory of (ealth .iteracy developed by -ood! 123334. The theory
refers to the ability to use and correctly interpret health information is important for people who
contend with one or more chronic diseases. 'ften! those with chronic illness have complex
medical management needs! and likely take multiple prescription drugs. The oral or written
instructions for medication management may be insufficient or confusing. This is a patient
D
safety issueF non+adherence or misuse of medications can result if patients do not understand
their prescriptions.
It suggests that patients with lower literacy levels and those who take a greater number of
medications were less able to understand their medication labels. The study found that even if
patients understood the words on the label! most could not correctly demonstrate how to take
the medication suggesting the importance of communicating clear directions and assisting with
any skill+building necessary to take the medication as directed.
:3
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
6.3 I&#"%(+c#$%&
This chapter involves systematic identification! location and analysis of the previous studies
related to the matter under investigation. It is useful chapter that entails analysis of casual
observations and opinions related to this study. %hapter two! through the literature review!
helped the researcher to get a thorough understanding and insight into past works and trends
records concerning the conflicts in organi0ational settings. The literature review enabled the
researcher to identify key areas that have thoroughly been researched on the strength of
weaknesses of past researchers! and identify the gaps to be filled from these studies.
6.2 H$.#%"$c! De-e%,)e&# %7 L$#e"!cy
The increased knowledge! skills! attitudes! and self+confidence that come with ac>uisition of
literacy skills have been demonstrated to help women in many waysF they more effectively
pursue income+generating activities 1-orld Aank! :DD<4 and become more active in
community groups and organi0ations 1"rcher and %ottingham! :DDC4. "dditionally! literate
adults better understand the legal system so that they are able to protect themselves from abuse
and exploitation 1.ind! :DD<4@ they more effectively pursue their individual and family health
needs and they provide better support for their childrenEs schooling.
ince its foundation in :D9C! UG&%' has been at the forefront of literacy efforts and
dedicated to keeping these high on national! regional and international education agendas.
Aeginning with its report on ?undamental &ducation 1:D974! UG&%' has taken great interest
in literacy as part of its efforts to promote basic education. Qust as the Universal *eclaration of
(uman 5ights defined education as a fundamental right! literacy has also been considered
something to which every person is entitled until the mid+:DC3s! a right primarily understood as
a set of technical skillsF reading! writing and calculating. 6romoting literacy was fundamentally
a matter of enabling individuals to ac>uire these skills! irrespective of the contents and methods
of their provision. The nature of literacy work consisted in making it possible for the maximum
number of individuals to ac>uire these skills.
::
This conception led to mass literacy campaigns aimed at the eradication of illiteracy within a
few years 1the econd International %onference on "dult &ducation! $ontreal! :DC34. %ontrary
to their intention! such campaigns whose influence is still felt revealed that literacy cannot be
sustained by short+term operations or by top+down and unisexual actions primarily directed
towards the ac>uisition of technical skills that do not give due consideration to the contexts and
motivations of learners and follow up closely on accomplishments. "nother lesson learnt in the
more successful campaigns! often carried out in overtly political frameworks! has to do with the
important role played by political will and social mobili0ation in literacy efforts 1Ahola! :D=94.
The :DC3s and :D73s brought attention to the ways in which literacy is linked with socio+
economic development! and the concept of Kfunctional literacyL was born. 6rogrammes for
functional literacy designed to promote reading and writing as well as arithmetical skills
necessary for increased productivity were the subject of many national and international
campaigns. ?or all that! the concept of Kfunctional literacyL marked a turning point in the
modern history of education. It allied education and especially literacy with social and
economic development and expanded the understanding of literacy beyond the imparting of
basic technical skills 1-orld %ongress of $inisters of &ducation on the &radication of
Illiteracy! Teheran! :DC<4! if only with a view to increased productivity.
%ontributing to this expanded understanding! 6aulo ?reire honoured by UG&%' for his
literacy work in :D7< R spotlighted the political dimension of literacy. (e developed a method
for teaching literacy in terms of cultural actions immediately relevant to the learner. Aest
known is his method of Kconscienti0ationL! which encourages the learner to >uestion why
things are the way they are and to undertake changing them for the better 1?reire! :D724. This
approach moved literacy beyond the narrow socio+economic confines of the &xperimental
-orld .iteracy 6rogramme and located it s>uarely in the political arena! emphasi0ing
connections between literacy and politically active participation in social and economic
transformation In the :D=3s and :DD3s! this work served as the basis for the further elaboration
of what literacy means and how it is ac>uired and applied. *uring International .iteracy Iear
1I.I4 in :DD3! UG&%' and the international community addressed literacy issues for all age
groups in both industriali0ed and developing countries.
:2
6.6 T5e T5e%"e#$c! F"!)e?%"4
The theory of health literacy is the ability to use and correctly interpret health information is
important for people who contend with one or more chronic diseases. 'ften! those with
chronic illness have complex medical management needs! and likely take multiple prescription
drugs. The oral or written instructions for medication management may be insufficient or
confusing.

This is a patient safety issueF non+adherence or misuse of medications can result if patients do
not understand their prescriptions. " study by *avis and colleagues demonstrated that patients
with lower literacy levels and those who take a greater number of medications were less able to
understand their medication labels. The study found that even if patients understood the words
on the label! most could not correctly demonstrate how to take the medication suggesting the
importance of communicating clear directions and assisting with any skill+building necessary to
take the medication as directed. -hile medication management is an important aspect of health
literacy! the conse>uences of low health literacy can have a wider impact. These may include
failure to recogni0e signs and symptoms of illness! inattention to preventive care or self+
management! and unwillingness to talk with medical providers out of fear or shame.
%onfirming patientsO understanding! regardless of the relative complexity of medical
information! has been suggested as a universal precaution for health care providers. 6lain
communication in the medical context would benefit persons at every education level! because
any interaction with the health care system carries at least some degree of stress. This stress
may in turn reduce ability to process and recall information. Aecause patients with chronic
disease are often in the position of having to self+monitor their condition and adjust their
therapy! teaching them self+care behaviors and helping them master the needs of their condition
can be a relevant approach. This is often a stepped and tailored process! with periodic refreshers
to ensure that patients sustain their self+management skills over time. " thoughtful look at your
health care system can turn up many ideas for paperwork reduction! streamlined or
standardi0ed processes! and clear! simple communication all elements of truly patient+centered
care.
:8
6.2.2 T5e C%&ce,# %7 HIV/AIDS C%&#"%
"ddressing the (I)/"I* crisis creatively and flexibly means adjusting educational delivery
systems. This entails establishing broad principles governing relevant timetables and education and
training calendars while allowing schools! colleges and communities to regulate scheduling in ways
that respond to locally experienced needs. Aut more than this is necessary. There may be+and often
are+too few respondents in "I*+affected communities. 6eople may not be able to attend school
because of costs or demands at home+at least not until they are older. The needs of students of
different ages! and the needs of girls and boys! may differ widely and re>uire age or literacy+
differentiated responses. " traditional educational system centred on a physical structure and
conceived in a relatively rigid and hierarchical way+with one teacher in charge of a class of forty or
more students+may have difficulty creating and maintaining appropriately flexible delivery systems.
"mong the alternative educational delivery systems currently being explored is the use of
interactive radio. The appointment of itinerant respondents! based at central schools! who
oversee tutors engaged by community groups! is another. 5ecogni0ing that the standard formal
school system is not ade>uately e>uipped to meet the needs of all children! some communities
have established their own schools! with their own respondents! curricula and management
structures. " community+based school may be able to respond very rapidly to community and
learner needs and may benefit from the commitment fostered by local ownership and control.
Aut community based schools run the risk of becoming second+rate educational institutions
serving only the poorest students. There is the especially troubling possibility that
governmental education authorities may view the establishment of such schools as absolving
them of responsibility for the education of the communities they serve+and thus for some of
those most in need of public assistance.
6.8 Re-$e? %7 L$#e"!#+"e
The study reviewed various literatures done on the same area of study. The main aim of this
study was to investigate the impact of women literacy on (I)/"I* prevention intervention
targeted at urban group of participants. The study used social+oriented presentation formats!
such as discussion between similar females and role+play. The following section presents the
information on the previous literatures.
:9
6.: I..+e. !77ec#$&* !cce.. #% $#e"!cy ,"%*"!))e.
In (I)/"I*+affected contexts many barriers may exist for adults attending women literacy
classes. 6rimary barriers may include where and when classes are held as well as attitudes
towards adults! specifically while being educated. 'ther issues that may hamper access to
women literacy provisions are age! literacy! language! religion! cultural norms and traditions!
ethnicity! nutritional state! health! in particular (I)/"I*! disability and other kinds of
vulnerabilities.
6overty is a strong factor which pushes people in or from (I)/"I*+affected countries into all
kinds of activities to secure survival of their families and at the same time prevents them from
using educational opportunities. The access to >uality humanitarian assistance and services!
including food aid! shelter material and basic health services is often a precondition for
refugees to be able to participate in women literacy and adult basic education programmes. In
the face of shrinking inflows of external aid! these priorities usually focus on formal education.
ecurity concerns! limited mobility and lack of funds can restrict the educational options!
particularly for girls and women. The search for physical protection is a driving force for
refugees affected and traumati0ed by war. In most situations girls and women would not attend
classes which took place at distant and inaccessible locations or in the evenings due to security
concerns. ocial and religious norms as well as policies on womenEs freedom of movement can
also restrict womenEs mobility! as is the case in "fghanistan and Ira>. These include access to
documentation! money to pay for transportation and male escorts.
" study by the -omenEs %ommission for 5efugee -omen and %hildren on "fghan women
and girls returning from Iran to the (erat 6rovince in "fghanistan in 233:! found only 83; of
the entire sample literate. The study also identified a number of reasons why women did not
attend adult women literacy classes organi0ed by the Iranian -omen literacy $ovement
'rgani0ation. Time and distance seemed to be the most important factor. $obility and
conservative cultural patterns also played a role. The number of literate females increased the
longer they were in Iran. ome adults felt ashamed to go to women literacy classes. -omen
had to look after children and disabled family members or were suffering from trauma and
nervous disorders. "nother reason why most adults did not benefit from any outreach services
:<
could be that many of the latest refugees in Iran are Jillegal immigrantsE and have had to avoid
contact with formal institutions in order to escape detection and deportation 1"0erbaijani+
$oghadam! .! 233:4. The latter reason! paired with a lack of information and language
problems is also preventing JillegalE immigrants! who fled from their crisis+affected countries
to industriali0ed countries! from making use of existing women literacy and language courses.
6.; T5e $),!c# %7 W%)e& $#e"!cy %& HIV/AIDS c%&#"%
The accountability of women literacy and adult basic education programmes implemented or
supported by international agencies is reduced mainly to financial! administrative! operational
and technical aspects. It is extremely difficult to find evaluation studies that would assess the
impact of women literacy programmes on learners and their (I)/"I*+affected environment.
Usually empirical evidence is missing in cases where relevant statements are made in terms of
peace+building and stability+promoting effects of educational interventions. *espite this
shortcoming it is worthwhile to analyse some good practice examples that reflect innovative
ways towards building sustainable peace in communities and societies.
6.< T5e !)'$*+%+. "%e %7 $#e"!cy $& #5e c%&#e@# %7 HIV/AIDS
#enerally women literacy and education are seen as inherently benevolent and conducive to
reducing and overcoming instability and violence. (owever! examples from different countries
show that education may become a contested terrain under conditions of inter+ethnic
(I)/"I*s environments. " recent UGI%&? study highlights some negative aspects of
education in relation to (I)/"I*! such as the use of education as a weapon in cultural
repression of minorities 1suppression of language! traditions! art forms! religious practices and
cultural values4! segregated education that serves to maintain ine>uality between social groups!
the manipulation of history and textbooks for political purposes! the inculcation of attitudes of
superiority! and also negative practices of literacy+based (I) control 1Aush! /./ altarelli! *.!
2333F84. Therefore! women literacy and education cannot be tackled in isolation. Their role and
potential to exacerbate (I)/"I* must be carefully analysed and comprehensively understood
in relation to the various social! political! ethnical! cultural! religious and security dimensions of
the (I)/"I* or post+(I)/"I* situation.
:C
"ny substantial progress in peace+building and social development has to be inclusive and
allow for participatory processes! one of the prere>uisites for this is women literacy. The recent
national human development report on "fghanistan emphasises the potential of education and
women literacy programmes to significantly improve human security. These programmes raise
not only the levels of women literacy but also have a host of positive externalities ranging from
improved household health management! to expanded decision+making capabilities! more
informed resource management 1UG*6! 2339 bF2384. (owever! until the full deployment of
this potential will be possible! others will have taken the decision+making positions in the
society thereby increase the risk of excluding and disempowering the largely illiterate "fghan
population which is Kstill struggling for physical survival and coming to terms with its losses.
6.= Acce.. #% He!#5c!"e !&( H%)e M!&!*e)e&# %7 HIV
In one study it was shown that nearness to health care site reduces fatality outcome to (I)
since prompt treatment to (I) prevents the development of complications and fatal outcomes.
%onse>uently the concept of home management of (I) was investigated. ?irstly studies had to
be conducted to demonstrate that mothers who are the caretakers in "frican communities can
diagnose fever or (I) in their children. 5esults from this study showed that over 7<; of
mothers can diagnose (I) in their children. Gext carefully packaged anti (I) with directive
for administration based on movement of the sun were distributed to mothers to use for the
treatment of (I) in their offspring. This trial also showed that a large number of rural women
could correctly administer anti (I) to their sick children. This endeavor has significantly
reduced (I) morbidity and particularly mortality in young children living in difficult to reach
communities or where health facilities are very distant from settlement areas. "n improvement
to this strategy was the education of mothers in the use of rectal anti (I) to sick children for
whom oral medication was impossible due to vomiting.
In this instance! mothers administered rectal anti (I) until the child was stable and it was
convenient for her to visit a health facility. It is evident from this submission that the
identification of preventive 1bed nets! chemoprophylaxis in pregnancy4 and therapeutic
measures 1home treatment4 against (I) when communicated in a user friendly manner to the
:7
grass root has the potential of reducing disease fre>uency and mortality. The outcome is an
improvement of the health status of the community and family finances or poverty alleviation.
6.> I&7%")!#$%& L$#e"!cy %& HIV/AIDS P"e-e&#$%& %7 T"!&.)$..$%&
(I)/"I* is one of the major public health problems in "frica. ub aharan "frica harbours
the highest burden of the (I)/"I* disease with country prevalence rates ranging between :;
to over 83;. -omen are the most vulnerable including commercial sex workers! truck drivers
and other mobile populations and military personnel. Transmission is mainly heterosexual with
the most infected age group being :<R9D years old. %ontrol of this pandemic has been hinged
on "bstinence! ?idelity in relationships and Use of a preservative 1protections4 if the first two
strategies are unlikely. In several studies conducted in %ameroon! it was observed that
knowledge on prevention strategies increased with level of formal education in both sexes.
$essage packaging for delivery to the grass root that included means of transmission of the
virus! voluntary counseling and testing sites and available treatment options was shown to
adversely affect incidence in some communities. %ommunication for change of behaviour and
social mobili0ation for greater use of health care services also had a positive impact on the (I)
status of the communities.
In ensuring that (I)/"I* prevention reaches every household in the community! the
%ameroon #overnment created .ocal "I* %ontrol %ommittees which comprised of mapped
geographical areas! elites! community elders and elected representatives of households or
streets. The mandate of this committee was to deliver user friendly message packages 1posters!
flyers! bill boards4 on (I)/"I* and exually Transmissible Infections 1TIs4 prevention! care
of patients living with (I)/"I*! available (I)/"I* counseling and screening facilities to
the communities so as to reduce the transmission of the (I) or cater for those who are already
infected. -ith regards to (I)/"I* my presentation on information literacy and the disease
will focus on prevention of mother+to+child transmission 1(I)/"I*4 of the virus.
:=
6.A L$#e"!cy %& P"e-e&#$%& %7 HIV/AIDS
-omen who are infected with (I) are usually counseled to avoid unwanted pregnancies since
it has been documented that close to :<; of children born to (I) infected mothers also get
infected either in utero! during birth or through breast milk. Thus (I) positive partner1s4 who
need a child can be counseled on safe procedures to adopt towards reducing the risk of
infecting their baby. %onse>uently focal points for the implementation and evaluation of
(I)/"I* strategies have been created in almost all health districts. %hildren occupy an
important position in a typical "frican family and therefore (I)/"I* activities should be
fully implemented to avoid the embarrassing situation of overburdening the health care system
with (I) infected newborns since couples will always want children irrespective of their
status.
5isk reduction in (I) transmission to the offspring is feasible and involves a collaborative
effort between the health care provider and the expectant mother/partner. #ood or safe delivery
practices will eliminate the contamination of the newborn during delivery thus leaving the
mother to make the wisest informed decision on the feeding option to adopt. "n infected
mother has the choice to make whether to infect her baby or not. *uring antenatal enrolment! it
is currently the procedure to counsel and screen all pregnant women for (I) amongst others.
Information is usually made available to the (I) infected mothers during post testing
counseling on the available options that will prevent her baby from becoming infected.
?irstly the mother is counseled to deliver in a health care center where delivery facilities are
optimal that ensures the newborn is not infected during delivery. econdly the (I) seropositive
mother is given different feeding options with varying risks of infecting the baby. These
include in order of increasing risk exclusive bottle feeding 1safest option4! breastfeeding for the
first four months and then bottle feeding thereafter! or exclusive breastfeeding throughout
infancy. In our community! we observed that the majority of women prefer the second optionF
breastfeeding for 8+9 months and then bottle feeding which exposes their baby to some risk of
(I) infection. This was associated with stigma since exclusive bottle feeding raises eyebrows
in the community and reveals the (I) status of the mother. It is however! difficult to
understand why a mother will choose an option that exposes her child to being infected instead
:D
of making the decision to prevent her baby from (I) infection. Is this due to lack of
information or stigma, This observation inspired us to brainstorm and asked several research
>uestions.
It was evident from field data obtained from different sites that men are reluctant to participate
in (I)/"I* of (I) activities either due to the Jmale egoE or fear of stigma or other unknown
reasons. The >uestion arises therefore on how we can educate men to increase their
participation in (I)/"I* programmes, -e are interested in identifying barriers that hinder
men from participating in antenatal care with their partners. 5esults from this study will
provide the necessary support women need to make a wise family decision on delivery and
feeding options that protect the child from being infected with the (I). There is the absolute
need to educate men on the need to support their partners in making the right decisions towards
protecting their offspring thus reducing the number of infected newborns and subse>uently
improve on the finances of the family.
-e also observed that most (I) positive women prefer to breastfeed their babies for between 8
to 9 months before switching to bottle feeding. The >uestion is why a mother will choose this
option when there is a safer option for the newbornEs protection. -e plan to investigate how
stigma! availability of resources and messaging affect a womanEs decision to comply (I)
interventions. -e will identify barriers that prevent women from making informed decisions
regarding (I)/"I* interventions 1relating to delivery at hospital and choice of infant feeding
options4. Information from this study will be packaged for delivery to (I) seropositive
mothers in the community in order to empower them make informed decisions on their childEs
welfare.
6.23 T5e I),!c# %7 L$#e"!cy !&( #5e HIV/AIDS C%&#"%
In the United tates! an estimated 83 million people over the age of :C read no better than the
average elementary school child. -orldwide! nearly =33 million adults are illiterate in their
native languages@ two+thirds of them are women. Iet the ability to read and write is the basis
for all other education@ literacy is necessary for an individual to understand information that is
out of context! whether written or verbal. .iteracy is essential if we are to eradicate poverty at
23
home and abroad! improve infant mortality rates! address literacy ine>uality! and create
sustainable development. -ithout literacy skills the abilities to read! to write! to do math! to
solve problems! and to access and use technology todayOs adults will struggle to take part in the
world around them and fail to reach their full potential as parents! community members! and
employees.
.earning to read begins long before a child enters school. It begins when parents read to their
children! buy their children books! and encourage their children to read. The research is clearF
parents who are poor readers donEt read as often to their children as do parents who are strong
readers@ children who are not read to enter school less prepared for learning to read than other
children. Understanding a doctorEs orders! calculating how much medicine to take! reading
disease+prevention pamphlets all are ways adults can keep themselves and their families
healthy. Aut millions of adults lack these essential health literacy skills. The study aimed at
finding out basic understanding of (I) infection! degree of awareness regarding the ongoing
treatment and reasons behind irregular follow+up visits of our (I) patients who attend Q.&.
-ood outpatient clinic of 6ennsylvania (ospital! 6hiladelphia for treatment of (I)/"I*.
6.23.2 U.$&* $#e"!cy #% ,"%#ec# !*!$&.# HIV $&7ec#$%&
*espite the absence of a medical vaccine against (I) infection! society has at its disposal a
Nsocial vaccineO! the vaccine of literacy 1)andemoortele and *elamonica 23334. In Sambia! for
instance! the decline in the prevalence rate for :<+to+:D+yearold women in .usaka was more
marked for those with secondary and higher levels of literacy than for those who had not
proceeded beyond the primary level 1?ylkesnes et al.! :DDD4.
This finding is in striking contrast to earlier evidence from Sambia and several other severely
affected countries. This evidence suggested that levels of (I) infection were higher among the
more educated and well+off. It pointed to a positive correlation not only between levels of
literacy and the probability of engagement in high+risk sexual behaviour but also of actual
infection 1"insworth and emali! :DD=@ (argreaves and #lynn! 23334. The subjects whose
behaviour was documented in these studies had all! however! become sexually active in the
comparatively early stages of the epidemic when the behavioural correlates of (I)/"I*
2:
infection were less understood and relevant information was less widely available. Information
about the behaviour of people who have become sexually active in more recent times! such as
those in the .usaka study! suggests that the more educated are now less vulnerable to (I)
infection.
*oes literacy protect against (I) infection through the health skills and disease+ related
information it transmits to learners! or is there something inherent in the very process of
becoming more educated that helps people protect+ themselves against infection,
)andemoortele and *elamonica 123334 note that existing evidence does not allow us to draw
exact conclusions about how the Oliteracy+vaccineO against (I) works. -hile they are clearly
right to argue that the increased knowledge! information and awareness that literacy provides
are important protectors against infection! we believe the general impact of literacy in and of
itself may be the most significant factor.
This conclusion is supported by the change in the positive correlation between levels of literacy
and (I) infection or high+risk behaviour even among those whose formal literacy included
little! if any! health skills and "I* literacy. Indeed! few of those attending school prior to the
mid+:DD3s were exposed to (I)/"I* literacy programmes. *uring this period! life+skills and
reproductive health programmes were implemented on a sporadic basis@ teacher knowledge!
understanding and commitment were limited@ and literacyal strategies reflected little sensitivity
to the real experiences of young people 1#achuhi! :DDD@ /ippax! mith and "ggleton! 2333@
UG&%"! 23334. Gonetheless! the infection rates for individuals educated during this period are
declining. Improved literacyal programmes and materials as well as revised teacher preparation
systems now becoming more widespread will undoubtedly accelerate this favourable trend. Aut
literacy itself tends to enhance the potential to make discerning use of information and to plan
for the future and to accelerate favourable socio+cultural changes.
6.22 S+))!"y %7 L$#e"!#+"e
?rom a literacy perspective! this discourse is particularly interesting. ?irstly! the interviewee
had to be prompted for more input about personal change. It seemed as if she did not want to
say these positive things about herself! as if it were inappropriate! or could possibly be
22
construed as boasting. (er discomfort shows in the >uestioning of her suggestion 1her last4 of
leadership! in her halting flow of speech when she is otherwise so fluent and articulate! and in
her laughing. ?inally! she even >uestions the relevance of her comment
To return this discussion to the impact of globali0ation on literacy and social change raised at
the outset! as the evidence above attests! globali0ation involves the institutionali0ed
construction of the individual! such that literacy roles tend to embrace cultural and traditional
dichotomies! such as JcommunalE for women and JagenticE for men 15idgeway and %orrell
23394. The hybridi0ation effect of globalisation has meant that literacy and culture have
become increasingly salient and fluid. (owever! as many of the above examples from the data
show! despite the progress made towards literacy e>uity! the core structure of literacy beliefs
has not changed. " life lived between cultures will result in hybrid traditions and some of this
was evident as respondents in this study struggled! due to hegemonic cultural beliefs! to situate
themselves within new structures and with new identities.
?inally! in response to the >uestions on literacy raised by the study! the impact of an overseas
education was different for men than for women! particularly in terms of empowerment. -hile
there was greater literacy e>uity at the level of the family! this was often only when the male
did not feel he was being evaluated! that is! within the home. Aetter family relationships were
often developed in "ustralia! but could not always be maintained in Indonesia due to the
situation! greater workloads of both partners and hegemonic literacy beliefs.
In both the community and the workplace! men benefited to a greater extent in terms of
opportunities to participate in the public sphere! greater respect and decision making
responsibilities! and leadership and mentoring roles. In contrast! women referred to ine>uality
in terms of cultural and social workload! (I) control in terms of opportunities for promotion or
leadership roles and a constrained self perception. *espite considerable social change resulting
from their overseas education and the hybridisation effects of globalisation! considerable
literacy bias and ine>uality still persist as a result of hegemonic cultural beliefs about literacy.
28
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESI/N AND METHODOLO/Y
8.3 I&#"%(+c#$%&
This %hapter presents the methodology used in the study. It includes the description of the
study area! research design! and target population! sampling procedures! development of
research instruments! and administration of research instruments! data collection and data
analysis.
8.2 Re.e!"c5 De.$*&
The research design employed in this study was a descriptive survey study! generally
>ualitative in nature. To achieve the objectives of the study! survey research design was
adopted and the focus of this study was cross+sectional. The survey approach was used! because
it has its own advantages of identifying attributes of a large population from a small group of
individuals! the economy of the design and the rapid approach in data collection 1Aabbie! :DD3@
?owler et. al.! :DD<4. In addition it will greatly increase the researcherEs knowledge about what
happens in the study context and itEs a strategy perceived as authoritative by people in general
and is both comparatively easy to explain and to understand.
8.6 T5e S#+(y A"e!
The study was carried out at selected community health centres in &ldoret Town. &ldoret is a
town in western /enya and the administrative centre of Uasin #ishu *istrict of 5ift )alley
6rovince. .ying south of the %herangani (ills. It has a population of about 233!333 people and
is among the fastest growing town in /enya. The town is now home to a large market! $oi
University and &ldoret International "irport. It is also known for its cheese factory. $ajor
industries include textiles! wheat! pyrethrum and corn. The town has a number of factories.
&ldoret is also home to number nationally recognised manufacturing industries like
5aiplywoods! /en+/nit! .ochab Arothers! and /andola and onEs. "ll these industries were set
up and developed by some of the oldest Indian origin families in the rift valley region namely
The 5aiEs! The /andolaEs! The hahEs! The .ochabEs and The 6atelEs.
29
8.8 T!"*e# P%,+!#$%&
The total population is approximately 7893 employees of the surveyed community health
centres. This also consisted of those who in one way or another have experienced the conflicts
management and resolutions process.
8.: S!),e S$Be !&( S!),$&* Tec5&$C+e.
The participants in this study were :878 192; females! and <=; males4 from selected
community health centres in the entire &ldoret town. The study targeted a cross section of
employees from various departments across all levels and areas of work. The participants were
asked to voluntarily participate in the survey by answering a >uestionnaire during their free
time. The employees were assured confidentiality and anonymity! as well as told they had the
choice to refuse to participate in the survey without penalty. $ost employees in each
organisation who were asked did agree to participate. The study targeted the human resources
managers of the community health centres mentioned.
The total number of sample selected for the study consisted of one hundred managers. The
convenience sampling was used to get the views of the managers selected for the study. The
study used :D.28; of the target population thus the sample si0e of :878 respondents out of the
7:93 who were sampled. The group was selected because it comprised of the vital group with
information about effects of conflicts on (5$ in organi0ational settings. -here there is no
estimate of the sample proportion in the target population assumed to have the characteristics of
interest! <3; of target population should be used! ?isher et. al. 123334. If target population is
less than :3! 333 the re>uired sample si0e will be smaller hence final sample si0e of at least
:3; was suitable 1?isher et. al. 23334.
imple 5andom sampling was used to select the D< subordinate staff while purposive sampling
was used to descriptively identify the five administrators who are to be interviewed.
2<
T!'e 8.2: S!),$&* F"!)e
P%,+!#$%& C!#e*%"y N% %7 Pe".%&. Pe"ce&#!*e S!),e S!),e S$Be
&ldoret (ospital :283 :7.28; 287
5eale (ospital :2<3 :7.<3; 293
t. .uke (ospital 7C3 :3.C<; :9C
?amily (ealthcare :3:3 :9.:<; :D9
&lgonveiw (ospital :333 :9.33; :D2
$oi Teaching and 5eferral (ospital C<3 3D.:3; :2<
$ediheal (opspital :293 :7.87; :2D
T%#! =2:3 233.33D 28=8
8.; D!#! C%ec#$%& P"%ce(+"e
The researcher distributed the >uestionnaires randomly! which were clarified and explained
ade>uately to the respondents. The >uestionnaires were collected on agreed dates. This ensured
:33; return rates. "s for the interview schedules! the researcher interviewed the
"dministrators on the agreed dates. This ensured convenience to the "dministrators who
operate on a busy schedule.
8.< D!#! C%ec#$%& I&.#"+)e&#.
The instrument used to collect data in this research study was a survey titled Literacy Issues
Survey and was based on prior research 1%arr! et. al.! 2333@ 23384. The instrument was
>uantitative and included the following topical areas of >uestioning specific to the present
studyF literacy discrimination of self! literacy discrimination of others! response of self and
demographic information. The instrument provided a definition of literacy discrimination
derived from a review of the literature as literacy+based behaviors! policies! and actions that
adversely affect a personEs work by leading to une>ual treatment or the creation of an
intimidating environment because of oneEs literacy. .iteracy discrimination occurs when
employers make decisions such as selection! evaluation! promotion! or reward allocation based
on an individualEs literacy.L
5espondents were asked to indicate to what extent literacy would impact their own careers in
ways such as career success! advancement! professional opportunity! networking! mentoring!
time for career! pay! and expectations of others using a < point .ikert+type scaleF never 1:4!
2C
rarely 124! possibly 184! probably 194! and likely 1<4. The measures were adapted from previous
research that suggests these factors to be common outcomes of literacy discrimination in the
workplace 1%arr! et. al.! 2333@ 23384. The respondents were then asked to indicate to what
extent literacy would affect the careers of others! specifically women! in these same areas.
5espondents were asked to indicate to what extent the experience of literacy discrimination
would affect their professional career in terms of personal confidence! career advancement! job
satisfaction! organi0ational commitment! and career commitment. These measures were
adapted from previous research on this topic. The survey concluded with eight demographic
>uestionsF literacy! race! classification! work experience! age! and political viewpoint.
8.<.2 Q+e.#$%&&!$"e
This is a collection of items to which a respondent is expected to react in writing@ designed
>uestions in form format were distributed to the respondents. This method collects a lot of
information over a short period of time. The method is suitable when the information needed
can be easily described in writing and if time is limited. In this study! the respondents were
given enough time to complete the >uestionnaires before returning them back for analysis of
the collected data. The >uestionnaires included both structured and semi structured >uestions.
This allowed the respondents to give their opinions where necessary.
The .ikert scale was useful in analy0ing data in >uestions that directly involve the feelings and
attitudes of the respondents. "nother method that was used was cross tabulation! an essential
techni>ue in tabulating fre>uencies and occurrences of some variables. -hen analy0ing
>ualitative data! especially from observation and interviews! the >uasi+judicial method was
crucial because it offers a systematic procedure! which uses rational argument to interpret
empirical evidence 1$ugenda and $ugenda :DDD4. 5espondents were assured confidentiality
that their identities were secured and collection of information was from the point of view of
the respondents.
8.= P$%# S#+(y
The survey was pre+tested with approximately :33 employees to ensure that the respondents
would understand the meaning of the >uestions and could answer the >uestions appropriately.
27
The concerns raised during the pre+test were minimal@ however! modifications were made to
the instrument based on the feedback 1clarified item wording! shortened the survey4.
The researcher was carried out a preliminary survey of a similar population to the target
population of this study. This was done before the main study is carried out. The researcher
identified a group to pre test the instruments and this group did not participate in the actual
survey and make preliminary observations of the target groups. 'bservations during the survey
were useful in making provisional impressions about the situations prevailing in this setting.
The >uestionnaires were administered to two members in each group. "long with
>uestionnaires there were interview schedules that were conducted to verify the reliability of its
use in the main study.
8.=.2 V!$($#y %7 #5e I&.#"+)e&#.
)alidity of an instrument refers to the degree to which an instrument measures what it is
suppose to measure. It therefore involves asking the right >uestions formed in the least
ambiguous ways notes! 1Aest and /ahn! :D=D4. To establish the validity of the instruments! the
researcher will carry out pre+test study in a population group similar to the one selected for the
actual study. This will reveal the validity of the two instruments of data collections.
8.=.6 Re$!'$$#y %7 #5e I&.#"+)e&#.
5eliability is defined by Aest and /ahn 1:D=D4 as the degree of consistency that an instrument
or a procedure demonstrates. 6rior to conducting the research the instruments will be piloted in
a population group with the same features like those found in the population to participate in
the actual study where a sampling of C3 >uestionnaires will be administered within an interval
of two weeks. The researcher used a test+re+test method to draw this sample population for the
pilot study.
8.> D!#! A&!y.$.
*ata captured from the >uestionnaires forms were examined by the researcher before being
summari0ed coded and classified into categories. imple descriptive statistics including tables
2=
were used. The data was organi0ed! presented! analy0ed and interpreted using descriptive
methods of data analysis. It used tables! charts! percentages! and chi s>uare was also be used in
analysis the .ikert scaled data. ?rom the analysis! data was used to carry out a test on the
>uestions to determine whether the objectives could be accepted or not.
*escriptive statistics 1fre>uencies! means! standard deviations! and correlations4 were produced
for all of the survey >uestions using 6. %ross tabulations were run on the literacy
discrimination survey >uestions as dependent variables against the independent demographic
variables of literacy and level of management. %ross tabulations were also run on the response
of self to literacy discrimination survey >uestions against the same demographic variables.
Independent sample t+tests were conducted to determine the statistical significance of responses
based on literacy and level of management.
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION0 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
:.3 I&#"%(+c#$%&
2D
This chapter contains the analysis of >uestionnaire used in answering the research objective on
the effects of conflicts on (5$ in organisations. The researcher administered >uestionnaires
for data collection. "fter data collection the researcher dealt specifically with data analysis of
the collected data. The data collected was organi0ed! classified and keyed in computer using
statistical package for social sciences 164.
:.2 De)%*"!,5$c I&7%")!#$%&
In this section the researcher present the background information of the respondents covered by
the study. The main variables used to get clearly background information of the respondents
were the age bracket! literacy! academic >ualification! marital status! and occupation. The
demographic characteristics of the respondents helped the researcher to determine the way the
respondents perceived certain opinions. These features were also used to provide a base for
further analysis of the specific research objectives and their findings using descriptive statistics!
tables! fre>uency and percentages. *emographic analysis was critical to a considerable extent!
since demographic phenomena affect respondentsE social! political and economic behaviour of
the variables of this research. These demographic characteristics are presented in the section
that followsF
This study also sought to discover if demographic variables such as literacy and race impacted
employeesE perceptions of literacy issues in the workplace. ?urther! this study sought to
discover whether employees were more or less likely to foresee the potential impact of (I) on
themselves as compared to other similarly situated persons. This study assessed both the
personal and group targets of (I) based on prior research which shows a discrepancy between
perceptions of (I) control against self and perceptions of (I) control against others.
:.2.2 L$#e"!cy %7 Re.,%&(e&#.
T!'e :.2: L$#e"!cy D$.#"$'+#$%& %7 Re.,%&(e&#. 'y /e&(e"
83
L$#e"!cy F"eC+e&cy Pe"ce&#!*e
$ale C<D 9=;
?emale 7:9 <2;
T%#! 28=8 233D
Table 9.: indicates that <2; 17:94 were female! and 9= ;1C<D4 males. This is an indication
that there are many female respondents than male ones. The literacy effects is a factor as it
shows majority of those who would be affected by (I).
:.2.6 Re.,%&(e&#. A*e D$.#"$'+#$%&
T!'e :.6: Re.,%&(e&#. A*e D$.#"$'+#$%&
A*e Eye!".F F"eC+e&cy Pe"ce&#!*e
23+2D 27< 23;
83+8D 9:2 83;
93+9D :87 :3;
<3+<D 9:2 83;
C3+"bove :87 :3;
T%#! 28=8 233D
Table 9.2 shows that of the respondents those aged between 23+2D years represented 23;! the
age bracket of 83+8D years old accounted for 83;. The least reported was age bracket of :3;.
This is an indication that majority of respondents are aged 83+8D and <3+<D years of age. The
mean age of the participants was 23 years! with a range of :7 to 7: years.
:.2.8 Re.,%&(e&#. M!"$#! S#!#+.
T!'e :.8: D$.#"$'+#$%& %7 Re.,%&(e&#. M!"$#! S#!#+.
M!"$#! S#!#+. F"eC+e&cy Pe"ce&#!*e
$arried <D3 98;
ingle 9D9 8C;
eparated/*ivorced :29 3D;
-idowed :C< :2;
8:
T%#! 28=8 233D
The table 9.8 states of the respondentsE married represented 98; of respondents! single was
8C;! separated/divorced 3D; while widowed :2; of sampled population total. This means
that many of the respondents were married.
:.2.: Re.,%&(e&#. E(+c!#$%&! Le-e
T!'e :.:: D$.#"$'+#$%& %7 Re.,%&(e&#. Le-e %7 E(+c!#$%&
Le-e %7 E(+c!#$%& F"eC+e&cy Pe"ce&#!*e
6rimary/econdary C<D 23;
%ollege *iploma <22 8=;
*egree 297 :=;
$asters #raduate :29 3D;
6h* *egree 33 33
'thers 23C :<;
T%#! 28=8 233D
The results showed that 23; of respondents had primary or secondary level of education! 8=;
college diploma! :=; degree! 3D; had masters degree! :<; had other >ualifications while
6h* degree had 33;. This means that the respondents mainly college diploma residents. (ence
it is possible to experience high rate of (I).
:.2.; Re.,%&(e&#. Le&*#5 %7 S#!y $& #5e De,!"#)e&#
T!'e :.;: Le&*#5 %7 S#!y $& #5e De,!"#)e&#
Le&*#5 %7 S#!y EYe!".F F"eC+e&cy Pe"ce&#!*e
3+9 9:2 83;
<+D 98D 82;
:3+:9 27< 23;
:<+:D :29 3D;
23+and $ore :29 3D;
T%#! 28=8 233D
The table above shows that 82; of respondents have stayed in the department for a period of <+
D years! 83; 3+9 years! 23; :3+:9 years! D; :<+:D years and only D; has taken 23 and above
82
years. This means that there is rapid movement and relocation of settlement areas by the
respondents since majority of respondents have spent only between <+D years.
:.6 P"e.e&#!#$%& %7 /e&e"! I&7%")!#$%&
The study also sought to obtain the general information related to the effects of conflicts on
human resource management in organi0ational settings. Thirty hundred >uestionnaires were
distributed to managers in each company. "ll the 83 >uestionnaires were returned by the
respondents which accounts to :33;. The >uestions were grouped into six variables with
similar characteristics. These variables included whether employees have been involved in
conflict! causes of organisational conflict! and types of (I)! impacts and strategies to resolve
conflicts.
:.8 K&%?e(*e %& HIV/AIDS T"!&.)$..$%&
It is evident in the literature that knowledge on (I)/"I* in /enya is almost universal
particularly with regard to modes of transmission. The result showed that all the respondents
interviewed 1:33;4 knew that sexual intercourse with an infected person is the main way
through which (I)/"I* can be spread. 'ther transmission routes mentioned included sharing
sharp piercing instruments 179;4! transfusion of infected blood 1C8;4 and mother to child
transmission 192;4 as illustrated in Table 9.C.
T!'e :.<: K&%?e(*e %& HIV/AIDS T"!&.)$..$%&
T"!&.)$..$%& "%+#e F"eC+e&cy Pe"ce&#!*e
ex with infected person 287 DD.C
haring sharp piecing instruments :7= 79.=
Transfusion with infected blood :<3 C8.3
$other to child transmission :3: 92.9
Use of un+sterili0ed needles C: 2<.C
"ccident 9< :=.D
Areast+feeding 29 :3.:
'ther 37 2.D
Totals may exceed 100% due to multiple responses
:.: S%+"ce. %7 $&7%")!#$%& %& HIV/AIDS
"ll the respondents interviewed in the survey were asked their main sources of information
about (I)/"I*. "s illustrated in Table 9.7! the most prominent sources of (I)/"I*
88
information among respondents are the radio 1=8;4! newspapers 1C:;4! seminars and
workshops 19<;4 and health facilities 187;4. The others were television 189;4! books 18:;4
friends 12=;4! posters and leaflets 1:D;4 and drama 1:2;4.
T!'e :.=: S%+"ce. %7 I&7%")!#$%& %& HIV/AIDS
S%+"ce F"eC+e&cy Pe"ce&#!*e
5adio :DD =2.C
Gewspaper :9C C3.C
eminars/workshops :3= 99.=
(ealth facility D3 87.8
T) =2 89.3
Aooks 7< 8:.:
?riends/other respondents C= 2=.2
(I)/"I* school program <3 23.7
6osters/leaflets/brochures/banners 9< :=.7
*rama 2= ::.C
5eligious leaders 29 :3.3
G#' 2: =.7
Internet 3D 8.7
Totals may exceed 100% due to multiple responses
:.; K&%?e(*e %& HIV/AIDS P"e-e&#$%&
5espondents exhibited high knowledge levels regarding (I)/"I* prevention with majority
1=D;4 reporting abstinence from sex! followed by faithfulness 17<;4 and use of protections
178;4 as indicated in Table 9.=.
T!'e :.>: K&%?e(*e %& HIV/AIDS P"e-e&#$%&
Me#5%(. F"eC+e&cy Pe"ce&#!*e
"bstain from sex 2:3 ==.C
Sero gra0ing/be faithful :7= 7<.:
Use of protections :79 78.9
"void sharing sharp piercing instruments 72 83.9
"void getting injections from none >ualified medical staff 99 :=.C
(I) %ounselling and Testing 1(%T4 88 :8.D
"void blood transfusions 2D :2.2
Totals may exceed 100% due to multiple responses
89
5espondents were also asked about their most preferred source of information about (I)/"I*
and as presented in Table 9.D! the radio emerged as their most preferred source of information
about (I)/"I* accounting for 2C;! followed by workshops and seminars and health
facilities/health workers 1:7;4! books 1:3;4 and newspapers 1=;4.
T!'e :.A: Re.,%&(e&#.G M%.# Re7e""e( S%+"ce %7 I&7%")!#$%& %& HIV/AIDS
S%+"ce F"eC+e&cy Pe"ce&#!*e
5adio C8 2C.:
(ealth facilities/health worker 93 :C.C
eminars/workshops 93 :C.C
Aooks 29 :3.3
Gewspaper := 7.<
?riends :: 9.C
T) :3 9.:
(I)/"I* school program 3D 8.7
6osters/leaflets/brochures/banner 3D 8.7
*rama 37 2.D
Internet 32 3.=
:.< I),!c# %7 HIV/AIDS %& #5e E(+c!#$%& Sec#%" !&( Re.,%&(e&#. $& P!"#$c+!"
(I)/"I* emerged as one of the common health problems affecting respondents. *uring the
survey many of the schools/institutions visited had either lost a teacher to the pandemic or had
a teacher living with (I)/"I*. 5esults revealed that D2; of the respondents said that
(I)/"I* has affected them either directly or indirectly. Table 9.:3 shows ways in which
(I)/"I* has affected respondents. These includeF increased absenteeism 179;4! time lost
caring for the sick 17:;4! inefficiency in teaching 1<:;4 and reduction in salary 18<;4. 'ther
effects reported include@ indiscipline 129;4! stigma/ discrimination 123;4 and dismissal from
school 1:8;4.
T!'e :.23: I),!c# %7 W%)e& L$#e"!cy %& HIV/AIDS C%&#"%
W!y. F"eC+e&cy Pe"ce&#!*e
Increased rate of absenteeism :89 78.C
Time lost caring for sick people :83 7:.9
Inefficiency in teaching D2 <3.<
.oss/ reduction of salary C9 8<.3
Indiscipline 99 29.2
8<
tigma T discrimination 7C :D.=
*ismissal from workplaces 28 :2.C
Totals may exceed 100% due to multiple responses
:.= Re.,%&(e&#.G C%,$&* Mec5!&$.).
The survey investigated ways through which 5espondents are coping with the effects of
(I)/"I*. "s illustrated in ?igure 9.:! <:; of the respondents reported increased
involvement in (I)/"I* sensiti0ation! 2C; reported that respondents seek (I) counseling
and testing services! D; psychosocial support groups and only 9; reported an uptake of "5)s.
F$*+"e :.2: Re.,%&(e&#.G C%,$&* Mec5!&$.).
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Increased sensitization
Seeking counselling
Join psychosocial groups
ARs
!aking on "ore #ork
A$stain
%eing &aith&ul
!aking on less #ork
m
e
a
n
s

o
f

c
o
p
i
n
g
:.> Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. 'y !*e !&( 4&%?e(*e %7 HIV #"!&.)$..$%&
8C
"mong the -omen .iteracy who was aged less than 23! about <2; have no knowledge of (I)
transmission. -hile :D; and D.<; of -omen literacy who were aged between 2: and 83 and
more than 83 years respectively did not have knowledge of (I) transmission 1Table 9.::4.
?urther only 3.8; of youngest -omen literacy knew five ways of (I) transmission compare
to 29.<; and D.<; of those aged 2: to 83 years and those more than 83 years of age
respectively. The association is between the age of -omen literacy and their knowledge scores
is highly significant 1pU 3.33:4 indicating that younger -omen literacy have less knowledge
about the (I) transmission.
T!'e :.22: Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. 'y !*e !&( 4&%?e(*e %7
HIV #"!&.)$..$%& ENHA3>F
A*e *"%+, $& ye!".
K&%?e(*e %7 HIV/AIDS #"!&.)$..$%&
E$& ,e"ce&#!*eF T%#!
3 2 6 8 : ;
U23 years 1nH2D24 <2.: :7.< =.2 :9.7 7.2 3.8 :33
2: to 83 years1nH<924 :D.3 2D.8 :9.= 29.9 C.< C.3 :33
V83 years 1nH794 D.< 8:.3 :C.2 29.8 D.< D.< :33
C5$ .C+!"e H26<.A>: (7H230 ,I3.332
"mong the 5espondents who were aged less than 23! about <2; have no knowledge of (I)
transmission. -hile :D; and D.<; of 5espondents who were aged between 2: and 83 and
more than 83 years respectively did not have knowledge of (I). ?urther only 3.8; of
youngest 5espondents knew five ways of (I) transmission compare to 29.<; and D.<; of
those aged 2: to 83 years and those more than 83 years of age respectively. The association is
between the age of 5espondents and their knowledge scores is highly significant 1pU 3.33:4
indicating that younger 5espondents have less knowledge about the (I) transmission.
87
:.A Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. 'y e(+c!#$%& !&( 4&%?e(*e %7 HIV
#"!&.)$..$%&
T!'e :.26: Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. 'y e(+c!#$%& !&( 4&%?e(*e %7 HIV
#"!&.)$..$%& ENH>A6F
A*e *"%+, $& ye!".
K&%?e(*e %7 HIV/AIDS #"!&.)$..$%&
E$& ,e"ce&#!*eF
T%#!
3 2 6 8 : ;
Go education 1nH7224 8:.2 2<.< :8.9 23.: C.C 8.2 :33
&ducation 1nH:734 :=.2 2C.< D.9 27.: =.2 :3.C :33
C5$ .C+!"e H8<.>6> (7H;0 ,I3.332
"mong 5espondents who did not go to school! 82; had no knowledge about (I)
transmission! while only :=; had no knowledge among those who attended school. &ducation
is significantly associated 1pU 3.33:4 with the knowledge scores of (I) transmission of the
respondent. The result indicates that knowledge level is higher among the 5espondents who
attended school than those who never attended school.
"mong -omen literacy that did not go to hospital! 82; had no knowledge about (I)
transmission! while only :=; had no knowledge among those who attended hospital 1Table
9.:24. &ducation is significantly associated 1pU 3.33:4 with the knowledge scores of (I)
transmission of the respondent. The result indicates that knowledge level is higher among the
-omen literacy who attended hospital than those who never attended hospital.
:.23 Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. 'y (+"!#$%& !&( 4&%?e(*e %7 HIV
#"!&.)$..$%&
T!'e :.28: Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. 'y (+"!#$%& !&( 4&%?e(*e %7 HIV
#"!&.)$..$%& ENHA3>F
L$#e"!cy D+"!#$%&
K&%?e(*e %7 HIV/AIDS #"!&.)$..$%&
E$& ,e"ce&#!*eF
T%#!
3 2 6 8 : ;
U: years 1nH:CC4 72.8 :3.= 8.7 :3.2 8.3 3.3 :33
: to < years1nH8<74 29.C 8:.D :9.C :D.D C.7 2.2 :33
8=
C to :3 years 1nH2<D4 :<.: 27.3 :9. 7 2C.C :3.3 C.C :33
V:3 years 1nH:2C4 ::.D 29.C :<.D 2=.C ::.: 7.D :33
C5$ .C+!"e H62>.:<6 (7H2;0 ,I3.332
There was a statistically significant relationship between how long the -omen literacy worked
in this profession and knowledge about (I) transmission 1pU3.33:4. "mong the -omen
literacy who had worked less than one year! 72; had no knowledge! while among those who
had worked between one and five years! 2<; had no knowledge 1Table 9.:84. ?urther! :< and
:2 ; of those who had worked between six to ten years and over ten years respectively had no
knowledge. Those who had greatest (I) transmission knowledge were those who had worked
in the industry the largest.
:.22 Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. 'y !.# ?ee4G. $&c%)e !&( 4&%?e(*e %7 HIV
#"!&.)$..$%&
T!'e :.2:: Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. 'y !.# ?ee4G. $&c%)e !&( 4&%?e(*e
%7 HIV #"!&.)$..$%&
I&c%)e *"%+,
!cc%"($&* #% !.#
?ee4G. $&c%)e
K&%?e(*e %7 HIV/AIDS #"!&.)$..$%&
E$& ,e"ce&#!*eF
T%#!
3 2 6 8 : ;
U/shs.<333 1nH<234 22.7 2<.2 :9.3 28.= =.: C.2 :33
V/shs.<3331nH8C24 87.= 27.D :3.< :C.C C.C 3.C :33
C5$ .C+!"e H:8.3:A (7H;0 ,I3.332
Table 9.:< shows that 22.7; of the -omen literacy who have below average income had no
(I) transmission knowledge and only C.2; knew five ways of (I) transmission. 'n the other
hand! 8=; of the -omen literacy who were earning more than the -omen literacy average
income did not know about (I) transmission and less than :; knew five ways of (I)
transmission. The relationship between knowledge about (I) transmission and last weekEs
income was significant 1pU 3.3:4. The result indicates that knowledge is less among those
earning more than those earning less.
:.26 Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. 'y !"e! !&( 4&%?e(*e %7 HIV #"!&.)$..$%&
8D
T!'e :.2;: Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. 'y !"e! !&( 4&%?e(*e %7 HIV
#"!&.)$..$%& ENHA3>F
/e%*"!,5$c! !"e! ?5e"e
#5e $&.#$#+#$%& $. %c!#e(
K&%?e(*e %7 HIV/AIDS #"!&.)$..$%&
E$& ,e"ce&#!*eF
T%#!
3 2 6 8 : ;
%entral 1nH<D34 2=.3 28.2 :2.2 28.9 7.9 <.= :33
'utskirts of town 1nH8:=4 83.< 83.2 :8.= :7.8 7.D 3.8 :33
C5$ .C+!"e H6:.8<A (7H;0 ,I3.332
"mong the -omen literacy in the central region! 2=; did not have knowledge about (I)
transmission and <.=; knew the five ways of (I) transmission. 'n the other hand! about 8:;
-omen literacy in the southwest region did not have knowledge and U:; knew five ways of
transmission. /nowledge level is highly associated 1pU 3.3:4 with location of the respondents.
The -omen literacy of central region was more knowledgeable than those of the southwest
region.
:.28 Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. ?$#5 ,!"#$c$,!#$%& $& !c#$-$#y %7 HIV
,"e-e&#$%& ,"%*"!) 'y 4&%?e(*e %7 HIV/AIDS
T!'e :.2<: Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. ?$#5 ,!"#$c$,!#$%& $& !c#$-$#y %7 HIV
,"e-e&#$%& ,"%*"!) 'y 4&%?e(*e %7 HIV/AIDS ENHA3;F
P!"#$c$,!#$%& $&
!c#$-$#y %7 HIV
,"e-e&#$%& ,"%*"!)
K&%?e(*e %7 HIV/AIDS #"!&.)$..$%&
E$& ,e"ce&#!*eF
T%#!
3 2 6 8 : ;
Ies 1nH:D74 9.: :7.= D.C 88.3 28.D ::.C :33
Go 1nH73=4 8<.D 27.= :8.C :=.3 2.8 2.9 :33
C5$ .C+!"e H622.<; (7H;0 ,I3.332
"mong those who participated in (I) prevention program! only 9; the -omen literacy did
not have knowledge about (I) transmission and :2; knew five ways of transmission 1Table
9.:C4. (owever among those who had not participated in the (I) prevention program! 8C; of
the -omen literacy did not have knowledge and 2.9; knew five ways of (I) transmission.
The relationship between knowledge and participation in (I) prevention program was highly
significant 1pU 3.33:4.
93
:.2: Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. 'y .e7 ,e"ce$-e( "$.4 !&( 4&%?e(*e %7 HIV
#"!&.)$..$%&
T!'e :.2=: Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 "e.,%&(e&#. 'y .e7 ,e"ce$-e( "$.4 !&( 4&%?e(*e
%7 HIV #"!&.)$..$%&
Pe"ce$-e( "$.4
K&%?e(*e %7 HIV/AIDS #"!&.)$..$%&
E$& ,e"ce&#!*eF T%#!
3 2 6 8 : ;
Go risk 1nH8CC4 C<.D :<.3 C.8 :3.9 :.D 3.< :33
5isk 1nH<874 8.< 82.= :7.8 2=.7 ::.< C.2 :33
C5$ .C+!"e H:2A.63> (7H;0 ,I3.332
"mong the -omen literacy who believed that they had no risk of contacting (I)! CC; had no
(I) transmission knowledge 1Table 9.:74. "mong this group half of one percent knew of five
ways of (I) transmission. 'n the other hand! among the -omen literacy who thought that
they were at risk of ac>uiring (I)! 8.<; had no knowledge about (I) transmission! while
C.:; knew of five ways of (I) transmission. (ere self perceived risk is tested for association
with knowledge level. The result showed a highly significant association 1pU 3.33:4 between
the two variables indicating that those who think that they are at risk of ac>uiring (I) will
have more knowledge about (I) transmission than those who do not perceived that they are at
risk.
:.2; A..%c$!#$%& 'e#?ee& .!7e.e@ ,"!c#$ce !&( .%c$%(e)%*"!,5$c c5!"!c#e".
"mong the socio+demographic characters of the -omen literacy last weekEs income 1pU3.33:4
and duration in the profession 1pU3.33<4 were statistically associated with safe sex practice.
"mong the -omen literacy were earned less than their average! 2C; used protections
consistently with last client! while among those who earned more than average only :9.:; of
the (I)/"I* control used protections consistently with last client 1Table 9.:=4. Those who
had been in the sex industry less than one year were the least likely to use protections
consistently with last client. 'nly :8; of them did so.
There was no association of practicing safe sex with age of the -omen literacy! their
educational background and where their s were situated.
9:
:.2<: Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 .!7e .e@ ,"!c#$ce %7 W%)e& $#e"!cy 'y .%c$% (e)%*"!,5$c
7!c#%".0 ,"%*"!))!#$c 7!c#%".0 ,.yc5%1.%c$! 7!c#%". !&( 4&%?e(*e %7 HIV #"!&.)$..$%&
T!'e :.2>: Pe"ce&#!*e ($.#"$'+#$%& %7 HIV/AIDS C%&#"% Le-e. %7 W%)e& $#e"!cy 'y
S%c$% De)%*"!,5$c F!c#%".0 ,"%*"!))!#$c 7!c#%".0 ,.yc5%1.%c$! 7!c#%". !&( 4&%?e(*e
%7 HIV #"!&.)$..$%&
I&(e,e&(e&# -!"$!'e De,e&(e&# -!"$!'e
E.!7e .e@F T%#! S#!#$.#$c.
S%c$%(e)%*"!,5$c 7!c#%" N% Ye.
A*e *"%+,
1nH=D34
U23 years 77.9 22.C :3312=74 W
2
H3.CC<
pU3.3<
2:+83 years 7D.9 23.C :331834
V83 years =3.= :D.2 :331784
E(+c!#$%&
1nH=794
Go &ducation 7=.= 2:.2 :3317374 W
2
H3.C77
pU3.33:
(ave education =3.2 :D.= :331:C74
I&c%)e
1nH=C94
U/shs.<333 79.: 2<.D :331<3D4 W
2
H:7.C<=
pU3.33:
V/shs.<333 =<.D :9.: :3318<<4
L$#e"!cy D+"!#$%&
1nH=D34
U: years =7.: :2.D :331:C84 W
2
H::.7==
pU3.33<
: to < years 79.< 2<.< :3318C84
C to :3 years 7=.3 22.3 :3312<94
V:3 years =2.< :7.< :331:234
/e%*"!,5$c! !"e!
1nH=D34
%entral 7=.< 2:.< :331<=24 W
2
H3.:27
pU3.3<
'utskirts of town 7D.< 23.< :33183=4
P"%*"!))e 7!c#%"
HIV ,"e-e&#$%&
,"%*"!) ,!"#$c$,!#$%&
1nH=D34
Ies C2.= 87.2 :331:DC4 W
2
H8D.<39
pU3.3<
Go =8.< :C.< :331CD94
Se7 ,e"ce$-e( "$.4
1nH=D34
Go risk =8.C :C.9 :3318<D4 W
2
H7.DD:
pU3.33<
(ave risk 7<.7 29.8 :331<2C4
I&#e")e($!#e -!"$!'e
K&%?e(*e %7 HIV
#"!&.)$..$%&
core 3 =<.7 :9.8 :3312<D4 W
2
H93.C:C
pU3.33:
core : =9.3 :C.3 :33122D4
92
1nH=D34 core 2 79.C 2<.9 :331::94
core 8 7C.8 28.7 :331:D34
core 9 <8.3 97.3 :331C=4
core < 79.8 2<.7 :3318<4
*espite the existing empirical evidence! many employees and young professionals believe (I)
no longer exists or is rare in organi0ational settings. This is evidenced by comments made in
the classroom and/or during training sessions when incidents/cases are discussed. "dditionally!
these individuals perceive that if (I) were to occur it would most likely not happen to them.
"s such! the purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of employees about literacy
issues in the workplace! specifically (I)! and to identify gaps! if they exist! in employeesE
perceptions and the realities of (I) in todayEs workplace. This study asked employees to
indicate how likely it is that they will experience (I) in the workplace! how likely it is that
others will experience (I) in the workplace! and to also indicate the extent to which (I)! if it
does occur! would impact their careers. exual harassment issues are also explored in the
survey! however these will be analy0ed in future work.
98
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSIONS0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
;.3 I&#"%(+c#$%&
The organi0ation of this chapter involves the discussion of research findings covering the
following research objectives. It then draws conclusions and highlight recommendations to the
study. The sub headings were described as below.
;.2 D$.c+..$%&. %7 F$&($&*.
In the light of the growing epidemic! safe sex practice is crucial to prevent (I). "mong the
elements of safe sex practice! consistent protection use has been widely approved as an
appropriate (I) preventive measure particularly for the 5espondents. (owever! T*/(I)
prevention education for 5espondents has been ignored.
6revention of (I) for 5espondents has traditionally focused on increasing protection use.
-hile this is clearly the proximate determinant of diminished risk! achieving this goal is not
easy. The constraints on the lives of 5espondents are great. 'n the other hand! poorly
conceived efforts to rehabilitate the victims over past few years! have played havoc with the
lives of these women. Increased empowerment and organi0ational growth among these highly
marginali0ed and stigmati0ed persons can only threaten the status >uo and may be responsible
for increased reports of violence by men such as police and gangsters.
'ne important advantage of workplace based health education is that health education
programs can touch the population directly. Therefore! medical personal and health educator
99
should go to the service sectors to co+operate with the owners of the services sectors in
considering government policies related to commercial sex. -orkplace based health education
should focus on safe sex education among the 5espondents in order to enhance their ability to
protect themselves.
The study has shown that educationally disadvantaged women were not able to access
information on (I)/"I* control due to socio+economic pressures. Therefore a total of =9; of
the respondents indicated some level of education which means the average literacy level of
these patients is relatively high. This explains the strong impact of a lower literacy level on the
tendency for the respondents to miss taking their "5)s. Therefore literacy level 1W
2
H :<.93! df
H=! p H 3.3<4 is one of the factors that determine optimal adherence to "5)s. This study
indicated that there was a relationship between a women literacy on respondentsE tendency to
miss their "5) doses 1W
2
H 2C.<=! df H =! p H 3.33:4.
The survey consistently identified difficulties in communications as the key factor in blocking
womenEs access to (I)/"I* information. Understandably! radio is not a source of
information for the women population. -hile =<; of women respondents claimed literacy! the
low rate of newspaper and maga0ine readership among the women group may in fact! reflect
lower reading proficiency within this population. This is consistent with international findings
of poorer educational standards for women populations.
The sources from which the women and the vulnerable population is getting their information
are also of concern. 6osters and bill boards do not contain in depth information and tend to be
in &nglish! which is taught only in secondary schools! rather than in the local language.
Television was reported as a source of information by CC; of the women and the vulnerable
individuals. The amount of factual information on (I)/"I* available to women and the
vulnerable audiences! based on visual interpretations of television programming! is open to
>uestion and deserves further investigation.
;.6 C%&c+.$%&.
9<
Though (I)/"I* is weld disease! prevention of the disease is far more difficult to achieve
yet. The number of people living with (I) and the death toll from "I* are increasing
everyday. The disease was spread or transmission at the beginning. Therefore! women and the
vulnerable groups are considered to play an important role in the (I) epidemic and contribute
disproportionately to the spread of (I) due to their large number of sexual partners 16eter!
233:4. These high+risk populations may not have sufficient knowledge to prevent themselves.
(owever! knowledge of "I* alone may not be sufficient to prevent (I) infection. There are
other factors such as socio+demographic factors including individual perceptions! attitudes! and
behaviors! which influence the (I) infection 1$ann.Q et al.! :DD24.
/nowledge! attitude! and beliefs about (I) transmission play an important role in preventing
(I)/"I*. If sex workers know about (I) transmissions and have positive attitudes towards
protection use! they are more likely to engage in safe sexual behavior. If sex workers view
protection as an effective way to prevent (I) transmission! they would accept using
protections with their clients. /nowledge about "I* and the conse>uence of (I) infection
indeed play an important role in motivating proper management and control of (I)/"I*.
The results of the survey clearly indicated a significant gap in knowledge about (I) prevention
among women. The /enya women are already keenly aware of this discrepancy. %omments
from women respondents included the need for more information about how (I)/"I* was
transmitted and how it can be prevented. "lmost universally! respondents felt the greatest need
is for information and health services to be available! in order to facilitate their ability to
ac>uire information! ask >uestions and discuss the issues surrounding (I)/"I* prevention
and care.
The study hypothesi0ed that the gap in communication about (I)/"I* leads members of the
women to feel less able to negotiate safer lifestyles. " reduced ability to recogni0e symptoms
of (I)/"I* by members of the women may delay appropriate care and management of the
infection. $oreover! once a women individual does seek treatment from a healthcare facility!
his or her privacy may be compromised. (ealthcare staff is also reported to be largely unaware
that women individuals may be sexually active and this may further deter women individuals
9C
from seeking help. -omen surveyed in this study report being turned away at (I) testing sites
by clinic staff who assume that they could not be (I) positive. This assumption is not uni>ue
to women individuals. It has been widely reported for individuals with all types of disabilities!
and this lack of awareness on the part of (I)/"I* experts appears to be a major barrier to the
inclusion of these populations in (I)/"I* outreach efforts.
;.8 Rec%))e&(!#$%&.
?irstly! more effective measure should be taken to ensure and subsidi0e female adolescents to
finish twelve years of compulsory educations@ this will not only reduce women entering in to
commercial sex but will increase protection use among 6rotections and their clients. Therefore!
it is recommended that policy makers should consider legal reforms and investments out side
the health sectors as "I* control strategies.
econdly! educational reform! such as developing vocational education could help young
women adapt to socio+economic development. It can teach the young women and 6rotections
different kinds of working skills so that they can have more opportunity to find jobs outside
commercial sex. In addition! night school or day school in urban areas can also be organi0ed in
order to train female who are vulnerable to entering into sex work. ?urthermore! provision for
vocational training for 6rotections will increase their sense of future and self+esteem! which in
turns motivates the 6rotections to practice better (I)/"I* control mechanisms.
;.: S+**e.#$%&. 7%" 7+"#5e" S#+($e.
?irst! due to time limitation! this study was carried out on secondary data collected by the
Aehavioral urveillance urvey 1A 23334. "ll the variables of interest were not available
according to researcherEs will as well as the variables were collected on >uantitative models.
Therefore! further studies among 5espondents in the brothels can be carried out with >ualitative
variables and in depth investigation on the reasons for low protection use.
econdly! 5espondents in /enya have many faces+ brothel based! street! hotel based! and non+
professional 5espondents. 5esearchers did not identify the large proportions of the
5espondents regularly! while these groups contribute a large proportion of unprotected sexual
97
act. Therefore! studies should be performed on these groups 5espondentsF on their high+risk
behavior! psychosocial factors including their self+perceived risk and selfesteem! and impact of
program on their practice. "ccording to the findings of the study! it is recommended that (I)
preventive functions of protections should be emphasi0ed. In order to increase regular
protection use among 5espondents! the contents of safe sex education should include how to
use protection correctly and how to negotiate protections use with clients effectively.
Re7e"e&ce.
"insworth and emali! :DD=@ (argreaves and #lynn! 2333@ &ducational attainment and (I)
infection in developing countriesF a review o f the published literature. .ondon! Infectious
*isease &pidemiology Unit! *epartment of Infectious and Tropical *iseases! .ondon chool
of (ygiene and Tropical $edicine
"rcher and %ottingham! :DDC! -ho is most likely to die of "I*, ocioeconomic correlates of
adult deaths in /agera region! Tan0ania
"0erbaijani+$oghadam! .! 233:! %onfronting "I*F evidence from the developing world.
Arussels! &uropean %ommission@ -ashington! *%! -orld Aank
Aabbie! :DD3@ ?owler *elamonica! &.! :DD<. The Neducation vaccineO against (I). %urrent
issues in comparative education 1Gew Iork! GI4! vol. 8! no. :. 'nline versionF www.tc.colum+
bia.edu/cice .
Aaker! *.-.! 6arker! 5.$.! -illiams! $.).! T %lark! -.. 1:DD=4. (ealth literacy and the risk
of hospital admission. Journal of General Internal Medicine
Ahola! :D=9! managing the impact of (I)/"I* on the education sector in outh "frica. 6aper
commissioned by United Gations &conomic %ommission for "frica 1UG&%"4 in preparation
for the "frica *evelopment ?orum 2333. "ddis "baba!
Aush! /./ altarelli! *.! 2333@ The impact o f (I)/"I* on education systems in the eastern
and southern "frica region and the response of education systems to (I)/"I*F life skills
programmes. 6aper presented to the "ll ub+aharan "frica %onference on &ducation for "ll
2333! Qohannesburg! *ecember
%enter for (ealth %are trategies. 1n.d.4. Impact of low health literacy scores on annual health
care expenditures. 5etrieved *ecember :D! 2338! from
httpF//www.chcs.org/resource/pdf/hl8.pdf
9=
%hwedyk! 6. 12338! ?all4. )ital signsF *iabetes health literacy board hopes to close patient
education gaps. Minority Nurse, 9.
?elecia #. -ood! *G! 5G! 123334! (&".T( .IT&5"%I IG " 5U5". %.IGI%! 'nline
Qournal of 5ural Gursing and (ealth %are
?reire! :D72@ the socioeconomic correlates of sexual behaviourF a summary of results from an
analysis of *( data
?ylkesnes! /.! et al. :DDD. ?avorable changes in the (I) epidemic in Sambia in the :DD3s.
6aper presented at eleventh International %onference on "I* and T*s in "frica! .usaka!
eptember
#achuhi! :DDD@ /ippax! mith and "ggleton! 2333@ UG&%"! 2333! "I* in "frica! country by
country. #eneva! UG"I*.
/alichman! .%.! 5amachandran! A.! T %at0! . 1:DDD4. "dherence to combination
antiretroviral therapies in (I) patients of low health literacy. Journal of General Internal
Medicine, !! 2C7+278.
/irsch! I..! Qungeblut! ".! Qenkins! ..! T /olstad! ". 1:DD84. "dult literacy in "merica# " first
loo$ at the results of the National "dult Literacy Survey. -ashington! *%F Gational %enter for
&ducation tatistics! U.. *ept. of &ducation.
.ind! :DD<! %onfronting "I*F evidence from the developing world! p. D<+:3D
$ontalto! G.Q.! T piegler! #.&. 1233:4. ?unctional health literacy in adults in a rural
community health center. %est &ir'inia Medical Journal, 9(! :::+::9
5idgeway and %orrell 2339! 6lanning for education in the context of (I)/"I*. 6aris!
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chillinger! *.! #rumbach! /.! 6iette! Q.! -ang! ?.! 'smond! *.! *aher! %.! et al. 123324.
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United Gations &conomic %ommission for "frica. 2333. (I)/"I* and education in &astern
and outhern "frica. The leadership challenge and the way forward. ynthesis 5eport for
"frica *evelopment ?orum 2333! "ddis "baba! *ecember. "ddis "baba! "frica *evelopment
?orum ecretariat! &conomic %ommission for "frica.
United Gations &ducational! cientific and %ultural 'rgani0ation. 2333. -orld &ducation
?orum! *akarF final report. 6aris! UG&%'.
UG&%'. :D97. +undamental ,ducation# -ommon Ground for "ll .eoples. 5eport of a
pecial %ommittee to the 6reparatory %ommission. 6aris! UG&%'.
9D
X. :DDC. Learnin'# /he /reasure %ithin. 5eport to UG&%' of the International %ommission
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X. 2333. %orld ,ducation 0eport# /he 0i'ht to ,ducation, /owards ,ducation for "ll
/hrou'hout Life. 6aris! UG&%'
X. 2333. Literacy for "ll# " 1nited Nations Literacy 2ecade. " *iscussion 6aper. 6aris!
UG&%'
UGIT&* G"TI'G #&G&5". "&$A.I. "/5&/<</2:3 of ?ebruary 233:.
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NationsMillennium 2eclaration
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X. "/5&/<7/2:= of :C Quly 2332. 1nited Nations Literacy 2ecade# ,ducation for "ll#
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against (I). %urrent issues in comparative education 1Gew Iork! GI4! vol. 8! no. :. 'nline
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<3
A,,e&($@: Q+e.#$%&&!$"e
S!),e Q+e.#$%&&!$"e
SECTION A: PERSONAL DATA
:. #ender
$ale 14 ?emale 14
2. "ge bracket
23+2D 1 4
83+8D 1 4
93+9D 1 4
<3+<D 1 4
C3+"bove 1 4
8. $arital tatus
$arried 1 4
ingle 1 4
eparated/*ivorced 1 4
-idowed 1 4
9. &ducational .evel
6rimary/econdary 1 4
%ollege *iploma 1 4
*egree 1 4
$asters #raduate 1 4
6h* *egree 1 4
'thers 1 4
<. .ength of tay in the *epartment
3+9 1 4
<+D 1 4
:3+:9 1 4
<:
:<+:D 1 4
23+and $ore 1 4
SECTION B: /ENERAL INFORMATION
C. *epartmental #ender *istribution of &mployees
*epartment $ale employees ?emale employees
"dministration
"ccounting and ?inance
6rocurement/6urchases
6roduction/ales
(uman 5esources
'rganisational 6lanning
5eception and ecretarial
7. 6ercent %hange in %onstant+hillings $onthly &arnings! by &ducational "ttainment and
ex! 2333R23:3
H$*5e.# E(+c!#$%& Le-e
6ercent %hange in %onstant+hillings $onthly
&arnings per #ender
$en -omen
AachelorEs *egree and (igher
ome %ollege or "ssociate *egree
(igh chool! no %ollege
.ess than a (igh chool *iploma
=. *istribution of ?ull+Time -age and alary &mployment! by ex and $ajor 'ccupation
#roup! 23:3 "nnual "verages
Occ+,!#$%& Ty,e
Pe"ce&#!*e %7 T%#!
Me& W%)e&
$anagement! Ausiness! and financial 'perations
6rofessional and 5elated
ervice
ales and 5elated
'ffice and "dministrative upport
Gatural 5esources! %onstruction and $aintenance
6roduction! Transportation and $aterial+moving
D. 6ercent of .iterate 6opulation 'ver ix Iears 'ld
A"e!
2A>A 2AAA 633A
M!e Fe)!e M!e Fe)!e M!e Fe)!e
&ast
-est
Gort
h
%A*
<2
:3. "ctivity and unemployment rates by gender and age group 1;4 in 23:3
A*e EY".F
M!e. Fe)!e.
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:<RC9
:<R29
2<R89
8<R99
9<R<9
<<RC9
::. &mployment and Un+&mployment 5ates for -omen "ged :<RC9 1;4! by &ducational
.evel! 23:3
&ducation .evel &mployment Unemployment
Go &ducation
6rimary
.ower econdary
Upper econdary
Tertiary
:2. .ikelihood of gender bias against self 1negative responses4
#ender Gever 5arely 6ossibly 6ercentage 1negative4
$ale
?emale
:8. .ikelihood of gender affecting opportunities of advancement
#ender Gever 5arely 6ossibly 6ercentage negative4
$ale
?emale
:9. .ikelihood of gender affecting opportunities for networking 1negative responses
#ender Gever 5arely 6ossibly 6ercentage 1negative4
$ale
?emale
:<. .ikelihood of gender affecting opportunities for mentoring 1negative responses4
#ender Gever 5arely 6ossibly 6ercentage 1negative4
$ale
?emale
<8
:C. .ikelihood of gender affecting pay 1negative responses4
#ender Gever 5arely 6ossibly 6ercentage 1negative4
$ale
?emale
:7. .ikelihood of gender discrimination outcomes based on gender of respondents
#ender Impact of #*
on self
confidence
Impact of #*
on career
advancement
Impact of #*
on job
satisfaction
Impact of #* on
organi0ational
commitment
Impact of #*
on career
commitment
$ale
?emale
:=. .ikelihood of gender discrimination outcomes based on $anagement level of respondents
.evel of
$anagement
Impact of #*
on self
confidence
Impact of #*
on career
advancement
Impact of #*
on job
satisfaction
Impact of #*
on
organi0ational
commitment
Impact of #*
on career
commitment
Top and $id
.ower
<9