Political science as a science David Apter

The reading begins with the definition of a minimum political system. Politics comes into play when
three people interact. With two persons the relationship is direct and reciprocal and there are
limitless ways of evaluating it. When three, there is a quantum jump in expressions and possible
evaluations in addition to those present in a dyadic relationship. There is a possibility of two grouping
up to dominate the third and so on. It is different from the reciprocal relationships that are present
master-slave, friend enemy etc. The more the actors, the more complex it gets.
Today, professional side of politics is devoted to search for theories that aim to abstract from real life
certain critical and informative variables. Different theories (Marxist, behavioralist) emphasize on
different variables. Which theory serves what purpose raises another level of professionalization namely
appropriate criteria by which different theories can be judged.
To establish valid and significant judgmental criteria, political scientists rely on common sense.
Beyond common sense tests of statistical validity, logic and empiricism are relied upon.
Political science methodology
Abstraction or theory construction, criteria for selection of these theories, evaluation of quality of the
theories are the major components of professional analysis. For the above mentioned reasons study of
politics is concerned with methodology.
Simplest form of abstraction is selective description of historical facts, next higher level is typology-
certain characteristics combine to form a composite concept such as democracy or feudalism. Third
level of generalization is when relationships are seen to stand behind types- distribution of power, for
eg, which form consistent structures. Structure can be treated a system, which once separated from
data can be used like a set of techniques of operation.
Fragmentation and integration
Most new material come from research of political scientists. Politicians too are important. In order to
plan campaign strategies effectively they collect important data. Cost constraints often lead to
improvements in efficiency. Governments too, sometimes fund researches to study the different
political questions. By product of research for efficiency is specialization. The problem with
specialization is that comprehending and using it becomes difficult. It takes an expert to understand
the complexities.
There is fragmentation of the field as the relevant knowledge grows. To compensate this
specialization due to the fragmentation it is important to find integrative ways of putting pieces
together. There has been a shift towards more professionalism, a bias towards a scientific treatment of
politics.
Areas of specialization: The object of the discipline in the US is two-fold, to inculcate civic
responsibility and to improve government at all levels. Political scientists search out for alternatives
that would work. Americans have made the field more practical and have relied substantially on
empiricism. Research has shifted towards individuals rather than institutions. Yet it has not lost its
focus on philosophy and institutionalism. There has been an alteration from the conventional field of
studies to more complex ones like political psychology, legislative sociology etc.
1. Paradigm
2. Theory
3. Methods
4. Techniques
5. Models
6. Strategies
7. Research Design
A face off: scientism v. humanism (seriously?)

Political science earlier was about understanding the working of the system, civil learning, about the
duties of the citizens and obligations of the state. Now political science has become a more technical
discipline. Increase in specialization prevents the common man from understanding the discipline.
This is quite paradoxical as it negates one of the primary objectives of the discipline. When there is a
need for the public to understand the problems knowledge inaccessible due to excessive
specialization.
Political scientists provide strategic intelligence to politicians, increase knowledge of organizational
skills, help in mobilizing support, project policies. Political Science can provide information and
consequences of projected policies. The materials gathered from various specialized policy studies like
budgeting, ethnic factors, military decision etc provide for a fund of useful knowledge, a form of
intellectual capital.
It tries to answer BIG questions which are most fundamental priorities and always ambiguous. The
meaning of justice, equality, liberty, freedom, democracy and others. But the citizens feel inadequate
and regard the knowledge itself with contempt as it is beyond their understanding due to
specialization. This Endangers society as it provides unchecked powers in hand of government. A
discipline, if it is to use its resources to enhance general understanding, it cannot remain esoteric.
Generative Ideas: if technicism is one side of the coin, the other side is creativity. New ideas are not
result of scientific inquiry but unexpected sources. Human mind when confronted by a problem
ruminates about it sub-consciously. Generative ideas are those which stimulate new ways of thinking
often defy explanations and are articulated unexpectedly. These are essential to our rational ability to
understand what goes on around us. Most discoveries come from such generative ideas.
If science stimulates the discipline, we should use science. If it cripples the creativity required, science is
inadequate. It requires the use of inquiry along with imagination. What is the relationship between
actual and ideal- requires to show relation between generative ideas, theories and specific questions.
The Big question
Generative ideas address problems that may be addressed by practitioners or intellectuals but which
often must be scientifically understood. Such problems cannot be interpreted by a layman-politician
and hence the need for political scientists to look into these matters arises. For example democracy.
Although many questions are asked about it, all it represents how one issue can be looked at from
different perspectives.
Distortion and falsification of information engenders new forms of corruption. There are new
opportunities of power, new responsibilities for politicians. Hence arise new ways of exploiting power. A
need for checks and balances will arise. Check on the misuse of authority is danger in itself. Such a
situation where everyone checks on everyone will affect peoples liberties.
The questions are complicated and cannot be resolved by wiping the slate clean such as if one could
start afresh in politics ignoring peoples attitude, vested interests. The questions maybe global ones or
local ones, but the attempts to answer them stimulates generative ideas. They maybe translated into
scientific questions and then answered through a scientific study. Generative ideas are connected to
concrete research. Big issues are broken up into manageable small priority to certain policy questions.
Criteria for evaluation and consequences make the field into a policy science. Politics is thus pitched
between moral philosophy and empirical science. It draws its generative ideas from moral philosophy
while more and more its policy depends upon science of behavior.
Application of principle to research
Hypothesis formation : it is a statement of the relationships between two or more variable when at least
one is independent and other dependent.
It is difficult to create a hypothesis without any understanding of the problem. Thus we need
preliminary research to allow a general understanding of the issue. This gives us enough data for a
hypothesis which can then be validated through specific, in depth research
Limits to specific research and analysis: assume we have a policy question which is product of
generative idea and phrased as hypothesis. Then? Scientific experiment model relies on quantitative
rigor of the experiment. Hypothesis confirmed according to statistical or other hard criteria. The danger
of confusing scientific method with scientific political analysis is that it drives out generative ideas.
Mere fact finding will so simplify the results so as to make it spurious. A correlation may be
statistically valid but theoretically misleading. The scores of blacks in intelligence tests maybe
consistently less than that of whites but it maybe fallacious to infer than whites are smarter. Dangers
of false science Is that results maybe exact but are not always true.
Political science uses a variety of ways to translate research into theory. They are mainly inductive.
Starting with specific material, theories are built up into generalizations. Deductive propositions are
generally avoided. No science can stuff the complex human behavior into a valid deductive
proposition.
This is why political science as an empirical science relies on regressions and correlations to postulate
that X and Y exist in some sort of relationship. Problem is how to modify techniques developed primarily
for other purposes. Considerable research is going on for expanding the techniques. Quantitative
research of empirical nature also requires indicator data- important variables that measure
something.
Indicator: using theory to predict behavior
{eg: for economics, recession, inflation , depression}
Political scientists are also developing useful indicators which has been spurred on by the use of new
technologies. Now its possible to accumulate and store vast bodies of quantitative data (in which
century this article was written, 19
th
?) problem is to locate it that too under useful categories. Another
problem is growing expense of maintaining such archives.
An important test for indicators is that they are amenable to quantitative analysis. Advances in
computers have made possible rankings which employ qualitative mathematics. Its now able to combine
different information in a comparative way.
Coming to terms with abstractions
Political indicator- two types- analytical or concrete. Analytical system- generalized set of relationships
i.e. theory. Concrete system- is a membership group of real people. Analytical system can be applied to
working of concrete system.[ eg democracy is former, India is latter]
Concrete- central problem- size of the unit. Smallest- individual, largest- society. Small- micropolitical,
large- macropolitical. It is also relative.[eg microorganism in human body, individual is macro unit. India
is a micro unit in the international relations}
Pg 45 second para shows three levels of abstraction. Do read.
The model is concrete when, in examining,we find that actual process approximates the model. We use
indicators to measure these degree of maintainence. Different levels of research depends on how
abstract the categories of interest is, which concrete model is used to test the theory.
How to combine large questions of principle with concrete research is what the science of politics is all
about.