Boilers Of Thermal Power

Plants Plants
Debanjan Basak
CESC Ltd
Points of Discussion
Thermodynamic Cycles
Discussion on Sub and Supercritical
Boilers
Performance Indicators and Benchmarks
of a Power Station of a Power Station
Constructional and design features of
Boilers
Boiler Auxiliaries
Losses and performance optimisation
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed.
Therefore, the total energy of the universe
is a constant.
Energy can, however, be converted from Energy can, however, be converted from
one form to another or transferred from a
system to the surroundings or vice versa.
Spontaneous Processes
Spontaneous processes
are those that can
proceed without any
outside intervention.
The gas in vessel B will
spontaneously effuse into
vessel A, but once the
gas is in both vessels, it
will not spontaneously
Spontaneous Processes
Processes that are
spontaneous in one
direction are
nonspontaneous in
the reverse direction. the reverse direction.
Spontaneous Processes
Processes that are spontaneous at one
temperature may be nonspontaneous at other
temperatures.
Above 0 C it is spontaneous for ice to melt.
Below 0 C the reverse process is spontaneous. Below 0 C the reverse process is spontaneous.
Reversible Processes
In a reversible process
the system changes in
such a way that the
system and
surroundings can be
put back in their original
states by exactly states by exactly
reversing the process.
Changes are
infinitesimally small in
a reversible process.
Irreversible Processes
Irreversible processes cannot be undone by
exactly reversing the change to the system.
All Spontaneous processes are irreversible.
All Real processes are irreversible.
Entropy
Entropy (S) is a term coined by Rudolph
Clausius in the 19th century.
Clausius was convinced of the significance
of the ratio of heat delivered and the of the ratio of heat delivered and the
temperature at which it is delivered,
q
T
Entropy is used to define the unavailable
energy in a system.
Entropy defines the relative ability of one
system to act on an other. As things move
toward a lower energy level, where one is
less able to act upon the surroundings, the less able to act upon the surroundings, the
entropy is said to increase.
For the universe as a whole the entropy is
increasing!
Entropy is not conserved like energy!
Entropy
Entropy can be thought of as a measure of
the randomness of a system.
It is related to the various modes of motion
in molecules. in molecules.
Entropy
Like total energy, E, and enthalpy, H,
entropy is a state function.
Therefore,
S = S S S = S
final
S
initial
Second Law of
Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics:
The entropy of the universe does not
change for reversible processes and
increases for spontaneous processes. increases for spontaneous processes.
Reversible (ideal):
Irreversible (real, spontaneous):
Entropy on the Molecular Scale
Ludwig Boltzmann described the concept of
entropy on the molecular level.
Temperature is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the molecules in a sample. kinetic energy of the molecules in a sample.
Entropy on the Molecular Scale
Molecules exhibit several types of motion:
Translational: Movement of the entire molecule from
one place to another.
Vibrational: Periodic motion of atoms within a molecule.
Rotational: Rotation of the molecule on about an axis or Rotational: Rotation of the molecule on about an axis or
rotation about bonds.
Entropy on the Molecular Scale
Boltzmann envisioned the motions of a sample of
molecules at a particular instant in time.
This would be akin to taking a snapshot of all the
molecules.
He referred to this sampling as a microstate of the He referred to this sampling as a microstate of the
thermodynamic system.
Entropy on the Molecular Scale
Each thermodynamic state has a specific number of
microstates, W, associated with it.
Entropy is
S = k lnW
where k is the Boltzmann constant, 1.38 10
23
J /K. where k is the Boltzmann constant, 1.38 10
23
J /K.
Entropy on the Molecular Scale
The number of microstates and,
therefore, the entropy tends to increase
with increases in
Temperature. Temperature.
Volume (gases).
The number of independently moving
molecules.
Entropy and Physical States
Entropy increases with
the freedom of motion
of molecules.
Therefore, Therefore,
S(g) > S(l) > S(s)
Solutions
Dissolution of a solid:
Ions have more entropy
(more states)
But,
Some water molecules Some water molecules
have less entropy
(they are grouped
around ions).
Usually, there is an overall increase in S.
(The exception is very highly charged ions that
make a lot of water molecules align around them.)
Entropy Changes
In general, entropy
increases when
Gases are formed from
liquids and solids. liquids and solids.
Liquids or solutions are
formed from solids.
The number of gas
molecules increases.
The number of moles
increases.
Third Law of Thermodynamics
The entropy of a pure crystalline
substance at absolute zero is 0.
Standard Entropies
Larger and more complex molecules have
greater entropies.
Link S and H: Phase changes
A phase change is isothermal
(no change in T).
E
n
t
r
o
p
y
s
y
s
t
e
m
For water:
H
fusion
= 6 kJ /mol
H
vap
= 41 kJ /mol
If we do this reversibly: S
surr
= S
sys
Change in entropy
> 0
irreversible
Change in entropy
= 0
reversible
Change in entropy
< 0
impossible
process process process
When a liquid evaporates its go
through a process where
the liquid heats up to the evaporation
temperature
the liquid evaporate at the vaporation
temperature by changing state temperature by changing state
from fluid to gas
the vapor heats above the vaporation
temperature - superheating
The heat transferred to a substance
when temperature changes is often
referred to as sensible heat.
The heat required for changing state as
evaporation is referred to as latent heat
of evaporation.
Enthalpy of a system is defined as the mass of the system - m -
multiplied by the specific enthalpy - h - of the system and can
be expressed as:
H = m h (1)
where
H = enthalpy (kJ)
m = mass (kg)
h = specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Specific Enthalpy
Specific enthalpy is a property of the fluid and can be expressed
as:
h = u + p v (2)
where
u = internal energy (kJ/kg)
p = absolute pressure (N/m
2
)
v = specific volume (m
3
/kg)
Dryness Fraction of Saturated Steam (x or q)
It is a measure of quality of wet steam.
It is the ratio of the mass of dry steam (mg) to the mass of total wet
steam (mg+mf), where mf is the mass of water vapor.
X= mg
mg +mf
Quality of Steam Quality of Steam
It is the representation of dryness fraction in
percentage: Quality of Steam =x X 100
Steam Quality
Steam should be available at the point of
use:
In the correct quantity In the correct quantity
At the correct temperature and pressure
Free from air and incondensable gases
Clean
Dry
Advantages of Superheated Steam
At a given pressure, its capacity to do the work will be comparatively
higher.
It improves the thermal efficiency of boilers and prime movers
It is economical and prevents condensation in case of Steam turbines
Disadvantages of Superheated Steam Disadvantages of Superheated Steam
Rise in Superheated temperature poses problems in lubrication
Initial cost is more and depreciation is higher
Carnot Cycle
Most efficient cycle
operating between
two heat sources
Practically impossible
Difficulty in ending the Difficulty in ending the
condensation process
High energy
consumption for
pumping /
compression
Rankine Cycle
Practical Carnot cycle
with much less
efficiency
Pump power is much
less compared to less compared to
turbine output (within
1%)
Efficiency limited for
lower steam inlet
temperature
Understanding Basic Cycle Understanding Basic Cycle
Rankine Cycle
Process 1-2: Pump Work
Process 2-3: Sensible
and latent heat addition in
the boiler at constant
pressure pressure
Process 3-4: Expansion
in steam turbine
Process 4-1:
condensation of the
steam in condenser
Rankine cycle with Reheat
Average temp of heat
addition increases
with higher pressure
Restricted for
metallurgical limits metallurgical limits
Reheating the
expanded steam to
improve efficiency
Exit Dryness Fraction
improved
Rankine cycle with Reheat and
Regeneration
Most commonly used
in power plant
Bled steam is utilised
to exchange heat to exchange heat
before being cooled
at the condenser
Steam Condition Vs Design efficiency
Steam Pr (Bar) Steam Temp
(
0
C)
Reheat Steam
Temp (
0
C)
Design
Efficiency (%)
Size of set
(MW)
41.4 462 27.5 30
89.1 510 30.5 60
103.4 566 33.7 100
103.4 538 538 35.7 120 103.4 538 538 35.7 120
162 566 538 37.3 200
158.6 566 566 37.7 275
158.6 566 566 38.4 550
241.3 593 566 39.0 375
158.6 566 566 39.25 500
Heat Rate Improvement
Parameters at Turbine Inlet
(bar/
o
C /
o
C)
% Improvement In Station
Heat Rate
170 / 538 / 538 Base
170 / 538 / 565 0.5%
170 / 565 / 565 1.3%
246 / 538 / 538 1.6%
246 / 538 / 565 2.1%
246 / 565 / 565 3.0%
246 / 565 / 598 3.6%
306 / 598 / 598 5.0%
Steam cycle theory and constraints
Higher the size of plant, lower is the capital cost
per MW and higher is the plant efficiency
The terminal steam condition tend to increase
with the size of plant with the size of plant
Limitation in metallurgy is the constraints for
higher terminal condition and hence efficiency
Sample Calculation
of
Cycle efficiencies Cycle efficiencies
under different condition
A cycle operating between
100 bar and 30 mbar
Heat addition-Sensible Heat
The sensible heat is mostly
added in the feed water
heaters and the economisers
The cycle operates between
100 bar (310.961
0
C saturation
temp) and 30 mbar(24.1
0
C temp) and 30 mbar(24.1
0
C
saturation temp)
Sensible heat at A =101 KJ /Kg
Sensible heat at B =1408
KJ /Kg
Sensible heat added = 1307
KJ /Kg
Variation of sensible heat with Pressure
Absolute
pressure
(bar)
Saturation
Temperature
( C )
Sensible
Heat
( kj / kg )
50 263.9 1154.5 50 263.9 1154.5
100 311.0 1408.0
150 342.1 1611.0
200 365.7 1826.5
221.2 374.15 2107.4
Heat addition - Latent Heat
The latent heat is mostly added
in the water wall tubes of the
boiler
Latent heat diminishes with
pressure and is zero at critical
pressure pressure
The latent heat is added from B
to C at constant temp
Entropy at C is 5.6198 kj/KgK
Entropy at B is 3.3605 kj/KgK
Latent heat added = 1319.7
KJ /Kg
Absolute
pressure
(bar)
Saturation
Temperatur
e
( C )
Latent
Heat
( kj / kg )
50 263.9 1639.7
Variation of Latent heat with Pressure
50 263.9 1639.7
100 311.0 1319.7
150 342.1 1004.0
200 365.7 591.9
221.2 374.15 0
Heat addition - Super heat
The Super heat is mostly
added in the superheater
tubes of the boiler arising
out from the drum
The Super heat is added The Super heat is added
from C to D at constant
pressure
The amount of superheat
can be found by deducting
the total heat of Point C
from total heat of point D
Variation of Superheat with Pressure
Absolute pressure
(bar)
Superheat required
( kj / kg )
50 800.9
100 821.5
150 885.4
200 1033.2
Thermal Efficiency of Cycle
Useful Heat
Thermal Efficiency =
Total Heat Total Heat
Useful Heat
Useful heat : Total Heat Rejected Heat
Effect of Back Pressure
Improvement of back pressure induces
certain losses too:
Increase in the CW pumping power
Higher Leaving loss
Reduced condensate temperature
Increased wetness of the steam
Back pressure correction curve
Back Pressure in mb
Heat
cons
Optimum Back
pressure
Causes for departure of back pressure
CW inlet temperature different from design
Balance between increase T/A output to extra pumping power required
CW quantity flowing through the condenser is incorrect
Low across temperature requires closing of the valves otherwise will result
in under cooling of condensate. Flow to be optimised to get desired across in under cooling of condensate. Flow to be optimised to get desired across
Fouled tube plate
If the CW across rise is independent of increase of flow then it is assumed
that the tube plates are fouled with debris
Dirty tubes
Condenser back pressure is independent of increase of flow
Air ingress into the system under vacuum
Increase of TTD. More air ejection improves the vacuum.
Helium leak testing may be employed
Calculation of Ideal Efficiency
Basic Rankine Cycle between 100bar and 30 mbar
Total Heat supplied: 2626.7.3 kj/Kg
Total Heat rejected, [T X (S
2
-S
1
))]: 1917.2 kj/Kg
Useful heat : Total Heat Rejected heat
Thermal Efficiency = 27.01 %
The Highest possible efficiency for a basic
Rankine cycle with steam at 100 bar (abs) and dry
saturated condition and back pressure at 30mbar
is 27.01 %
Ideal Efficiency of
Rankine Cycle with superheat
Total Heat supplied: 3438.3 kj/Kg
Total Heat rejected, [T X (S
2
-S
1
))]:
1917.2 kj/Kg
Useful heat : Total Heat
Rejected heat Rejected heat
Thermal Efficiency = 44.23 %
The Efficiency of basic Rankine
cycle can be improved with
superheat
The scope however is limited due
to materials to withstand high
temperature
Ideal Efficiency of
Rankine Cycle with Reheat
The same 100 bar cycle with
reheat
At pressure 20 bar after
expansion in the turbine, the
steam is heated in the boiler to steam is heated in the boiler to
566
0
C
The steam expands to the
condenser pressure in IP/LP
turbine
The efficiency of this cycle is
46.09%
Ideal Efficiency of
Rankine Cycle with Reheat and regeneration
Sensible heat addition from
M to B
Latent heat and superheat
addition as before
Total heat supplied 2453.5 Total heat supplied 2453.5
Kj/Kg
Heat rejected = 1192.2
Kj/Kg
Thermal Efficiency =
51.4%
Changes in cycle efficiency
The ideal efficiency of the cycle changes with
superheating, reheating and feed heating as under
Basic efficiency: 27.01 %
With Superheat: 44.23%
With Reheat: 46.09%
With reheat and feed heating 51.4% With reheat and feed heating 51.4%
A combination of reheating and feed heating will give
higher ideal cycle efficiency
In practice, due to losses in turbine and other parts the
actual efficiency is much less than the ideal cycle
efficiency stated above
In the figure the dark green area is the area decreased and light green area is the
area increased when the boiler pressure of the Rankine cycle is increased. Area
increased in the cycle is clearly more than the area decreased in the previous cycle
so Rankine efficiency is increased. But this leads to decrease of quality of steam
that comes out of turbine. This quality should not be less than 85%, which limits to
maximum pressure of the power plant.
Increasing the maximum operating temperature can also increase
efficiency, as this takes steam to the superheated region, which
increases the area and also enhances the quality of steam exiting the
turbine.
The maximum temperature is limited by the metallurgical
quality of the pipes of boiler.
Advantages of Reheat Cycle
Increases the dryness fraction of steam
Reduces fuel consumption by 4 to 5%
Reduces steam flow with corresponding reductions
in boiler, turbine and feed heating equipments
capacity.
Reduces pumping power Reduces pumping power
Reduction in exhaust blade erosion of turbine
Reduction in steam volume and heat to the
condenser is reduced by 7 to 8%.
Condenser size and cooling water flow also
reduced
Size of the LP turbine blades is reduced because
sp. Steam volume is reduced by 8%
Disadvantages of Reheat Cycle
Cost increases for additional pipes and
reheaters
Greater floor space required for longer
turbine
Complex operation and control increases Complex operation and control increases
At light loads, steam passing through the
last blade rows are highly superheated if
same reheat is maintained
Boiler: Definition as per IBR
Boiler means any closed vessel
exceeding 22.75 litres (five gallons)
in capacity which is used expressly in capacity which is used expressly
for generating steam under pressure
and includes any mounting or other
fitting attached to such vessel, which
is wholly or partly under pressure
when steam is shut off:
Classification of PF Boilers
Based on Operating
Pressure
Sub-Critical: <Critical Pr.
Super-Critical
Ultra-Super-
Critical
Sub-Critical
Sub-Critical: <Critical Pr.
221.2 Bar
Super critical: >Critical
Pr. 221.2 Bar
Ultra-super critical >
Pr >300 Bar
and Temp >1100
0
F or 593
0
C
4
THERMAL EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT
169 246 310
STEAMPRESSURE (kg/cm2)
Base
%
1.8
0.8
0.8
1.0
0.8
538
0
C/538
0
C
538
0
C/566
0
C
566
0
C/566
0
C
566
0
C/593
0
C
600
0
C/600
0
C
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

%
1.0
566
0
C/566
0
C
Super critical and ultra supercritical conditions
Critical Conditions
Temperature -374.15
0
C
Pressure-225.56kg/cm
2
Ultra super critical conditions
Temperature above 593
0
C
Pressure above 306kg/cm
2
Improvement of thermal efficiency
Increasing the steam temperature ( increases 0.31% Increasing the steam temperature ( increases 0.31%
every 10
0
C of increase of main steam temperature &
0.24% every 10
0
C of increase of reheat steam
temperature )
Increasing in the steam pressure ( increases 0.1%
increase with increase of 10 bar pressure)
Based on Types of Circulation
Natural Circulation Boiler
Classification of PF Boilers
Assisted circulation Boiler
Once through Boiler
Circulation in Boiler
Natural Circulation
The water flows from the drum vide down comer pipes
and returns through riser tubes after being heated in the
furnace
The static head difference generated due to density
difference of the steam and water mixture in the riser
tubes and water in the down comer is the driving force
for the circulation. This is called Thermo-Siphon for the circulation. This is called Thermo-Siphon
The steam and water mixture is separated in the boiler
drum
As the pressure rises, the difference between the
densities tend to decrease and Natural circulation head
cannot overcome the frictional resistance
Higher the heat input, higher should be the flow rate
through the tubes to avoid overheating
Circulation Quantity VS Steam Produced
End Point
The circulation increases
with increase in Heat input
Losses due to friction from
high specific volume is
higher than the pressure
differential
Steam Produced
Total
Circulation
Quantity
differential
Circulation Ratio
Circulation ratio is the weight of water fed to the
steam generating circuits to the steam actually
generated
Kg. of water
Circulation ratio =
Kg. of Steam Kg. of Steam
Circulation ratio depends upon operating
pressure, available circulation head and flow
resistance
For sub critical boilers, circulation ratio varies
from 10-30
Relationship
of density of
water-steam water-steam
with
operating
pressure
Assisted Circulation
As the pressure goes high, the density
difference between the steam and water
decreases and therefore, additional assistance
of pumps are needed to establish circulation
The pumps are located at the bottom of the
down comers
The pumps are located at the bottom of the
down comers
The tube dimensions for assisted circulation
boilers are less and have orifices to establish
uniform temperature distribution
They are restricted below critical pressure to
near about 190 bar
Forced circulation (Once through)
No drum to separate change of state
Once through boiler can operate at any
pressure below or above critical pressure
Flow in once through boiler is proportional Flow in once through boiler is proportional
to the load and hence a minimum flow of
25-30 % is needed always by recirculation
pumps or by dumping
Spirally wound tube to average the heat
input per tube
Once Through Boilers
Based on Types of firing
Wall fired: Front / Opposed
Classification of PF Boilers
Corner fired: Tangential
Down-shot fired : Single / Double
Wall Firing (TGS Boiler)
The stability is imposed by a combination of
secondary of air swirl and a flow reversal in the
primary air by an impeller
The refractory quarl though acts as a radiant
heat source but its major role is aerodynamic
flow stabiliser
heat source but its major role is aerodynamic
flow stabiliser
80 % combustion air through secondary air and
20 % through primary air
Modern design incorporate axial swirl which
consumes less fan power, intimate mixing and
better control
Down shot Firing (BBGS Boiler)
Adopted for burning of low volatile coal < 16
% (Anthracite)
Long particle residence time for complete
combustion combustion
The coal is fed downwards from the arch
along with about 30-40 % combustion air
The secondary air and tertiary air is
distributed to form the flame characteristics
and shape
Tangential Firing (SGS / BBGS#3 Boiler)
A turbulent zone is created in the center of the
furnace by the turbulent flames fired from the
corners towards the imaginary circle to which the
flame path is tangent
Simple in construction and can burn a wide variety Simple in construction and can burn a wide variety
of coal
The mixing of coal and air is obtained by the
admission of coal and air in alternate layers
There can be provisions for tilting of the burners for
super heater temperature control (not in SGS, available in
BBGS #3)
Our Boilers Our Boilers
Titagarh Generating Station Titagarh Generating Station
Designed for Coal with
Calorific Value 4500
Ash + Moisture 35.5%
Volatile Matter 25%
Fixed Carbon 39.5%
Southern Generating Station Southern Generating Station
Designed for Coal with
Calorific Value 3800
Ash + Moisture 44%
Volatile Matter 17%
Fixed Carbon 39%
BBGS Generating Station BBGS Generating Station
Designed for Coal with
Calorific Value 3850
Ash + Moisture 50%
Volatile Matter 15%
Fixed Carbon 32%
Front wall firing Front wall firing
Corner firing Corner firing
Down shot firing Down shot firing Front wall firing Front wall firing
Corner firing Corner firing
Down shot firing Down shot firing
Heat Transfer Zones
Heat Transfer Zones
The Furnace: High temperature gases of
combustion is used for heating water and steam
with low to medium superheat
The Convection Zone: Medium temperature The Convection Zone: Medium temperature
gases is used to heat steam with medium to high
superheat
Heat Recovery zone: Comparatively cool gases
exchange heat to feed water to saturation temperature or
with low superheat
Boiler
Showing
Heat
transfer
areas
Types of Boiling
Sub-cooled water heating: Initial stage of heating, Water in contact with the
tube evaporates-bulk fluid is below the saturation temp
Sub-cooled Nucleate Boiling: Formation and collapsing of bubbles due to
transfer of latent heat
Nucleate boiling: Bulk of the liquid reaches to saturation temperature, bubbles
will not collapse, fluid flow along with the bubbles. Sub critical boiler operates in will not collapse, fluid flow along with the bubbles. Sub critical boiler operates in
this stage (Water velocity 1.5-3 mps)
DNB (Departure from Nucleate boiling): Even higher heat flux will result in
collapsing of bubble to form a layer of superheated steam on the tube face.
Breakdown of mode of heat transfer-leads to burn out of the tube to
overheating.
Film Boiling: Complete film of steam is formed at the solid liquid interface,
results in reduction in heat transfer, High velocities of steam is required
Types of Boiling
Log Heat
A-B: Water Heating
B-S: Sub cooled Nucleate Boiling
S-C: Nucleate Boiling
C-D: Onset of Film Boiling
F
C
D
Critical Heat Flux or
DNB
Log (Tsurface Tbulk)
Log Heat
Flux
D-E: Unstable Film Boiling
E-F: Stable Film Boiling
E
S
A
B
Furnace- Duty
Furnace to have suitable surface area to
reduce the temperature of the furnace gas
to a level acceptable to super heater
requirements requirements
Adequate water circulation in the furnace
tubes to prevent overheating
To avoid flame impingement in the
opposite wall tubes
Furnace- Duty
Width sufficient to accommodate all
burners at an acceptable pitching
Overall dimension to ensure optimum
absorption and total combustion absorption and total combustion
To reduce the furnace temperature below
ash softening temp to avoid slagging
Coal Vs Oil Fired Furnace
Average oil droplet burnout time is half to
that of coal
Coal particle require higher residence time
higher flow path higher flow path
Sticky ash hinders wall tube heat
absorption hence higher surface area
Furnace- Performance & Control
Operation procedures
Firing Pattern
Soot blowing
Excess air Excess air
Other methods
Gas recirculation (GR) as in BBGS
Tilting burners for Corner fired boiler
Furnace Construction
Basically two types
Tangent wall tube: Tubes are arranged tangentially and the
skin casing is used to seal. The skin casing is supported from main
stays
Advantage: Advantage:
Easy maintenance
Older design
Membrane wall tube: Tubes joined with fins to form a fully
welded structure, the membrane wall
Advantage:
Minimum ingress of tramp air
The outer casing requires only heat shielding
Super heaters and Re heaters
Convective:
The heat transfer is through convection and Heat absorption rate increases
with the boiler output
Radiant:
Radiant super heaters receives heat through radiation only Radiant super heaters receives heat through radiation only
With increase load in the boiler, the heat absorption in the furnace surfaces
is increased at a lesser rate hence, the radiant superheat decrease with
load
Combination
Fairly flat superheat curve with wide range of load
Type of material, tube diameter, positioning in the furnace, gas temperature
zone, superheating surface etc. are important factors for designing a super
heater
S
T
E
A
M

T
E
M
P
E
R
A
T
U
R
E
,

S
C
A
L
E

A
R
B
I
T
R
A
R
Y
20 40 60 80 100
STEAM OUTPUT PERCENTAGE
A SUBSTANTIALLY UNIFORM FINALSTEAM TEMPERATURE OVER A RANGE OF OUTPUT CAN BE ATTAINED BY A SERIES
OF ARRANGEMENT OF RADIANT AND CONVECTION SUPERHEATER COMPONENT
S
T
E
A
M

T
E
M
P
E
R
A
T
U
R
E
,

S
C
A
L
E

A
R
B
I
T
R
A
R
Y
PRIMARY
REHEATER
VERTICAL
PIMARY
SUPERHEATER
VERTICAL
PRIMARY
FINAL
REHEATER
FINAL
SUPER
HEATER
PLATEN
SUPERHEAER
STEAM TO IP TURBINE STEAM TO HP TURBINE
STEAM
FROM
HP
COMBUSTION
GASES
STEAM
FROM DRUM
TO DRUM
FEED WATER
TO DRUM
FEED WATER
REHEATER
ECONOMISER
SUPERHEATER
ECONOMISER
FURNACE
AIR HEATER
GAS TO STACK
REHEATER PRIMARY
SUPERHEATER
AIR
COAL
HP
TURBINE
BLOCK DIAGRAM SHOWING BOILER
ELEMENTS AND FLOWPATHS
OXIDE
STEAM
WATER
FILM
FOULING
GAS
FILM
BULK GAS
TEMPERATUE
TUBE
WALL
FILM
FOULING
COMPOSITE TEMPERATURE DROP FROM GAS TO STEAM / WATER
THROUGH A BOILER TUBE WALL
GAS
STEAM
GAS
1025*C
568*C
1025*C
930*C
492*C
568*C
930*C
STEAM
STEAM
COUNTER FLOW PARALLEL FLOW
492*C
492*C
568*C
Tin=447.4*c Tin=442.0*c
SUPER HEATER GAS AND STEAM TEMPERATURE
General
Arrangement of
a 210 MW
radiant Re-heat radiant Re-heat
boiler
Typical section
of a Double
Down shot, Down shot,
250 MW Boiler
at BBGS,
CESC
Super heater temperature is affected by
Load
Excess Air
Feed Water temperature
Heating surface cleanliness
Burner operation
Burner tilt
Coal burnt
Super heater temperature control
Direct Attemperation / De super heaters
Excess Air
Furnace division
Gas recirculation
Adjustment of burner tilt
Type pf burners
Steam Separation and purity
Boiler operating below critical pressure need
drum to separate saturated steam from a
mixture of steam-water discharged by the boiler
tubes
Drum also serves as vessel for chemical
treatment of water and storage of water
The drum sizing is done primarily to house the
separation equipment and should accommodate
the changes in water level with variation of load
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
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0 1000 2000 3000 4000
0.10
0.05
0.00
STEAM DRUM PRESSURE IN , psi
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EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON SILICA DISTRIBUTION RATIO
Performance Indicators and
Benchmarking Benchmarking
Benchmarking-Objectives
Benchmarking is
a continuous formal process of measuring,
understanding, and adapting
more effective practices from best-in-class more effective practices from best-in-class
organizations that lead to superior
performance.
Benchmarking is essential to
provide the best service to our customers.
Benchmarking-Benefits
Improve our performance and organization
Learn about industry leaders and competitors
Determine what world-class performance is
Accelerate and manage change Accelerate and manage change
Achieve breakthrough results
Improve customer satisfaction
Become the best in the business
Steps of benchmarking
What to benchmark
With whom to benchmark
Identification of potential improvement areas
based on benchmarking. based on benchmarking.
Adoption of best practices for improvement
Monitor effectiveness of new practice
Modify practice as per requirement
Standardise practice
Key Benefits from Benchmarking at
CESC Ltd
Reduction in Annual overhaul time
High pressure jet cleaning of boiler tubes
Operating at zero pressure differential of
feed control station feed control station
Ammonia dosing system at ESP
Boiler Insulation survey
Destaging of Condensate Extraction Pump
Installation of SS-304 chutes at CHP
Key Performance Indicators
Cost of Generation
Plant Load Factor (PLF)
Plant Availability Factor (PAF)
Loss In Production
Heat Rate Heat Rate
Specific Coal Consumption
Specific Oil Consumption
Auxiliary Power Consumption
Environmental Emissions
No of Accidents
Implementation of Quality and SHE systems
Key Monitoring
PF Sample analysis
PA and PF flow distribution
Performance of Boiler feed pumps
Performance of Fans
Insulation survey of boiler casings
Thermographic assessment of valves
Reject analysis from pulverisers
Helium leak test of condensers
Energy consumption of major axillaries
Physical inspection of fly ash
Measurement of boiler and air heater efficiency
Measurement of turbine efficiency
Fuel sampling and analysis from coal feeders
Introduction to Supercritical
Technology
What is Supercritical Pressure ?
Critical point in water vapour cycle is a
thermodynamic state where there is no clear
114
thermodynamic state where there is no clear
distinction between liquid and gaseous state
of water.
Water reaches to this state at a critical
pressure above 22.1 MPa and 374
o
C.
What is Supercritical Pressure ?
Critical point in water vapour cycle is a
thermodynamic state where there is no
clear distinction between liquid and
gaseous state of water. gaseous state of water.
Water reaches to this state at a
critical pressure above 22.1 MPa and
374 oC.
Rankine Cycle Subcritical Unit
1 - 2 > CEP work
2 - 3 > LP Heating
3 - 4 > BFP work
4 - 5 > HP Heating
5 6 > Eco, WW
6 7 > Superheating 6 7 > Superheating
7 8 > HPT Work
8 9 > Reheating
9 10 > IPT Work
1011 > LPT Work
11 1 > Condensing
Rankine Cycle Supercritical Unit
1 - 2 > CEP work
2 2s > Regeneration
2s - 3 > Boiler Superheating
3 4 > HPT expansion 3 4 > HPT expansion
4 5 > Reheating
5 6 > IPT & LPT Expansion
6 1 > Condenser Heat rejection
VARIATION OF LATENT HEAT
WITH PRESSURE
Absolute Absolute
Pressure Pressure
(Bar) (Bar)
Saturation Saturation
Temperature Temperature
((
oo
C) C)
Latent Latent
Heat Heat
(K J/Kg.) (K J/Kg.)
50 50
150 150
264 264
342 342
1640 1640
1004 1004 150 150
200 200
221 221
342 342
366 366
374 374
1004 1004
592 592
00
Departure from Nucleate Boiling
Nucleate boiling is a type of boiling that takes place when the surface temp is hotter
than the saturated fluid temp by a certain amount but where heat flux is below the
critical heat flux. Nucleate boiling occurs when the surface temperature is higher than
the saturation temperature by between 4
0
C to 30
0
C.
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WATER
PRESSURE(ksc)
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STEAM
175 224
No Religious Attitude
Supercritical Boiler Water Wall
Rifle Tube And Smooth Tube
Natural Circulation Vs. Once
Through System
From CRH Line
LTRH
LTSH
443
0
C
FRH
Platen
Heater
Mixer Header
FSH
To HP
Turbine
To IP
Turbine
Separator
326
0
C
423
0
C
473
0
C
462
0
C
534
0
C
526
0
C
571
0
C
569
0
C
324
0
C
From FRS Line
Boiler
Recirculation Pump
Economizer
Phase 1
Economizer
Phase 2
Bottom Ring
Header
283
0
C
280
0
C
NRV
Feed water control
In Drum type Boiler Feed water flow
control by Three element controller
1.Drumlevel
2.Ms flow
3.Feed water flow.
Drumless Boiler Feed water control by
1.Load demand
2.Water/Fuel ratio(7:1)
3.OHD(Over heat degree)
Difference of
Subcritical(500MW) and
Supercritical(660MW) Supercritical(660MW)
COMPARISION OF SUPER CRITICAL & SUB CRITICAL
DESCRIPTION SUPERCRITICAL
(660MW)
SUB-CRITICAL
(500MW)
Circulation Ratio 1 Once-thru=1
Assisted Circulation=3-4
Natural circulation=7-8
Feed Water Flow Control -Water to Fuel Ratio
(7:1)
Three Element Control
-Feed Water Flow (7:1)
-OHDR(22-35
O
C)
-Load Demand
-Feed Water Flow
-MS Flow
-Drum Level
Latent Heat Addition Nil Heat addition more
Sp. Enthalpy Low More
Sp. Coal consumption Low High
Air flow, Dry flu gas loss Low High
Continue..
DESCRIPTION SUPERCRITICA
L
(660MW)
SUB-CRITICAL
(500MW)
Coal & Ash handling Low High
Pollution Low High Pollution Low High
Aux. Power
Consumption
Low More
Overall Efficiency High
(40-42%)
Low
(36-37%)
Total heating surface
area Reqd
Low
(84439m
2
)
High
(71582m
2
)
Tube diameter Low High
Continue..
DESCRIPTION SUPERCRITIC
AL
(660MW)
SUB-
CRITICAL
(500MW)
Material / Infrastructure
(Tonnage)
Low
7502 MT
High
9200 MT
Start up Time Less More Start up Time Less More
Blow down loss Nil More
Water Consumption Less More
Advanced Supercritical Tube Materials
(300 bar/600
0
c/620
0
c)
129
Material Comparison
Description Description 660 MW 660 MW 500 MW 500 MW
Structural Steel Structural Steel Alloy Steel Alloy Steel Carbon Steel Carbon Steel
Water wall Water wall T22 T22 Carbon Steel Carbon Steel
SH Coil SH Coil T23, T91 T23, T91 T11, T22 T11, T22
RH Coil RH Coil
T91,Super T91,Super
304 H 304 H
T22, T22,
T91,T11 T91,T11
LTSH LTSH T12 T12 T11 T11
Economizer Economizer SA106 SA106--CC Carbon Steel Carbon Steel
Welding Joints (Pressure Parts) Welding Joints (Pressure Parts) 42,000 Nos 42,000 Nos 24,000 Nos 24,000 Nos
Advantages of SC Technology
I ) Higher cycle efficiency means
Primarily
less fuel consumption
less per MW infrastructure investments
less emission
131
less emission
less auxiliary power consumption
less water consumption
II ) Operational flexibility
Better temp. control and load change flexibility
Shorter start-up time
More suitable for widely variable pressure operation
ECONOMY
Higher Efficiency (%)
Less fuel input.
Low capacity fuel handling system.
Low capacity ash handling system.
Less Emissions.
132
Less Emissions.
Approximate improvement in Cycle
Efficiency
Pressure increase : 0.005 % per bar
Temp increase : 0.011 % per degK
Challenges of supercritical technology
Water chemistry is more stringent in super critical once
through boiler.
Metallurgical Challenges
More complex in erection due to spiral water wall.
More feed pump power is required due to more friction More feed pump power is required due to more friction
losses in spiral water wall.
Maintenance of tube leakage is difficult due to complex
design of water wall.
Ash sticking tendency is more in spiral water wall in
comparison of vertical wall.
Combustion Combustion
Basics Basics Basics Basics
Combustion Basics
Fuel
Combustion Stoichiometry
Air/Fuel Ratio
Equivalence Ratio Equivalence Ratio
Air Pollutants from Combustion
5/8/2013 135
Aerosol & Particulate Research Laboratory
Fuel
q Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas
Refinery gas
q Liquid Fuels
Kerosene
Gasoline, diesel
Alcohol (Ethanol)
Oil
q Solid Fuels
Coal (Anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, lignite)
Wood
5/8/2013 136
Aerosol & Particulate Research Laboratory
Combustion Stoichiometry
q Combustion in Oxygen
O H CO O H C
m n 2 2 2
O H
m
nCO O
m
n H C
m n 2 2 2
2 4
O H CO O CH
2 2 2 4
2 2
O H CO O H C
2 2 2 6 6
3 6 5 . 7
5/8/2013 137
Aerosol & Particulate Research Laboratory
Combustion Stoichiometry
q Combustion in Air (O
2
= 21%, N
2
= 79%)
2 2 2 2 2
) 78 . 3 ( N O H CO N O H C
m n
2 2 2 2 2
4
78 . 3
2
) 78 . 3 (
4
N
m
n O H
m
nCO N O
m
n H C
m n
2 2 2 2 2 4
56 . 7 2 ) 78 . 3 ( 2 N O H CO N O CH
2 2 2 2 2 6 6
35 . 28 3 6 ) 78 . 3 ( 5 . 7 N O H CO N O H C
1. What if the fuel contains O, S, Cl or other elements?
2 Is it better to use O
2
or air?
Air-Fuel Ratio
q Air-Fuel (AF) ratio
AF = m
Air
/ m
Fuel
Where: m
air
= mass of air in the feed mixture
m
fuel
= mass of fuel in the feed mixture
Fuel-Air ratio: FA = m
Fuel
/m
Air
= 1/AF
q Air-Fuel molal ratio
AF
mole
= n
Air
/ n
Fuel
Where: n
air
= moles of air in the feed mixture
n
fuel
= moles of fuel in the feed mixture
What is the Air-Fuel ratio for stoichiometric combustion of
methane and benzene, respectively?
5/8/2013 139
Aerosol & Particulate Research Laboratory
Air-Fuel Ratio
q Rich mixture
- more fuel than necessary
(AF)
mixture
<(AF)
stoich
q Lean mixture
- more air than necessary
(AF) >(AF) (AF)
mixture
>(AF)
stoich
Most combustion systems operate under lean conditions.
Why is this advantageous?
Equivalence Ratio
Equivalence ratio: shows the deviation of an actual
mixture from stoichiometric conditions.
actual
stoich
stoich
actual
AF
AF
FA
FA
) (
) (
) (
) (
actual stoich
The combustion of methane has an equivalence ratio =0.8
in a certain condition. What is the percent of excess air (EA)
used in the combustion?
How does temperature change as increases?
Formation of NOx and CO in Combustion
q Thermal NOx
- Oxidation of atmospheric N
2
at high temperatures
- Formation of thermal NOx is favorable at higher temperature
NO O N 2
2 2
2 2 2
1
NO O NO
q Fuel NOx
- Oxidation of nitrogen compounds contained in the fuel
q Formation of CO
- Incomplete Combustion
- Dissociation of CO
2
at high temperature
2 2
1
2
O CO CO
Air Pollutants from Combustion
How do you explain the trends of the exhaust HCs, CO,
and NOx as a function of air-fuel ratio?
How do you minimize NOx and CO emission?
Source: Seinfeld, J . Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics of Air Pollution.
Facilitators of Combustion
Time
Temperature
Turbulence
Improper Combustion
Excess Combustion
Explosion
Tube burn out
Refractory damages
Incomplete Combustion
Waste of fuel
Fall in steam parameters
Fall in thermal efficiency
Fall in thermal efficiency
Generation of pollutants
Slagging
Generation of pollutants
High FGET
Explosion
Main types of combustion
Flame combustion
Cyclone Combustion
Fluidised Bed combustion
Flame Combustion
Burning of pulverized coal or coal dust in a
suspended state inside the furnace.
Fine particles of coal are easily moved by the
flow of air and combustion products through the flow of air and combustion products through the
section of the furnace
Combustion takes place in a short time of the
presence of particles in the furnace ( 1 to 2 secs)
Cyclone combustion
Fuel particles go through intensive
turbulent motion
The coal particles burn off more quickly
Permits the combustion of coarse coal Permits the combustion of coarse coal
dust and even crushed coal
Develops a higher temperature with the
result that slag are removed in the molten
state.(slagging-type furnace)
Fluidized Bed Combustion
(FBC)
Solid fuel ground to particle size of 16mm is
placed on a grate.
It is blown from beneath with an airflow at such
speed that the fuel particles are lifted above the
grate grate
The speed of the gas-air flow within the bed is
higher than above it
The finer and partially burnt particles rise to the
upper portion of the bed where the flow velocity
decreases and are burnt completely.
Boiler Auxillaries
Fans
Blowers
Feed Pumps & Circulation Pumps
Airheaters Airheaters
Dampers and gates
Soot Blowers