Stealth Technology

How Radar Works

Why were aircraft so vulnerable to radar detection? In short, for all the reasons
that increased their aerodynamic qualities and performance. Metal skins, large vertical
control surfaces, big powerful engines with massive propeller blades: all the features that
made the erman Me!"#$ Messerschmitt and the %merican &oeing &!"' bomber faster
and more reliable also made them e(cellent radar reflectors. )adar detects scattered
radiation from ob*ects, and is particularly good at detecting highly reflective metallic
ob*ects against a less reflective background such as the sea or the sky. Waves are
generated and transmitted in the radio!frequency part of the electro!magnetic spectrum.
+he radar receiver then captures the reflection of the waves as they are encountered and
are transmitted back from ob*ects of interest. ,ince the speed of radio wave propagation
from the radar is a known constant, radar systems can determine the position, velocity,
and other characteristics of an ob*ect by analysis of very high frequency radio waves
reflected from its surfaces.
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RADAR TIME LINE
RADAR TIMELINE 1
187 188! 1"## 1"#$ 1"1%
Ma(well predicts
propagation speed
of electromagnetic
waves
-ert. detects radio
waves
+esla writes on using
waves to detect ob*ects
-ulsmeyer builds
telemobilescope and detects
ships
/irst aircraft shot
down by %%% in
Italo! +urkish
war
1"% 1" 1"$ 1"& 1"8
/ormer 0M
&aldwin states that
the bomber will
always get through
&ritish proposes
acoustic mirrors for
+hames 1stuary
erman warship
-essen uses
primitive radar to
navigate 2iel
harbor
3, 4aval )esearch
5aboratory tests
radio aircraft
detection system.
Watson!Watt writes
memo on aircraft
detection.
In 6aventry e(periment,
&ritish track bomber at 7
miles and "#,### ft.
Marconi develops crude
radar set for Italian %rmy
&ritish setup
8hain -ome
radar network
-M, ,heffield
detects aircraft at
9: miles and
"#,### ft.
;
+he word <radar< is actually an acronym standing for )%dio 6etection %nd
)anging since the device uses radio waves to detect targets. )adar works by sending out
pulses of these electromagnetic waves and then <listening< for echoes bounced back by
targets of interest.
Concept of pulse radar
RADAR 'R(SS SE'TI(N
1ven though a radar may transmit megawatts of power in a single pulse, only a tiny
fraction of that energy is typically bounced back to be received by the radar antenna. +he
amount of power returned from a target to the transmitting radar depends on four ma*or
factors:
". +he power transmitted in the direction of the target
;. +he amount of power that impacts the target and is reflected back in the direction
of the radar
:. +he amount of reflected power that is intercepted by the radar antenna
=. +he length of time in which the radar is pointed at the target
:
Factors that determine the energy returned by a target
% term used to describe the relationship between these variables is power density,
sometimes also called power flu(. +o understand power density, consider the following
diagram. +he power transmitted by a radar is dissipated the further it travels because it is
spread over an increasingly larger area. +he area over which the power is spread is
proportional to the square of the distance, or range >)?, from the transmitting radar. +he
amount of power spread over a given area is called the power density, and this quantity
decreases by the square of the range. +he power density of the transmitted radar wave at
the range of the target has a special name called the incident power density >0
incident
?.
@nce the radar power reaches the target, some portion of that power will be
reflected back to its source. -owever, this reflected power also dissipates and spreads out
as it echoes back to the radar receiver. ,ince the power density has already been reduced
by a factor of "A)
;
by the time it reaches the target and is again reduced by "A)
;
on the
return trip, the final power density of the energy received by the radar is proportional to
"A)
=
. +he ability of a radar to detect the target depends on whether the amount of power
returned is large enough to be differentiated from internal noise, ground clutter,
background radiation, and other sources of interference. +he goal of stealth techniques is
to bounce so little radar power back to its source that the target is nearly impossible to
detect or track.
=
Effect of distance from the radar to the target on the power density
@nce the radar power reaches the target, some portion of that power will be
reflected back to its source. -owever, this reflected power also dissipates and spreads out
as it echoes back to the radar receiver. ,ince the power density has already been reduced
by a factor of "A)
;
by the time it reaches the target and is again reduced by "A)
;
on the
return trip, the final power density of the energy received by the radar is proportional to
"A)
=
. +he ability of a radar to detect the target depends on whether the amount of power
returned is large enough to be differentiated from internal noise, ground clutter,
background radiation, and other sources of interference. +he goal of stealth techniques is
to bounce so little radar power back to its source that the target is nearly impossible to
detect or track.
+he amount of power that is reflected back to the radar depends largely on a
quantity called the radar cross section >)8,.? %lthough )8, is technically an area and
typically e(pressed in square meters >m
;
?, it is helpful to break the term apart to better
understand what it means. )adar cross section is usually represented by the reek letter s
>pronounced <sigma<?, and the quantity depends on three factors.
1. Geometric cross section
2. Reflectivity
3. Directivity
9
.
1. Geometric cross section:
The geometric cross section refers to the area the target presents to the
radar, or its projected area. This area will vary depending on the angle, or
aspect, the target presents to the radar. In other words, the target will
proaly present the smallest projected area to a radar if it is flying directly
toward the radar and is viewed head!on. " view from the side, top, or
#nderneath will present a m#ch larger projected area. The geometric
cross section $"% determines how m#ch power transmitted y the radar
$&incident% is intercepted y the target $&intercepted% according to the following
relationship'
2. Reflectivity:
Reflectivity refers to the fraction of the intercepted power that is reflected
y the target, regardless of direction. Radar power does not necessarily
reflect e(#ally from all parts of an aircraft, and some components prod#ce
stronger radar reflections than others. In addition, some radar power is
#s#ally asored y the target. This asorption is especially tr#e of aircraft
coated with special s#stances called Radar "sorent )aterials $R")%
or those #sing internal reflectors called Radar "sorent *tr#ct#res $R"*%
that trap incoming radar waves. Regardless, the power that is reradiated,
or scattered, after reflecting off the target is e(#al to the intercepted power
less whatever portion of that power is asored y the target. Reflectivity
is defined as the ratio of power scattered y the target $&scatter% to the power
intercepted y the target $&intercepted%.
3. Directivity:
Directivity is related to reflectivity #t refers to the power scattered ac+ in
the direction of the transmitting radar. The power that is reflected toward
the radar is called the ac+scattered power $&ac+scatter%. ,e-ve already
noted that radar energy is not reflected evenly, #t directivity is defined as
the ratio of the power that is ac+scattered in the direction of the radar to
the power that wo#ld have een scattered in that direction if the scattering
were in fact #niform in all directions. If the power were to scatter e(#ally, it
wo#ld form a sphere e.panding #niformly in all directions from the target.
This type of ehavior is called isotropic e.pansion. Isotropic power
$&isotropic% is defined as the power that is scattered in a perfect sphere over
a #nit solid angle of that sphere, as shown in the following e(#ation.
B
,e have mentioned that the power reflected y the target can e m#ch
stronger in some directions than in others. "s a res#lt, that reflected power
will e m#ch greater or m#ch smaller than the isotropic power depending
on how the target is oriented to the transmitting radar. The directivity,
therefore, will e m#ch greater than 1 when the target ret#rns a strong
ac+scatter in the direction of the radar and m#ch less than 1 when the
ac+scatter is small.
These three factors can e comined to determine the complete radar cross
section $% for a target.
*implifying that e.pression yields the following relationship for radar cross
section.
The importance of radar cross section can est e #nderstood y loo+ing at an
e(#ation relating the R/* of the target to the energy received y the radar.
where
* 0 signal energy received y the radar
&avg 0 average power transmitted y the radar
G 0 gain of the radar antenna
0 radar cross section of the target
"e 0 effective area of the radar antenna, or 1apert#re efficiency1
tot 0 time the radar antenna is pointed at the target $time on target%
R 0 range to the target
'
The greatest challenge aircraft designers have traditionally faced in creating a
vehicle diffic#lt to detect y radar is the aility to predict what the R/* will e for
a complicated shape from any given direction. That diffic#lty was only overcome
in recent decades when comp#ters ecame powerf#l eno#gh to solve a series of
e(#ations descriing how radar waves scatter off complicated shapes. These
e(#ations are ased on )a.well-s e(#ations developed y 2ames /ler+ )a.well
in the mid!1344s. )a.well-s e(#ations descrie the ehavior of electric and
magnetic fields and are at the heart of a ranch of physics called
electrodynamics. ,hile the fo#r e(#ations )a.well derived are relatively simple,
they can ecome (#ite comple. when trying to predict the electromagnetic
properties of shapes reflecting radar energy.
Res#lts derived from )a.well-s e(#ations can e seen in the following tale.
&resented here are e(#ations that predict the R/* of simple shapes li+e
spheres, cylinders, and flat plates, and shapes are ordered ased on the relative
strength of the ma.im#m R/*. The strength of the radar ret#rn is also a f#nction
of the angle at which the radar waves impact against the s#rface, or the incident
angle. This angle is a f#nction of two angles called the aspect $% and a5im#th $%
angles. The variale represents the wavelength of the radar eam, which is
ass#med to e smaller than the dimensions of the shape.
Geometry Description
Maximum
RC
Comments
*(#are
trihedral
corner
reflector
*trongest radar ret#rn d#e
to triple reflection of incident
wave
Right dihedral
corner
reflector
*econd strongest radar
ret#rn d#e to do#le
reflection of incident wave6
decreases from ma.im#m
slowly with changing and
rapidly with changing
7
7lat plate Third strongest radar ret#rn
d#e to direct reflection of
incident wave6 decreases
rapidly as incidence angle
changes from perpendic#lar
Right circ#lar
cylinder
*trong radar ret#rn as
aspect $% changes, #t
decreases rapidly as
a5im#th $% changes
*phere &rod#ces the same isotropic
ret#rn in all directions
"s indicated thro#gho#t the aove tale, the radar cross section varies
depending on the angle of incidence etween the s#rface of the shape and the
transmitted radar eam. The graph elow gives some idea of j#st how m#ch the
R/* of a cylinder changes with the aspect angle. The data is e.pressed in
d8sm, or deciels referenced to one s(#are meter. Radar cross section in
s(#are meters can e converted to d8sm y the following e(#ation.
Radar cross section of a cylinder
$
Data of this form is also ro#tinely collected for more comple. shapes, li+e
complete aircraft. "n e.ample is shown elow for the elderly T!33 trainer. The
radar cross section data is provided at all aspects at an a5im#th of 49.
!"## $et trainer
!"## radar cross section
*ince data collected in this form is somewhat diffic#lt to read and interpret, it is
common to present R/* meas#rements in the form plotted elow. This type of
"#
graph is called a polar plot, and it is #sed to chart the median R/* data over a
range of aspect angles. In this case, the T!33 res#lts have een plotted at 149
increments.
!"## mediani%ed radar cross section
These mediani5ed plots allow #s to etter see the trends in R/* ehavior aro#nd
the aircraft. The largest radar ret#rns can e seen from the sides of the plane,
where the large vertical tail and wingtip f#el tan+s prod#ce strong reflections.
8oth the forward and aft aspects also prod#ce relatively large pea+s in R/* that
are proaly d#e to reflections off the lades of the jet engines. The smallest
R/* meas#rements tend to come from the corners of the aspect envelope where
there are no s#rfaces perpendic#lar to the radar so#rce and the engines are
shielded from view. ,hile the magnit#des of R/* val#es for other planes will
vary significantly from those shown for the T!33, the trends ill#strated here are
proaly representative of most other aircraft.
In general, however, the most important R/* meas#rement is considered to e
the head!on view. R/* val#es provided for aircraft and other flying vehicles are
almost always ased on this orientation. :evertheless, it can e diffic#lt to
directly compare R/* estimates from one plane to another since the R/* varies
""
wildly depending on aspect, radar fre(#ency and wavelength, and the fidelity of
the receiver.
Radar cross section comparison
The aove fig#re ill#strates typical R/* val#es for aircraft and other ojects,
ranging from insects and irds #p to large gro#nd vehicles and ships. The R/*
of a stealth aircraft is typically m#ltiple orders of magnit#de lower than a
conventional plane and is often comparale to that of a small ird or large insect.
STEALTH TE'HN(L()*
/!""' stealth attack plane
Stealth technology is a sub!discipline of electronic countermeasures which
covers a range of techniques used with aircraft, ships and missiles, in order to make them
less visible >ideally invisible? to radar, infrared and other detection methods.
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+he concept of stealth is not new: being able to operate without the knowledge of
the enemy has always been a goal of military technology and techniques. -owever, as the
potency of detection and interception technologies >radar, I),+, surface!to!air missiles
etc.? has increased, so too has the e(tent to which the design and operation of military
vehicles have been affected in response. % CstealthC vehicle will generally have been
designed from the outset to have reduced or controlled signature. It is possible to have
varying degrees of stealth. +he e(act level and nature of stealth embodied in a particular
design is determined by the prediction of likely threat capabilities and the balance of
other considerations, including the raw unit cost of the system.
% mission system employing stealth may well become detected at some point
within a given mission, such as when the target is destroyed, however correct use of
stealth systems should seek to minimi.e the possibility of detection. %ttacking with
surprise gives the attacker more time to perform its mission and e(it before the defending
force can counter!attack. If a surface!to!air missile battery defending a target observes a
bomb falling and surmises that there must be a stealth aircraft in the vicinity, for
e(ample, it is still unable to respond if it cannot get a lock on the aircraft in order to feed
guidance information to its missiles.
Stealth principles
,tealth technology >often referred to as <5@<, for <low observability<? is not a single
technology but is a combination of technologies that attempt to greatly reduce the
distances at which a vehicle can be detectedD in particular radar cross section reductions,
but also acoustic, thermal and other aspects specifically
Radar cross"section &RC' reductions
%lmost since the invention of radar, various techniques have been tried to
minimi.e detection. )apid development of radar during WWII led to equally rapid
development of numerous counter radar measures during the periodD a notable e(ample of
this was the use of chaff.
+he term C,tealthC in reference to reduced radar signature aircraft became popular
during the late eighties when the /!""' stealth fighter became widely known. +he first
large scale >and public? use of the /!""' was during the ulf War in "$$". -owever, /!
""'% stealth fighters were used for the first time in combat during @peration Eust 8ause,
the 3nited ,tates invasion of 0anama in "$7$. ,ince then it has become less effective due
to developments in the algorithms used to process the data received by radars, such as
&ayesian particle filter methods. Increased awareness of stealth vehicles and the
technologies behind them is prompting the development of techniques for detecting
stealth vehicles, such as passive radar arrays and low!frequency radars. Many countries
nevertheless continue to develop low!)8, vehicles because low )8, still offers
advantages in detection range reduction as well as increasing the effectiveness of decoys
against radar!seeking threats.
":
(ehicle shape
8ertain shapes offer better stealth
+he possibility of designing aircraft in such a manner as to reduce their radar
cross!section was recogni.ed in the late "$:#s, when the first radar tracking systems were
employed, and it has been known since at least the "$B#s that aircraft shape makes a very
significant difference in how well an aircraft can be detected by a radar. +he %vro
Fulcan, a &ritish bomber of the "$B#s, had a remarkably small appearance on radar
despite its large si.e, and occasionally disappeared from radar screens entirely. We now
know that it had a fortuitously stealthy shape apart from the vertical element of the tail.
@n the other hand, the +upolev $9 )ussian long range bomber >4%+@ reporting name
C&earC? appeared especially well on radar. It is now known that propellers and *et turbine
blades produce a bright radar imageD the &ear had four pairs of large >9.B meter diameter?
contra!rotating propellers.
%nother important factor is the internal construction. &ehind the skin of some
aircraft are structures known as re!entrant triangles. )adar waves penetrating the skin of
the aircraft get trapped in these structures, bouncing off the internal faces and losing
energy. +his approach was first used on ,)!'".
+he most efficient way to reflect radar waves back to the transmitting radar is
with orthogonal metal plates, forming a corner reflector consisting of either a dihedral
>two plates? or a trihedral >three orthogonal plates?. +his configuration occurs in the tail
of a conventional aircraft, where the vertical and hori.ontal components of the tail are set
at right angles. ,tealth aircraft such as the /!""' use a different arrangement, tilting the
tail surfaces to reduce corner reflections formed between them. +he most radical
approach is to eliminate the tail completely, as in the &!; ,pirit.
In addition to altering the tail, stealth design must bury the engines within the
wing or fuselage, or in some cases where stealth is applied to an e(isting aircraft, install
baffles in the air intakes, so that the turbine blades are not visible to radar. % stealthy
shape must be devoid of comple( bumps or protrusions of any kindD meaning that
weapons, fuel tanks, and other stores must not be carried e(ternally. %ny stealthy vehicle
becomes un!stealthy when a door or hatch is opened.
0lanform alignment is also often used in stealth designs. 0lanform alignment
involves using a small number of surface orientations in the shape of the structure. /or
"=
e(ample, on the /!;;% )aptor, the leading edges of the wing and the tail surfaces are set
at the same angle. 8areful inspection shows that many small structures, such as the air
intake bypass doors and the air refueling aperture, also use the same angles. +he effect of
planform alignment is to return a radar signal in a very specific direction away from the
radar emitter rather than returning a diffuse signal detectable at many angles.
,tealth airframes sometimes display distinctive serrations on some e(posed edges,
such as the engine ports. +he G/!;: has such serrations on the e(haust ports. +his is
another e(ample in the use of re!entrant triangles and planform alignment, this time on
the e(ternal airframe.
,haping requirements have strong negative influence on the aircraftCs
aerodynamic properties. +he /!""' has poor aerodynamics, is inherently unstable, and
cannot be flown without computer assistance. ,ome modern anti!stealth radars target the
trail of turbulent air behind it instead, much like civilian wind shear detecting radars do.
-M, -elsingborg ,tealth ,hip
,hips have also adopted similar techniques. +he Fisby corvette was the first stealth ship
to enter service, though the earlier %rleigh &urke class destroyer incorporated some
signature!reduction features . @ther e(amples are the /rench 5a /ayette class frigate, the
3,, ,an %ntonio amphibious transport dock, and most modern warship designs.
Propulsion subsystem shaping
4ow in research, fluidic no..les for thrust vectoring with aircraft *et engines, and
ships, will have lower )8,, due to being less comple(, mechanically simpler, with no
moving parts or surfaces, and less massive >up to 9#H less?. +hey will likely be used in
many unmanned aircraft, and Bth generation fighter aircraft. /luidic no..les divert thrust
via fluid effects. +ests show that air forced into a *et engine e(haust stream can deflect
thrust up to "9 degrees.
)on"metallic airframe
6ielectric composites are relatively transparent to radar, whereas electrically
conductive materials such as metals and carbon fibers reflect electromagnetic energy
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incident on the materialCs surface. 8omposites used may contain ferrites to optimi.e the
dielectric and magnetic properties of the material for its application.
Radar absorbing material
)adar absorbent material >)%M?, often as paints, are used especially on the edges
of metal surfaces. @ne such coating, also called iron ball paint, contains tiny spheres
coated with carbonyl iron ferrite. )adar waves induce alternating magnetic field in this
material, which leads to conversion of their energy into heat. 1arly versions of /!""'%
planes were covered with neoprene!like tiles with ferrite grains embedded in the polymer
matri(, current models have )%M paint applied directly. +he paint must be applied by
robots because of problems of solvent to(icity and tight tolerances on layer thickness.
,imilarly, coating the cockpit canopy with a thin film transparent conductor >vapor!
deposited gold or indium tin o(ide? helps to reduce the aircraftCs radar profile because
radar waves would normally enter the cockpit, bounce off something random >the inside
of the cockpit has a comple( shape?, and possibly return to the radar, but the conductive
coating creates a controlled shape that deflects the incoming radar waves away from the
radar. +he coating is thin enough that it has no adverse effect on the pilotCs vision.
Radar stealth countermeasures and limitations
Low frequency radar
,haping does not offer stealth advantages against low!frequency radar. If the
radar wavelength is roughly twice the si.e of the target, a half!wave resonance effect can
still generate a significant return. -owever, low!frequency radar is limited by lack of
available frequencies which are heavily used by other systems, lack of accuracy given the
long wavelength, and by the radarCs si.e, making it difficult to transport. % long!wave
radar may detect a target and roughly locate it, but not identify it, and the location
information lacks sufficient weapon targeting accuracy. 4oise poses another problem, but
that can be efficiently addressed using modern computer technologyD 8hinese <4antsin<
radar and many older ,oviet!made long!range radars were modified this way. It has been
said that <thereCs nothing invisible in the radar frequency range below ; -.<. I9J
Multiple transmitters
Much of the stealth comes from reflecting the transmissions in a different
direction other than a direct return. +herefore detection can be better achieved if the
sources are spaced from the receivers and multiple, and proposals e(ist to even use
reflections from sources such as civilian radio transmitters.
"B
Acoustics
%coustic stealth plays a primary role in submarine stealth as well as for ground
vehicles. ,ubmarines have e(tensive usage of rubber mountings to isolate and avoid
mechanical noises that could reveal locations to underwater passive sonar arrays.
1arly stealth observation aircraft used slow!turning propellers to avoid being heard by
enemy troops below. ,tealth aircraft that stay subsonic can avoid being tracked by sonic
boom. +he presence of supersonic and *et!powered stealth aircraft such as the ,)!'"
&lackbird indicates that acoustic signature is not always a ma*or driver in aircraft design,
although the &lackbird relied more on its e(tremely high speed and altitude.
+,s,-,l,ty
Most stealth aircraft use matte paint and dark colors, and operate only at night.
5ately, interest on daylight ,tealth >especially by the 3,%/? has emphasi.ed the use of
gray paint in disruptive schemes, and it is assumed that Gehudi lights could be used in the
future to mask shadows in the airframe >in daylight, against the clear background of the
sky, dark tones are easier to detect than light ones? or as a sort of active camouflage. +he
&!; has wing tanks for a contrail!inhibiting chemical, alleged by some to be
chlorofluorosulphonic acid, and mission planning also considers altitudes where the
probability of their formation is minimi.ed.
Infrared
%n e(haust plume contributes a significant infrared >I)? signature. @ne means of
reducing the I) signature is to have a non!circular tail pipe >a slit shape? in order to
minimi.e the e(haust cross!sectional volume and ma(imi.e the mi(ing of the hot e(haust
with cool ambient air. @ften, cool air is deliberately in*ected into the e(haust flow to
boost this process. ,ometimes, the *et e(haust is vented above the wing surface in order
to shield it from observers below, as in the &; ,pirit, and the unstealthy %"# +hunderbolt
II. +o achieve infrared stealth, the e(haust gas is cooled to the temperatures where the
brightest wavelengths it radiates on are absorbed by atmospheric carbon dio(ide and
water vapor, dramatically reducing the infrared visibility of the e(haust plume. %nother
way to reduce the e(haust temperature is to circulate coolant fluids such as fuel inside the
e(haust pipe, where the fuel tanks serve as heat sinks cooled by the flow of air along the
wings.
Reducing radio fre*uency &RF' emissions
In addition to reducing infrared and acoustic emissions, a stealth vehicle must
avoid radiating any other detectable energy, such as from onboard radars,
communications systems, or )/ leakage from electronics enclosures. +he /!""' uses
passive infra!red and <low light level +F< sensor systems to aim its weapons and the /!
;; )aptor has an advanced 50I radar which can illuminate enemy aircraft without
triggering a radar warning receiver response.
"'
Measuring stealth
+he si.e of a targetCs image on radar is measured by the radar cross section or
)8,, often represented by the symbol K and e(pressed in square meters. +his does not
equal geometric area. % perfectly conducting sphere of pro*ected cross sectional area "m
;
>ie a diameter of ".":m? will have an )8, of "m
;
. 4ote that for radar wavelengths much
less than the diameter of the sphere, )8, is independent of frequency. 8onversely, a flat
plate of area "m
;
will have an )8, of almost "=,###m
;
at "#-. if the radar is
perpendicular to the flat surface. If you rotate it, the amount of energy reflected directly
back to the transmitter is reduced, as some is reflected to the side, so the )8, is reduced.
Modern stealth aircraft are said to have an )8, comparable with small birds or large
insects, though this varies widely depending on aircraft and radar.
If the )8, was directly related to the targetCs cross!sectional area, the only way to reduce
it would be to make the physical profile smaller. )ather, by reflecting much of the
radiation away or absorbing it altogether, the target achieves a smaller radar cross
section.
Stealth tactics
,tealthy strike aircraft such as the /!""', designed by 5ockheed MartinCs famous
,kunkWorks, are usually used against heavily defended enemy sites such as 8ommand
and 8ontrol centers or surface!to!air missile >,%M? batteries. 1nemy radar will cover the
airspace around these sites with overlapping coverage, making undetected entry by
conventional aircraft nearly impossible. ,tealthy aircraft can also be detected, but only at
short ranges around the radars, so that for a stealthy aircraft there are substantial gaps in
the radar coverage. +hus a stealthy aircraft flying an appropriate route can remain
undetected by radar. Many ground!based radars e(ploit 6oppler filter to improve
sensitivity to ob*ects having a radial velocity component with respect to the radar.
Mission planners use their knowledge of the enemy radar locations and the )8, pattern
of the aircraft to design a flight path that minimi.es radial speed while presenting the
lowest!)8, aspects of the aircraft to the threat radar. In order to be able to fly these
<safe< routes, it is necessary to understand the enemyCs radar coverage >see 1lectronic
Intelligence?. Mobile radars such as %W%8, can complicate matters.

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