Composite

Resistivity While Drilling
Images from the String
Steve Bonner
Mark Fredette
John Lovell
Bernard Montaron
Richard Rosthal
Jacques Tabanou
Peter Wu
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
Resistivity measurements made while drilling are maturing to match

the quality and diversity of their wireline counterparts. Recent
advances include the development of multiple depth-of-investigation
resistivity tools for examining invasion profiles, and button electrode
Brian Clark
Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
tools capable of producing borehole images as the drillstring turns.
Rodger Mills
Exxon USA
Thousand Oaks, California, USA
Russ Williams
OXY USA Inc.
Houston, Texas
It is hard to believe that logging while

drilling (LWD) has come such a long way
over the last decade. In the early 1980s,
LWD measurements were restricted to simple resistivity curves and gamma ray logs,
used more for correlation than formation
evaluation. Gradually, sophisticated resistivity, density and neutron porosity tools have
been added to the LWD arsenal.1 With the
advent of high-deviation, horizontal and
now slim multilateral wells, LWD measurements often provide the only means of evaluating reservoirs. The quality and diversity of
LWD tools have continued to develop
quickly to meet this demand. Today, applications include not only petrophysical analysis,
but also geosteering and geological interpretation from LWD imaging (next page ).2 This
article focuses on the latest LWD resistivity
toolsthe RAB Resistivity-at-the-Bit tool and
the ARC5 Array Resistivity Compensated
tooland the images they produce (see A
Profile of Invasion, page 17 ).
(continued on page 6)
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Samantha
Duggan, Anadrill, Sugar Land, Texas; Tom Fett, GeoQuest, Houston, Texas and Mary Ellen Banks and Martin
Lling, Schlumberger-Doll Research, Ridgefield, Connecticut.
Oilfield Review
Ring res. RAB

0.2
ohm-m
20
Shallow res. RAB

0.2
ohm-m
Medium res. RAB

0.2
ohm-m
Add. gas volume right after drilling

CDR
20
20
Perm to gas
Irreducible water
Perm to water
Moved water
Deep res. RAB
Net pay
1:2400 ft
0.2
Gamma ray
20 0
API
200
Phase shift res.
Net sand
Perm to water
CDR
0.1
Gas effect
0.2 ohm-m 20 10000 md
Attenuation res.
Density porosity
Perm to gas
CDR
CDN
0.1
0.2 ohm-m 20 10000 md
60.0 p.u.
0
RAB image
Neutron porosity
Diff. caliper
CDN
deg
360
in.
10 0
60.0 p.u.
0 -10
Water
ohm-m
Gas volume 7 days after drilling

RAB
Quartz
Bound water
Illite
0
Combined model
p.u.
XX450
100
nFormation evalua-
tion made by combining data from

several LWD measurements. This log
interpretation was
made using ELAN
Elemental Log Analysis software and
data from the RAB
Resistivity-at-the-Bit
tool, CDR Compensated Dual Resistivity and CDN Compensated Density
Neutron tools.
Volumetric analysis
(track 5) shows a
quartz-rich zone of
relatively high
porosity. The brown
shading indicates
the movable gas
volume calculated
from CDR and RAB
data run several
days later. The RAB
resistivity image
(track 4) shows that
the sand body is
split into three main
lobes with shale permeability barriers.
XX500
AIT (Array Induction Imager Tool), ARC5 (Array Resistivity Compensated tool), ARI (Azimuthal Resistivity
Imager), CDN (Compensated Density Neutron), CDR
(Compensated Dual Resistivity tool), DIL (Dual Induction
Resistivity Log), DLL (Dual Laterolog Resistivity), DPT
(Deep Propagation Tool), ELAN (Elemental Log Analysis),
EPT (Electromagnetic Propagation Tool), FMI (Fullbore
Formation MicroImager), FracView (fracture synergy log),
GeoFrame, INFORM (Integrated Forward Modeling),
Spring 1996
MicroSFL, Phasor (Phasor-Induction SFL tool), PowerPulse (MWD telemetry tool), RAB (Resistivity-at-the-Bit
tool), SFL (Spherically Focused Resistivity), Slim 1 (slim
and retrievable MWD system), StrucView (GeoFrame
structural cross section software) and TLC (Tough Logging Conditions system) are marks of Schlumberger. FCR
(Focused Current Resistivity tool) is a mark of Exploration
Logging. Dual Resistivity MWD tool is a mark of
Gearhart Geodata Services Ltd. (now Halliburton).
SCWR (Slim Compensated Wave Resistivity) is a mark
of Halliburton. EWR (Electromagnetic Wave Resistivity),
EWR-PHASE 4 and SLIM PHASE 4 are marks of
Sperry-Sun Drilling Services.
1. Bonner S, Clark B, Holenka J, Voisin B, Dusang J,

Hansen R, White J and Walsgrove T: Logging While
Drilling: A Three-Year Perspective, Oilfield Review 4,
no. 3 (July 1992): 4-21.
2. Bonner S, Clark B, Decker D, Orban J, Prevedel B,
Lling M and White J: Measurements at the Bit: A
New Generation of MWD Tools, Oilfield Review 5,
no. 2/3 (April/July 1993): 44-54.
Bed Dipping Away from Kickoff Point (4)
Bormap in Horizontal Hole (3)
Vertical Well (1)
North
3D View
Fracture
Bedding
plane
0 90 180 270 360
Unrolling
the cylinder
Horizontal
bedding plane
Vertical
fracture
Top of hole
Bottom of hole
Top of hole
Folded Bed (5)
Horizontal Well (2)

Top of hole
Bormap
Nearly vertical
natural fracture
Top of
hole
Top of hole
Bedding
plane
Vertical induced fracture
Bottom of hole
Top of hole
Fracture
Bottom of hole
nInterpretation of images. Resistivity images show the surface of the boreholecut along the northerly direction for a vertical well (1) or
the top of the hole for a horizontal well (2)laid out flat. The image is artificially colored to show contrasts in resistivitydark brown is
low resistivity and light brown is high resistivitythat highlight bed boundaries, faults or fractures. Features crossing the borehole at an
angle show characteristic sinusoidal patterns (3). They also are wider at the bottom and top of the hole. Images of beds dipping away
from the kickoff point in horizontal boreholes produce an arrow-head pointing in the direction of drilling (4). Images of folded beds produce a characteristic eye shape (5).
Geology From the Bit
Simply stated, resistivity tools fall into two

categories: laterolog tools that are suitable
for logging in conductive muds, highly resistive formations and resistive invasion; and
induction tools which work best in highly
conductive formations and can operate in
conductive or nonconductive muds.3 The
RAB tool falls into the first category
although, strictly speaking, it is an electrode
resistivity tool of which laterologs are one
type (see From Short Normal to Axial Current, page 9).4
3. It should be remembered that laterolog and induction

tools both work well in many environments.
Laterolog tools need a complete electric circuit to
work. Current passes from an emitting electrode
through the borehole into the formation and back to
the tool via a surface electrode or a return electrode
on the tool. Resistivity is a function of voltage drop,
between return electrode and source, and source current. Laterolog tools have to make electric contact
with the formation through either a conductive mud
system or by direct physical contact. They are capable
of logging highly resistive formations and are good at
spotting thin resistive beds.
The RAB tool has four main features:

toroidal transmitters that generate axial
currenta technique highly suited to
LWD resistivity tools5
cylindrical focusing that compensates for
characteristic overshoots in resistivity
readings at bed boundaries, allowing
accurate true resistivity Rt determination
and excellent axial resolution
bit resistivity that provides the earliest
indication of reservoir penetration or
arrival at a casing or coring pointalso
known as geostopping
azimuthal electrodes that produce a
borehole image during rotary drilling.
This last feature allows the RAB tool to be

used for geological interpretation.
Three 1-in. [2.54-cm] diameter buttons
are mounted along the axis on one side of
the RAB tool. Each button monitors radial
current flow into the formation. As the drillstring turns, these buttons scan the borehole
wall, producing 56 resistivity measurements
per rotation from each button. The data are
processed and stored downhole for later
retrieval when the RAB tool is returned to
the surface during a bit change. Once
downloaded to the wellsite workstation,
images can be produced and interpreted
using standard geological applications like
Induction tools do not need to make contact with

the formation. Instead they transmit electromagnetic
waves that induce formation eddy currents. The eddy
currents are a function of resistivitythe higher the
conductivity, the greater the induced formation signal.
The induced signals are picked up by receiver coils
and transformed into resistivity measurements. Induction tools work best in high-conductivity formations
and can operate in nonconductive mud.
4. Bonner S, Bagersh A, Clark B, Dajee G, Dennison M,
Hall JS, Jundt J, Lovell J, Rosthal R and Allen D:
A New Generation of Electrode Resistivity Measurements for Formation Evaluation While Drilling,
Transactions of the SPWLA 35th Annual Logging
Symposium, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, June 19-22,
1994, paper OO.
5. Arps JJ: Inductive Resistivity Guard Logging Apparatus Including Toroidal Coils Mounted on a Conductive
Stem, US Patent No. 3,305,771, February 1967.
Gianzero S, Chemali R, Lin Y, Su S and Foster M:

A New Resistivity Tool for Measurement-WhileDrilling, Transactions of the SPWLA 26th Annual
Logging Symposium, Dallas, Texas, USA, June 17-20,
1985, paper A.
Grupping TIF, Harrell JW and Dickinson RT: Performance Update of a Dual-Resistivity MWD Tool With
Some Promising Results in Oil-Based Mud Applications, paper SPE 18115, presented at the 63rd SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, USA, October 2-5, 1988.
6. Coiled tubing, run into a borehole, forms a natural
helix. At some stage the frictional forces between
borehole and coiled tubing become greater than the
force pushing the tubing downhole causing the helix
to expand and lock tight against the borehole
wallhelical lockup.
Oilfield Review
StrucView GeoFrame structural cross section software (previous page ).

Wellsite images allow geologists to
quickly confirm the structural position of the
well during drilling, permitting any necessary directional changes. Fracture identification helps optimize well direction for maximum production.
Austin Chalk Trend
Brookeland
Spring 1996
Giddings
Houston
100
miles
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas
Finding the Cracks in Masters Creek
Murray A-1 is a dual-lateral well drilled by

OXY USA Inc. in the Cretaceous Austin
Chalk formation, located in the Masters
Creek field, Rapides Parish, Louisiana, USA
(top right ). The Austin Chalk is a low-permeability formation that produces hydrocarbons from fractures, when present. Indications of fractures were seen from cuttings
and gas shows obtained by mud loggers on
a previous well. The intention was to drill
this well perpendicular to the fracture
planes to intersect multiple fractures and
maximize production.
OXY wanted to record borehole images in
the reservoir section for fracture evaluation.
Fracture orientation would show if the well
trajectory was optimal for intersecting the
maximum number of fractures. Knowledge
of fracture frequency, size and location
along the horizontal section could be useful
for future completion design, reservoir engineering and remedial work.
Ideally, the wireline FMI Fullbore Formation MicroImager tool would have been run,
but practical considerations precluded this
option. Wireline tools can be conveyed
downhole by drillpipe or by coiled tubing in
high-deviation or horizontal wells, but pressure-control requirements prevented the use
of drillpipe conveyance in this case and
coiled tubing was considered too costly.
Also, calculations showed that helical
coiled tubing lockup would occur before
reaching the end of the long horizontal section.6 So OXY decided to try the RAB tool.
The first lateral well was drilled due north
to cut assumed fracture planes at right
angles. During drilling, images were
recorded over about 2000 ft [600 m] of the
81/2-in. horizontal hole. After each bit run
the data were dumped to a surface workstation and examined using FracView software.
Images clearly showed the characteristic
sinusoids of contrasting colors, indicating
changes in resistivity as the borehole crosses
bed boundaries (right ).
Arkansas
nLocation of Masters
Creek field in relation to other fields of
the Austin Chalk
trend.
North Bayou Jack

Masters
Creek field
Pearsall
Gulf of Mexico
Mexico
Display:
Top display:
Bottom depth:
straight
xx885.39 Ft
xx897.59 Ft
xx870.0
xx875.0
TD:11/26
xx880.0
xx885.0
xx890.0
xx895.0
TD:87/359
nCrossing bedding planes. As the borehole crosses an almost horizontal, low-resistivity
bed, the RAB image shows a characteristic high-amplitude sinusoidal image (dark
brown). Interpreters have picked the bed boundaries (green) for structural interpretation.
The notation TD:11/26True Dip: dip magnitude/dip azimuthindicates that this bedding plane is dipping at 11 to the NNE, north 26 east to be exact.
Crossing the borehole almost vertically at XX896 ft is a fracture (yellow). TD:87/359
indicates that the fracture is dipping north at an azimuth of 359 and is nearly vertical,
87 from the horizontal. The strike, or trend, of the fracture is perpendicular to the dip
directioneast/west.
The cylindrical 3D image (inset) shows the borehole images as if viewed from the right
of the hole.
Although the resolution of the RAB tool is

not high enough to see microfractures, several individual major fractures and clusters
of smaller fractures were clearly seen (top
right ), providing enough evidence that the
well trajectory was nearly perpendicular to
the fracture trend.7
Based on this information the second lateral was drilled south 10 east, again to intersect as many fractures as possible at 90.
Display:
Top display:
Bottom depth:
xx944.0
straight
xx952.93 Ft
xx959.03 Ft
xx946.0
xx948.0
xx950.0
Images of California

7. The size of fractures seen by the RAB tool depends
on several factors. The physical diameter of the button
is 1 in. [2.54 cm], which produces an electric field
slightly larger1.5 in. [3.81 cm] in diameter. Conductive zones thinner than 1.5 in. can be detected, however, resistive zones need to be larger than this to be
detected. Typically fractures with apertures around
1-in. can be detected if the borehole fluid is conductive.
8. Lovell JR, Young RA, Rosthal RA, Buffington L and
Arceneaux CL: Structural Interpretation of ResistivityAt-the-Bit Images, Transactions of the SPWLA 36th
Annual Logging Symposium, Paris, France, June 2629,1995, paper TT.
xx952.0
xx954.0
TD : 90/167
TD : 86/173
xx956.0
TD : 84/355
TD : 86/177
xx958.0
nFracture clusters. Several fractures cut the borehole around XX956 ft. The largest
anomaly (black) is either a cluster of fractures or a very large fracture. The borehole is
passing parallel to the interface between two beds. The more resistive bed (white) is on
the bottom side of the hole. The cylindrical image (inset) gives an alternative 3D view of
the borehole image.
Top
RAB Image
Bottom
Top
Top
FMI Image
Bottom
Top
Depth 10 ft
Complex tectonic activity in southern California, USA, has continued throughout the
Tertiary period to the present time. This
activity influences offshore Miocene reservoirs where folding and tilting affect reservoir structure. Production is from fractured,
cherty, dolomitic and siliceous zones
through wellbores that are often drilled at
high angle.
Wireline logs are run for formation evaluation and fracture and structural analysis
although in some cases they have to be conveyed downhole on the TLC Tough Logging
Conditions system.
The CDR Compensated Dual Resistivity
tool was used to record resistivity and
gamma ray logs for correlation while
drilling. The oil company wanted to evaluate using the RAB tool primarily for correlation, but also wanted to assess the quality of
images produced. In fact, it was the images
that, in the end, generated the most interest.
Good-quality FMI logs were available,
allowing direct comparison with RAB images
(right ).8 Both showed large-scale events, such
as folded beds, that were several feet long, as
well as regular bedding planes. However,
beds less than a few inches thick were not
seen clearly by RAB images.
nRAB and FMI images of dipping beds. Both RAB and FMI images show large-scale
events that are several feet long. However, the resolution of the FMI image is much
better. Beds less than about 4 in. [10 cm] thick are not clearly seen on the RAB image.
Oilfield Review
From Short Normal to Axial Current
Laterologs have their roots in a tool called the

short normal, one of the earliest wireline logReturn
ging tools. Its principles were adapted by many
Return
measurements-while-drilling (MWD) companies
Insulation
in the early 1980s to provide a simple resistivity
Insulation
log for correlation (right). The idea is fairly

Transmitter
straightforward: force current from a source

Potential
electrode
mation; measure the current and voltage drop

between the electrodes and use Ohms law to
16 in.
electrode to a return electrode through the for-
Measurement
current
Guard
electrodes
derive formation resistivity. However, for accurate petrophysical analysis in complex forma-
Lateral
resistivity
R Lat
Receivers
Current
electrode
tions, more sophisticated devices are needed to

measure true formation resistivity, R t.
Return
An improvement on the short normal is the
Bit
resistivity
R Bit
laterolog technique commonly used in wireline

logging. Exploration Logging introduced a laterolog LWD resistivity tool in 1987 based on the
laterolog 3 wireline tool of the early 1950s.1
This FCR Focused Current Resistivity tool had
Short Normal
Tool
Focused Current
Resistivity Tool
Dual Resistivity
MWD Tool
two additional current electrodes on either side

of the measurement electrode. They provided
guard currents that forced the main current
deeper into the formation to measure R t.
At about this time, another approach was
developed by Gearhart Geodata Services Ltd.
from an idea by JJ Arps.2 The Gearhart Dual
Resistivity MWD tool used a toroidal-coil transmitter to generate a voltage gap in a drill collar,
which causes an axial current to flow along the
nElectrode resistivity tools. The first LWD resistivity tools used the normal principle (left). Current is forced
into the formation, returning to the tool at a second electrode far away. Current and voltage drop are measured
between the two so that resistivity can be calculated.
An improvement on this is the laterolog technique (middle). Additional electrodes provide a bucking current
that forces the central measurement current deeper into the formation. This helps suppress distortion to the
current path if nearby conductive beds are present.
A method proposed by JJ Arps uses a toroidal-coil transmitter that generates an axial current in a conductor (right). This technique is ideally suited to LWD electrode resistivity tools. Axial current leaves the drill collar
radially and at the bottom of the collar. The amount of radial current at any point depends on the formation
resistivity at that location. Two different methods of measuring radial current are used: (1) by the difference
between axial current measured at two receiver toroids or (2) by direct electrode current meters.
collar. This method is ideally suited to LWD

Schlumberger also uses the Arps principle of
because resistivity tools have to be built into
depends on the induced drive-voltage and the
mechanically strong steel collars. Below the
local formation resistivity. Two resistivity mea-
generating and monitoring axial-current flow in
transmitter, current leaves the tool radially from
surements are made: a focused lateral resistiv-
the RAB tool. However, radial-current flow is
the collar and axially from the drill bit. The
ity measurement and a trend resistivity mea-
measured directly, and multiple toroidal trans-
amount of current leaving the collar at any point
surement at the bit. Two receiver toroids, 6 in.
mitters and receivers are used in a unique
apart, each measure axial current flowing past
focusing technique described later.
them down the collar. The difference in axial

current equals the radial current leaving the
drill collar between the two receivers and is
used to calculate lateral resistivity. Bit resistivity is derived from the axial current measured
1. Evans HB, Brooks AG, Meisner JE and Squire RE: A

Focused Current Resistivity Logging System for MWD,
paper SPE 16757, presented at the 62nd SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA,
September 27-30, 1987.
2. Arps, reference 5 main text.
by the lower receiver.
Spring 1996
RAB ToolThe Works
along its length. The return path is along the
The RAB tool measures five resistivity val-
collar above the transmitter. The amount of
uesbit, ring and three button resistivitiesas
current leaving the RAB tool at the ring and but-
well as gamma ray, plus axial and transverse

shock.3
ton electrodes is measured by a low-impedance

Upper
transmitter
Built on a 6.75-in. drill collar, the 10-ft
circuit. Axial current flowing down the collar is

measured at the ring electrode and at the lower
[3-m] long tool can be configured as a near-bit

Azimuthal
electrodes
or in-line stabilizer, or as a slick drill collar

(right). When real-time data are required, the
transmitter. These measurements are repeated

for the lower transmitter.
Cylindrical FocusingIn a homogeneous for-
RAB tool communicates with a PowerPulse

MWD telemetry tool via wireless telemetry or a
mation, the equipotential surfaces near the butRing

electrode
standard downhole tool bus, allowing total BHA
ton and ring electrodes on the RAB tool are
design flexibility . However, it must be config-
cylindrical. However, in layered formations,
ured as a stabilizer for imaging.
this is no longer the case. Current will be
Bit ResistivityA 1500-Hz alternating current

is driven through a toroidal-coil transmitter, 1 ft
[30 cm] from the bottom of the tool, that
induces a voltage in the collar below. Current
flows through the collar, out through the bit and
into the formation, returning to the collar far up
the drillstring (below right). Knowing the voltage and measuring the axial current through the
bit determines resistivity at the bit. Corrections
are made for tool geometry, which varies
according to the BHA.
The resolution of the bit measurement
depends on the distance between the transmitter and the bit facethe bit electrode length.
When the RAB tool is run on top of the bit, the
resolution is about 2 ft [60 cm]. As the bit-resistivity measurement is not actively focused, the
current patterns and volume of investigation
are affected by nearby beds of contrasting
resistivity. As wellbore inclination increases,
the effective length of the bit electrode becomes
shorter and, in horizontal wells, equals hole
diameter.
Bit resistivity relies on a good bit-to-formation electrical path. The path is always excellent in water-base mud and generally sufficient
in oil-base mud.
Applications for the bit-resistivity measurement include geostopping to precisely stop at
casing or coring point picks. For example, in a
Gulf of Mexico well the objective was to drill
only a few inches into the reservoir before setting casing. An induction gamma ray log from a
nearby well was available for correlation.
squeezed into conductive beds distorting the
10
electric field (next page, top). By contrast, resisLower

transmitter
tive beds will have the opposite effect: the current avoids them and takes the more conductive
path. These artifacts are called squeeze and
antisqueeze, respectively, and lead to characteristic measurement overshoots at bed boundaries called horns.
nRAB tool.
Drilling was stopped when bit resistivity
increased to 4 ohm-m, indicating reservoir
penetration (next page, bottom). Subsequent
modeling showed that the bit had cut only 9 in.
[23 cm] into the reservoir.
Focused Multidepth ResistivityThe RAB

tool with button sleeve provides four multidepth
focused resistivity measurements. For an
81/2-in. bit, the ring electrode has a depth of
investigation of about 9 in., and the three 1-in.
buttons have depths of investigation of about
1 in., 3 in. and 5 in. [2.5, 7.6 and 12.7 cm]
from the borehole wall into the formation. Button resistivity measurements are azimuthal and
acquire resistivity profiles as the tool rotates in
the borehole. The sampling rate dictates that a
full profile is acquired at rotational speeds
above 30 rpmgenerally not a limitation.
Data from the azimuthal scans are stored
downhole and dumped from the tool between bit
runs. In addition, the azimuthal data may be
averaged by quadrant and transmitted to surface in real time along with the ring and bit
resistivity, and gamma ray measurements.
All four resistivities use the same measurement principle: current from the upper transmitter flows down the collar and out into the
formation, leaving the collar surface at 90
Upper transmitter
Ring monitor toroid
Axial current
Lower transmitter
nBit resistivity measurement. The lower toroidal
transmitter generates axial current that flows down

the tool and out through the bit. The ring monitor
toroid measures the axial current. Formation resistivity is given by Ohms law once the upper transmitter
drive voltage and the current are known. Corrections
are made to compensate for tool geometry and
transmitter frequency.
Oilfield Review
Active Focusing
Nonfocused System
M12
Upper transmitter
T1
BS 1
BS 2
BM1
BM2
BD 1
BD 2
Single transmitter
R1,R2
Ring electrode
By reciprocity
M12 = M21
BS
BM
BD
Upper transmitter current
R
M0
Ring electrode
Monitor toroid
M01 M02
Lower transmitter current
Conductive bed
Lower transmitter
Lower monitor toroid
T2
M2
M21
nCylindrical focusing technique. A conductive bed below the ring electrode causes currents to distort in a nonfocused system (left). With
active focusing, the current paths penetrate the formation radially at the ring electrode and almost radially at the three button electrodes
(right). Radial currents are measured at the ring electrode, R, and at each button, BS, BM, BD, for each transmission. Also the axial current
is measured at the ring electrode by a monitor toroid, M0, and at the lower transmitter by a monitor toroid, M2. There is no monitor toroid
at the upper transmitter, the axial current there, M1, is assumed equal to M2 by symmetry. Software translates these measurements into
adjustments of transmitter strength so that the axial currents at M0 cancel.
The cylindrical focusing technique (CFT)
0.02
SFL Offset well

ohm-m
200
0.02
ILM Offset well

ohm-m
200
0.02
ILD Offset well

ohm-m
200
0.2
RAB RING resistivity

ohm-m
2000
RAB BIT resistivity

ohm-m
2000
measures and compensates for this distortion,

restoring the cylindrical geometry of the equipotential surfaces in front of the measurement
electrodes. Focusing is achieved by combining
the current patterns generated by the upper and
lower transmitters in software to effectively
0. Wireline, GR
API
impose a zero-axial-flow condition at the ring
0.
monitor electrode. This ensures that the ring

current is focused into the formation and that no
RAB GR
API
100.
150. 1:240 0.2

ft
nGeostopping. One
advantage of a correlation tool that measures

resistivity right at the bit
is the ability to recognize marker beds almost
as soon as the drill bit
penetrates. This allows
drilling to stop precisely
at casing or coring
points. In this example,
the bit penetrated only 9
in. into the reservoir.
current flows along the borehole.4
Wireless TelemetryData from the RAB tool

may be stored in nonvolatile memory or transmitted uphole via the PowerPulse MWD telemetry tool. Data are transferred to the PowerPulse
tool by a downhole telemetry bus connection or
a wireless electromagnetic link. In the latter
case, the RAB tool transmits data to a receiver
module connected to the PowerPulse tool up to
150 ft [45 m] away
3. Bonner et al, reference 4 main text.
Spring 1996
11
RAB Image
Bottom
Top
Top
FMI Image
Bottom
Top
Depth 4 ft
Top
nFractures imaged by RAB and FMI tools. Fractures with large apertures or close spac-
Depth 100 ft
ing that appear on the FMI image (right) are seen on the RAB image (left).
nStructural interpretation. Workstation interpretation of RAB
Analysis of cores indicated wide distribution of fractures throughout the reservoir with
apertures varying from less than 0.001 in.
[0.025 mm] to 0.1 in. [2.5 mm]. The button
electrodes that produce RAB images are
large in comparison1in. in diameter. However, even with low-resistivity contrast across
the fractures, the largest fractures or densest
groups of fractures that appear on the FMI
images were seen on the RAB images (left ).
The RAB tool could not replace FMI data.
What intrigued the oil company, however,
was the possibility of calculating dips from
RAB images. If this were successful, then the
RAB tool could help resolve structural
changes, such as crossing a fault, during
drilling. The suggestion was taken up by
Anadrill. With commercial software, dips
were calculated from RAB images. Good
agreement was found between RAB and
FMI dips.
Dip correlation during drilling proved useful on subsequent California wells. Many
have complex structures, and the absence of
clear lithologic markers during drilling
means that the structural position of wells
may become uncertain. Currently, RAB
image data are downloaded when drillpipe
is pulled out of the hole for a new bit and
dips are subsequently calculated. The data
are used to determine if the well is on course
for the highly fractured target area (left ).
The oil companys experience with the
RAB tool in these formations has shown that:
RAB resistivity data are better in these formations than CDR data.
RAB images compare well with FMI
images, but cannot produce the fine detail
required for fracture analysis.
Dips can be calculated from RAB images,
leading to structural interpretation.
Dips calculated during drilling aid directional well control in highly faulted, highangle, structurally complex wells.
Dips determine when fault blocks are
crossed and, hence, when to stop drilling.
The close cooperation between Anadrill,
GeoQuest, Wireline & Testing and oil companies has led to the recent development of
software to process RAB dips downhole.
Dips may then be sent to surface during
drilling for real-time structural interpretation.
dips shows that the well penetrates a synclinal fold.
12
Oilfield Review
Real-Time Dip Computation
Most conventional dip processing relies on

crosscorrelation of resistivity traces generated as the dipmeter tool moves along the
borehole (right ).9 This type of processing
works best when apparent dip is less than
70typical of most formations logged in
vertical wells. However, in horizontal or
high-angle wells, apparent dip will most
likely be greater than 70. This is the territory of LWD tools. Automatic dip
computation in such situations is useful for
geosteering applications in horizontal wells,
especially if this can be done while drilling.
The new method uses the azimuthal resistivity traces generated by the three buttons
of the RAB tool. Bedding planes crossing the
borehole will normally appear twice on
each trace as the buttons scan past the beds,
first on one side of the hole and then the
other. Dip computation is a two-part process that looks at where the beds appear on
each trace and then where they appear
between traces.
Where the bed appears depends on its
azimuth with respect to the top of the RAB
tool. The same bed will appear twice on
the second and third traces, but will be displaced according to the dip magnitude.
Finding the azimuth is simply a matter of
correlating one half of each trace against
the other half. Dip magnitude depends on
the amount of event displacement between
pairs of traces. Confidence in the computation is increased because three separate
azimuths can be calculatedone for each
buttonand the three pairs of curves can
be used independently for the dip magnitude computation.
The direction of dipthe azimuthis calculated from the borehole orientation with
Traces from dipmeter tool

Correlation
between traces
Traces from RAB tool

Correlation
between traces
Direction
of logging
Direction
of logging
Correlation left to right
nDip processing comparison. Conventional dipmeter tools produce resistivity curves as the tool is moved along the borehole
(top). Processing relies on crosscorrelation of similar events logged
at different depths and works well for apparent dip below about
70. RAB dip computation uses the resistivity curves generated as
the three azimuthal buttons scan the borehole (right). Processing is
more robust as the three traces are recorded with the tool at one
depth. There is a fixed interval between the buttons.
9. Rosthal RA, Young RA, Lovell JR, Buffington L and

Arceneaux CL: Formation Evaluation and Geological
Interpretation from the Resistivity-at-the-Bit Tool,
paper SPE 30550, presented at the 76th SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas,
USA, October 22-25, 1995.
Spring 1996
13
Evolution of the 2-MHz LWD Tool:

From EWR to ARC5
2-MHz
propagation tool
Borehole-compensated
propagation tool
Multiarray
propagation tool
Multiarray MBHC
propagation tool
Multiarray BHC
propagation tool
Directional
sensor and
pulser
Drillstring
dynamics
sensor
34-in. transmitter
Transmitter 1
35-in. spacing
upper transmitter
Gamma ray
22-in. transmitter
Receiver 1
Receiver 2
Receiver 1
Receiver 2
15-in. spacing
upper transmitter
Wear bands
Receivers
Receiver
0 Measurement point
Receiver
15-in. spacing
lower transmitter
Transmitters
Transmitter
10-in. transmitter
Receiver
Resistivity
measurement point
Receiver
Transmitter 2
16-in. transmitter
Wear band
35-in. spacing
lower transmitter
Wear bands
EWR tool
CDR tool
EWR-PHASE 4 tool
28-in. transmitter
1.5-ft
crossover sub
SCWR tool
ARC5 tool
nPropagation tools. The first 2-MHz propagation tool, the EWR tool, was designed by NL Industries. The tool had one transmitter and two receivers. Measurements
were made by comparing the formation signal phase shift between the two receivers. Later, borehole-compensated (BHC) tools, such as the Anadrill CDR tool, were
developed. Borehole-compensated tools have two transmitters equally spaced on either side of the receiver pair. In the case of the CDR tool amplitude and phase-shift
resistivities are measured. Development of multiarray tools, like the EWR-PHASE 4 tool, allowed multiple depths of investigation and the possibility of invasion profiling. Later tools, such as the SCWR tool, were also borehole compensated. The Anadrill ARC5 tool has three transmitters above and two below the receiver array and
measures five attenuation and five phase-shift resistivities. Borehole compensation is achieved by using a linear mix of three transmitter measurements for each reading. This not only eliminates five transmitters required for standard borehole compensation (BHC), but also makes the tool shorter and stronger.
In 1983, NL Industries introduced the first LWD
eddy currents. Propagation tools, however, mea-
tivity measurement and the attenuation into a
tool to tackle induction-type environments.1 The
sure amplitude and phase differences between
deep resistivity measurement.
EWR Electromagnetic Wave Resistivity tool has a
the receivers. All measurements can be trans-
2-MHz transmitter and two receivers (above). The
formed into resistivity readings. However, the
further by Sperry-Sun Drilling Services into a
high frequency makes it an electromagnetic wave
EWR tool uses only the phase shift.
multispacing tool.3 This EWR-PHASE 4 tool con-
propagation tool rather than an induction tool (see
In 1988, Schlumberger introduced a borehole-
The EWR tool described earlier was developed
sisted of four transmitters and two receivers pro-
Why 2 MHz?, page 16). Induction tools measure
compensated 2-MHz tool.2 This CDR Compen-
viding four phase-shift resistivity measurements
the difference in magnetic field between the two
sated Dual Resistivity tool has two transmitters
which, however, were not borehole compensated.
receivers that is caused by induced formation
symmetrically arranged around two receivers
A slimhole versionSLIM PHASE 4was intro-
built into a drill collar. Each transmitter alter-
duced in 1994.4 Halliburton also offers a slim
nately broadcasts the electromagnetic waves:
4.75-in. toolthe SCWR Slim Compensated
the phase shifts and attenuations are measured
Wave Resistivity tool.5
between the two receivers and averaged. The

phase shift is transformed into a shallow resis-
14
Oilfield Review
nCompensating for
To GR, transverse
shocks, electronics and
Slim 1 connection
0.5T1+0.5T2
T1
R1 R2
T2
+x in.
-x in.
0
Measurement point
Wear band
22-in. transmitter
Wear band
X(TR) = phase shift or attenuation measured

from transmitter at spacing TR
TR = 10, -16, 22, -28, 34
10-in. transmitter
6 in.
Total tool length 21 ft
34-in. transmitter
f(T5, T4, T3)
Receiver
f(T3, T4, T5)

f(T2, T3, T4)
Receiver
f2(T1, T2, T3)
Wear band
f1(T1, T2, T3)

16-in. transmitter
28-in. transmitter
T5
34 in.
Wear band
43/4 in.
T3
22 in.
T1
R1
R2
10 in. 3 in. -3 in.
T2
T4
-16 in.
-28 in.
0
Measurement point
Total tool length = 21 ft
borehole effects. Standard borehole compensation uses a symmetrical arrangement of

transmitters around the
receiver pair (top).
Resistivity measurements from each are
averaged to compensate
for effects such as hole
rugosity or drifts in
receiver electronics. The
ARC5 tool uses mixed
borehole compensation
(MBHC) to achieve the
same effect, but without
the need to duplicate
transmitters (bottom).
By placing transmitters
asymmetrically around
the receiver pair, various
combinations of measurements may be used.
For example, to achieve
MBHC for the 22-in.
spacing, a combination
of 22-in., 16-in. and 28in. resistivity measurements is used.
nARC5 tool.
Propagating the ARC5 Tool
The latest generation LWD propagation tool is the
pensated measurement (above). The ARC5 tool
and length are reduced by eliminating five trans-
4.75-in. ARC5 Array Resistivity Compensated
dispenses with the second transmitter, relying
mitters. Five MBHC phase shifts and attenuations
tool, a self-contained 2-MHz multiarray borehole-
instead on linear combinations of three sequen-
are then transformed into five calibrated phase-
compensated resistivity tool developed to log the
tially spaced transmitters to provide what is
shift and five calibrated attenuation resistivities
increasing number of slim holes being drilled
called mixed borehole compensation (MBHC),
(next page, top).
(above left). 6 The array of five transmitters
The advantage of this system is that tool costs
three above and two below the receivers

broadcast in sequence providing five raw phaseshift and five raw attenuation measurements. In
addition, there are gamma ray and transverse
shock measurements.
Borehole compensation (BHC) is achieved by a
method unique to the ARC5 tool. Standard BHC
combines data from two transmitters placed symmetrically around the receiver array for one com-
1. Rodney PF, Wisler MM, Thompson LW and Meador RA:

The Electromagnetic Wave Resistivity MWD Tool, paper
SPE 12167, presented at the 58th SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, San Francisco, California,
Various acquisitions and disposals by NL Industries has
lead to this technology being transferred to Sperry-Sun
Drilling Services, a Dresser Industries, Inc. company.
2. Clark B, Allen DF, Best D, Bonner SD, Jundt J, Lling MG
and Ross MO: Electromagnetic Propagation Logging
While Drilling: Theory and Experiment, paper SPE
18117, presented at the 63rd SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, USA, October 25, 1988.
3. Bittar MS, Rodney PF, Mack SG and Bartel RP: A True

Multiple Depth of Investigation Electromagnetic Wave
Resistivity Sensor: Theory, Experiment and Prototype
Field Test Results, paper SPE 22705, presented at the
66th SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas, Texas, USA, October 6-8, 1991.
4. Maranuk CA: Development of the Industrys First MWD
Slimhole Resistivity Tool, paper SPE 28427, presented at
the 69th SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, September 25-28, 1988.
5. Heysse DR, Jackson CE, Merchant GA, Jerabek A, Beste R
and Mumby E: Field Tests of a New 2 MHz Resistivity
Tool for Slimhole Formation-Evaluation While Drilling,
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA,
October 22-25, 1995.
Spring 1996
15
Without MBHC
Rps, ohm-m
10
10
10
10
nARC5 logs before
and
after MBHC. The spiky
appearance of the log
without MBHC (top) is
caused by overshoots
hornsin resistivity
measurements at
washouts. These artifacts are canceled out
by MBHC (bottom).
With MBHC
Rps, ohm-m
10
10
Since the depth of investigation increases as

the transmitter spacing increases, the five phaseshift resistivities represent five different depths
of investigation with nearly identical axial resolution. Similarly, the five attenuation resistivities
represent five deeper reading measurements.
At present, the ARC5 tool communicates to the
surface using the Slim 1 slim and retrievable
MWD system. This is essentially a tool that
latches onto the ARC5 tool. After connection to
the ARC5 tool, data are transferred by an inductive coupling to the Slim 1 system and then con-
tinuously transmitted to the surface acquisition

10
10
system by a mud-pulse link.
Why 2 MHz?
PH34
PH22
PH10
A wireline induction tool generates an oscillating

magnetic fieldtypically 10 to 40 kHzthat
nOperating frequencies
2 GHz
Propagation dielectric
EPT Electromagnetic Propagation Tool 1.1 GHz
200 MHz
of Schlumberger resistivity tools.
induces eddy currents in a conductive formation.

These, in turn, generate a much weaker, secondary magnetic field that can be measured by a
receiver coil set. Measuring the secondary magnetic field gives a direct measurement of conductivitythe higher the conductivity, the stronger
the eddy currents, and the larger the secondary
20 MHz
Propagation dielectric resistivity

DPT Deep Propagation Tool 25 MHz
magnetic field.
Induction tools use a trick to cancel the primary magnetic fields flux through the receiving
coil set and allow measurement of the secondary
2 MHz
Propagation resistivity
CDR Compensated Dual Resistivity tool 2 MHz
ARC5 Array Resistivity Compensated tool 2 MHz
magnetic field only. This is accomplished by

arranging the exact number of turns and precise
positions of the coils such that the total flux
200 kHz
through them is zero in an insulating medium

such as air. In a conductive formation, the flux
from the secondary magnetic field doesnt exactly
20 kHz
Induction resistivity
AIT Array Induction Imager Tool 25,50,100 kHz
Phasor Phasor-induction SFL tool 20 and 40 kHz
DIL Dual Induction Resistivity Log 20 kHz
2 kHz
200 Hz
cancel, so the induction tool becomes sensitive

to the eddy currents only. If the same trick were
tried on a drill collar, then similar precision for
coil placement and dimensional stability would
Conduction resistivity
RAB Resistivity-at-the-Bit tool 1.5 kHz
SFL Spherically Focused Resistivity tool 1 kHz
DLL Dual Laterolog Resistivity tool
ARI Azimuthal Resistivity Imager
LLS Laterolog shallow 280 Hz
LLD Laterolog deep 35 Hz
be required. In the harsh conditions of drilling, a

drill collar striking the borehole wall can easily
produce 100 g shocksmore than enough to ruin
any precise coil positioning.
At 2 MHz, precise coil placement doesnt matter, because the phase shift and attenuation are
measurable with a simple pair of coilsboth
quantities increase rapidly with frequency. While
the two receivers may be slightly affected by
pressure, temperature and shock, borehole compensation completely cancels any such effects.
Increasing the frequency further reduces the
depth of investigation and leads to dielectric
interpretation issues (left).
16
Oilfield Review
nReal-time dip com-
putation. Dip can be

computed from the
resistivity image (left)
using a real-time
algorithm (right).
Results indicate high
apparent dips, near
90. Shown on the
resistivity image is
the computed dip
azimuth, which runs
along the direction of
the borehole.
300
320
Depth, ft
340
360
380
400
420
360
70
Azimuth, degrees
respect to north plus the orientation of the

bedding plane with respect to the borehole.
For example, if on a trace, a bed appears to
cut the borehole at 10 and 70, then the
orientation of the bed is 40 with respect to
the top of the borehole. The second trace
may see the same bed at 0 and 80 and the
third trace, at 350 and 90. Both give the
orientation as 40 providing additional confidence in the calculation.
To determine the apparent dip, correlation
is made between the three traces. In the
above example, the bed appears on one
side of the hole at 10, 0 and 350 on each
trace, respectively. As the distance between
RAB buttons is fixed, simple geometry can
be used to calculate apparent dip between
any pair of traces. Knowing the borehole
trajectory leads to true dip.
This method does not rely on data collected at different depths and is effective in
horizontal wells. Also, the two-step approach
of first calculating the dip azimuth and then
dip magnitude provides a robust and fast
Spring 1996
80
90
100
Dip, degrees
110
algorithm that can be implemented in the

tool microprocessor, allowing real-time transmission of structural dips (above ).
A Profile of Invasion
The ARC5 tool is a 4.75-in. slimhole, multispacing, 2-MHz, propagation LWD tool
designed, in record time, to operate in
5.75- to 6.75-in. holes (see Evolution of
the 2-MHz LWD Tool: From EWR to
ARC5, page 14 ). 10 Propagation LWD
devices are similar in principle to wireline
induction logging tools. They transmit electromagnetic waves that induce circular
eddy currents in the formation and pair of
receivers monitors the formation signal. At
this stage, however, the physics of measurement similarities stops.
LWD propagation tools operate at 2
MHz, much higher than the 10- to 100-kHz
frequencies of induction tools (see Why 2
MHz?, previous page ). They are built on
sturdy drill collars and are capable of taking
the violent shocks imposed by drilling.
Wireline induction tools are essentially
built on well-insulated fiberglass mandrels
that cannot tolerate such heavy handling.
However, they both perform best in similar

environments, such as conductive and nonconductive muds and low-to-medium resistivity formations.
The ARC5 tool was designed to exploit
interpretation methods developed for the
wireline AIT Array Induction Imager Tool. To
this end, both tools provide resistivity measurements at five different depths of investigation allowing radial resistivity imaging.
The ARC5 has other advantages over previous LWD propagation technologies
including:
improved estimation of Rt
improved estimation of permeability
index
better evaluation of thin beds through
improved resolution
inversion of complex radial invasion
profiles
better interpretation of complex
problems, such as invasion, resistivity
anisotropy and dip occurring
simultaneously
reservoir characterization based on timelapse logging.
Unique to the ARC5 tool is mixed-borehole
compensation (MBHC). This method provides five MBHC attenuation and five
MBHC phase resistivity measurements processed from only five transmitters. Standard
borehole-compensation (BHC) requires 10
transmitters (see Propagating the ARC5
Tool, page 15).
10. Bonner SD, Tabanou JR, Wu PT, Seydoux JP, Moriarty KA, Seal BK, Kwok EY and Kuchenbecker MW:
New 2-MHz Multiarray Borehole-Compensated
Resistivity Tool Developed for MWD in Slim Holes,
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas,
17
ARC5 Phase Resistivities

2
10
10
Rps, ohm-m
10
XX50
ARI Resistivities
LLD, LLS, MicroSFL, ohm-m
Raiders of the ARC5
10
X1500
X2000
X2500
X1000
X1500
X2000
X2500
10
X1000
10
PH34
PH28
PH10
XX500
nARC5 phase-shift resistivity comparison. Deep ARC5 phase-shift resistivity curves from
the 34-in. and 28-in. spacing, PH34 and PH28 (orange and black curves, top log), correlate
with deep laterolog readings, LLD, recorded by the ARI tool (orange curve, bottom log)
several days after drilling. The shallowest reading ARC5 curve, PH10 (green curve, top
log), correlates with the shallow laterolog, LLS (purple curve, bottom log), but reads higher
than the MicroSFL curve (green curve, bottom log). This implies that there was little invasion at the time of drilling.
Radial resistivity, in.
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
XX500
X1000
X1500
Depth, ft
X2000
A slim horizontal sidetrack in an offshore

Middle East well provided a good field test
for the ARC5 tool.11 Oil company objectives
were to gain experience with horizontal
drilling and to understand why more water
than expected was being produced. The
carbonate reservoir has major faults and
several fractured zones, and is being produced under seawater injection.
The 6-in. sidetrack was drilled with the
ARC5 tool run in record mode above the
downhole motor in a steerable bottomhole
assembly (BHA) and an interval of more
than 2000 ft was logged from the kickoff
point. Later, drillpipe-conveyed wireline
logs were recorded over the same interval.
Comparisons were made between ARC5
phase resistivity readings and deep laterolog
(LLD), shallow laterolog (LLS) and MicroSFL
measurements recorded by the ARI
Azimuthal Resistivity Imager and MicroSFL
tools (left ). Deep ARC5 phase resistivity
curves, PH34 and PH28, agree well with
LLD readings implying that applications for
LWD propagation tools and laterolog tools
overlap. The shallowest ARC5 curve, PH10,
correlates with the LLS curve and reads
much higher than the MicroSFL curve. Later
processing suggests that there was little
invasion at the time of drilling.
Wireline log interpretation indicates
hydrocarbons throughout most of the interval. Water saturation is at a minimum from
X1150 ft to X1250 ft, where ARC5 resistivities read higher than 100 ohm-m.
An invasion profile image produced from
ARC5 data clearly shows the effects of
drilling history, as well as formation permeability (left ).12 For example, the interval
from X2000 to X2050 ft shows increased
invasion, because it was logged 24 hours
X2500
nInvasion profile. The radial resistivity image generated from the ARC5 resistivity curves
shows little invasion. Light brown is high resistivity and dark brown, low resistivity. At
XX500 ft, XX550 ft and X2080 ft are possible sources of seawater influx from nearby
injection wells.
18
Oilfield Review
Drilling Summary
Imagine the Future
100
10
Radial Resistivity, in.
Phase resistivity, ohm-m
TAB, hr
ROP, min/ft, GR, gapi
The ARC5 and RAB tools are part of a new

generation of LWD resistivity tools capable
80
of producing quality resistivity data for a
ROP
wide variety of applications. Both introduce
60
time at
measurement techniques unique to LWD
bottom
40
and wireline logging. For example, MBHC
is a cost-effective alternative to doubling up
20
on transmitters for borehole compensation
and cylindrical focusing is a more stable
gamma ray
0
0
alternative to traditional laterolog focusing
X1950
X2000
X2050
X2100
X2150
X2200
(see Cylindrical Focusing, page 10 ).
ARC5 Phase-Shift Resistivity
With the development of INFORM Integrated Forward Modeling software, interpreA
B
2
C
tation in horizontal wells will be greatly
10
improved.13 Couple this with downhole dip
processing and real-time imaging, and the
1
10
arguments for resistivity-while-drilling measurements become powerful.
The value of LWD data will be further
0
10
increased by close collaboration with Wireline & Testing and GeoQuest. For example,
the concept of invasion-profile measureX1950
X2000
X2050
X2100
X2150
X2200
ments leads to exciting possibilities. It offers
ARC5 Radial Resistivity Image and Diameter of Invasion
a chance to look at the invasion process in
detail. Resistive invasion infers water-filled
-15
porosity, whereas conductive invasion infers
-10
oil-filled porosity. In the near future, it
should be possible to predict water cut and
-5
draw some conclusions about permeability
0
directly from LWD fluid invasion-profile logging and resistivity anisotropy processing.
5
What is the next step in development?
10
Although future possibilities are exciting for
resistivity while drilling, the next step will
X2200
X2100
X1950
X2000
X2050
X2150
be more evolutionary than revolutionary.
Depth,ft
With the development of a family of differnDrilling summary (top), ARC5 phase resistivities (middle) and resistivity image (bottom)
ent sized ARC5 and RAB tools, measureshown in detail for the interval X1950 ft to X2200 ft. ARC5 data (middle) recorded 24 hr
ments described in this article can be
after a bit change show increased invasion (interval A) compared to the previous interval,
AM
which was logged only a few hours after being drilled. Little invasion occurs across a low- applied to more borehole sizes.
permeability streak (interval B). All resistivity curves converge (interval C) indicating
water breakthrough.
after a bit change (above ). Other intervals

were logged within a few hours of drilling
and show less invasion. Invasion is deeper
where drilling is slow and also in high-permeability streaks. The latter coincide with
the position of fractures and faults that are
shown on FMI data.
Two intervals were of special interest to
the oil companyaround XX550 ft and
Spring 1996
X2080 ft. Formation resistivity approaching

1 ohm-m in both intervals indicated that
seawater injection had broken through these
zones. Increased pore pressure in these
intervals resulted in dramatic increases in
the rate of drilling. Several days later, the
ARI tool showed that invasion had progressed to about 35 in. [89 cm].
The well was completed with a slotted
liner and produced 4000 BOPD and 600
BWPD compared to 1000 BOPD in the
original well. The interval at X2080 ft is the
most likely contributor to water production.
11. Bonner et al, reference 10.

12. Howard AQ: A New Invasion Model for Resitivity
Log Interpretation, The Log Analyst 33, no. 2
(MarchApril 1992): 96-110.
13. INFORM software allows an analyst to construct a
detailed model of the geometry and petrophysical
properties of the formation layers along a well path.
Simulated tool responses along the well are then
compared to acquired log data allowing the model
to be adjusted until they match. For a more detailed
description:
Allen D, Dennis B, Edwards J, Franklin S, Kirkwood
A, Lehtonen L, Livingston J, Lyon B, Prilliman J,
Simms G and White J: Modeling Logs for Horizontal Well Planning and Evaluation, Oilfield Review
7, no. 4 (Winter 1995): 47-63.
19
Quality in Drilling Operations
In modern industry, quality is often discussed, but frequently misunderstood. The perception of qualitywhat
it is and isntvaries widely from individual to individual and company to company. Oilfield service quality has
received increased attention during the past decade as oil and gas operators strive to maximize hydrocarbon
production and recovery at the lowest possible cost. This article illustrates how one drilling contractor,
Sedco Forex, is infusing a quality culture and mindset in its organization to provide the best possible service.
Ellis Duncan
Ira Gervais
Channelview, Texas, USA
Yves Le Moign
Sunil Pangarkar
Bill Stibbs
Montrouge, France
Paul McMorran
Pau, France
Ed Nordquist
Dubai Petroleum Company
Dubai, UAE
Ted Pittman
Perth, Australia
Hal Schindler
Dubai, UAE
Phil Scott
Woodside Offshore Petroleum Pty. Ltd.
Perth, Australia
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Jean
Cahuzac and Charles Nielsen, Sedco Forex, Montrouge,
France; Mike Mannering, Sedco Forex, Singapore; Alan
Whitmore, Sedco Forex, Aberdeen, Scotland; and Steve
Prensky, journalist, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.
20
We must define quality as conformance to

requirements if we are to manage it. 1
What is your definition of quality? To
some, it means fine craftsmanship, precision
and attention to the smallest detail. For others, its consistency and reliabilitysomething produced the same way time after
time, something you can count on. For still
others, its getting the best value for the
money spent. Whatever your definition, you
perceive a product or service to be of high
qualitywhether its a new automobile or
how the waiter handles the orders and food
delivery in the local restaurantif it meets
or exceeds your expectations. These expectations are often highly subjective. In the
final analysis, quality is really obtaining
what was promised by mutual agreement
between provider and end user. For quality
to be more than mere perception, however,
requires established specificationsquantifiable standards or benchmarks against
which the product or service can be measured objectively.
In the oil field, quality has taken on a new
meaning and importance over the past
decade. During the boom of the late 1970s,

speed was all important. Wells were being
drilled at a phenomenal pace; rigs were in
short supply. How rapidly a contractor could
move onto location, rig up, get the well
drilled, rig down and move to the next site
was, more often than not, the principal
benchmark of a quality operation. However,
the industry paid a premium price for this
speedy delivery service, and the quality of the
end product, the well, frequently suffered.
With the bust of the mid-1980s, the mentality of the industry changed drastically. Oil
and gas operators were forced to look at
ways to cut costs and squeeze the most out
of every dollar spent. This was a prerequisite
for survival and protection of the bottom
line. Speed was no longer the prime determinant. It was replaced by a growing awareness that quality would be the single make
or break factor in the future. Slowly at first,
and then with increasing momentum, operators and service companies alike began to
adopt the principles of quality that had, until
then, been relegated to industries outside
the oil patch. How the application of these
principles by one particular drilling contractor provides dividends to its clients, its personnel and its operations is the focus of this
article.
Have demonstrable results been
achieved? Most assuredly they have been,
as pointed out by the benefits gained in
three diverse operating areas:
Oilfield Review
Why the Emphasis on Quality?
The customer deserves to receive exactly

what we have promised to deliver. 2
Over a two-year period, working with

Dubai Petroleum Company, Sedco Forex
decreased operational time by 36% in 60
controllable rig activities (see Middle East
Offshore: Quality in Action, page 23).
In West Africa, Elf and Sedco Forex were
able to improve field development economics significantly by reducing the time
and costs of platform installation and well
construction (see Quality and Teamwork
Pay Dividends in West Africa, page 26 ).
In Australia, using an innovative technical limit approach, which specifically
Spring 1996
targets reductions in operational lost and

down time, Woodside Offshore Petroleum
Pty. Ltd. and Sedco Forex recently completed a development program 20% under
budget (see A New Approach to Quality
and Efficiency in Australia, page 29 ).
To fully understand the route to these
improvements, we begin with the fundamentals of a quality culturewhat they are
and how they are implementedand then
investigate how such a culture has been
established within Sedco Forex.
The drilling industry has evolved significantly in terms of work scope and the division of responsibilities between oil companies and service suppliers. Much of the
change has been driven by the proactive
initiatives in drilling contracting that
emerged early in the 1990s.3 Instead of the
drilling contractor simply executing the task
of drilling a well according to the specifications of the operator, a new way of doing
business emerged. Closer communication
links were established, and a coordinated,
joint decision-making process was adopted
for well planning. This has led to a better
understanding of client needs and expectations than ever before, creation of benchmarks, and an improved image and credibility for the contractor who has become a true
partner in an operational team.
Today, the focus is on reorganizing the
way tasks are performed and toward reengineering the management structure and
1. Crosby PB: Quality is Free. New York, New York,
USA: Mentor (1980): 15.
2. Crosby, reference 1: 69.
3. DeWardt JP: Drilling Contracting in the Nineties,
paper IADC/SPE 19902, presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, Houston, Texas, USA, February
27-March 2, 1990.
21
interfaces. Safety and operational procedures are merging to bring suppliers

together under a common system. New
technology and communications methods
are being applied universally, building
greater rigsite efficiency. In short, much has
changed and adapting to these changes has
become a major challenge.
This evolution emphasizes client-oriented
service and a commitment to do things right
the first time and every timethe heart of a
quality culture. It means eliminating unnecessary costs and losses that are the legacies
of poor quality. Over time, a quality
approach gains market share, increases
profits and ensures competitiveness.
Generation 4:
Quality management
Generation 1:
Overengineering
Generation 3:
Quality assurance
Generation 2:
Quality control
nThe evolution of quality. The approach to quality has changed dramatically over four
generations. Initially, products were overengineered to prevent failure. Then, intense

inspection and quality control replaced large safety margins. Process control brought the
era of quality assurance. Today, the emphasis is on quality management, eliminating
potential deficiencies at the design stage.
nThe quality hier-
Quality management
Quality assurance
Quality planning
Policy
Objectives/goals
Quality manual
Regulations
Standards
Controls
Procedures
Quality control
Supervision
Reviews
Inspections
Measurement
Performance
monitoring
Change control
Reporting
Auditing
Quality improvement
Identification of
chronic waste
Measurement of
nonconformance
Individual
commitment and
involvement
Quality improvement
project-by-project
archy. Quality
management links
all aspects of planning, control and
improvement into a
continuous system
for ensuring conformance to established standards.
(Adapted from Juran).
The Quality Evolution
It is always cheaper to do the job right the

first time. 4
Quality has evolved over four distinct
stages ( above left ). When materials and
manpower were cheap, engineers designed
products not to fail by overengineering them
with large safety margins. As materials
became increasingly expensive, but manpower remained comparatively cheap, engineers designed products that met specifications without these extra margins of safety.
While the probability of failure increased,
intense inspection became the safeguard
against delivering inferior products.
Then, when both materials and manpower became expensive, there was a reorientation toward understanding the processes to determine the causes of defects.
Process control became the basis for minimizing the probability of failures. Finally,
process control evolved into a more proactive approach in which planning for conformance from the start was the fundamental
principle; analyzing contingencies and
avoiding pitfalls at the design stage eliminated the need for corrective action later.
The last three stages of this evolution in
quality are analogous to Quality Control, in
which inspection was the order of the day;
Quality Assurance, in which in-depth process analysis ruled; and finally, Quality
Management, the current industry focus
(left ).5 Putting a quality-oriented management structure and culture in place is a
major, long-term task, but one that reaps
tremendous rewards.
5. For background on quality control and quality
assurance:
Burnett N et al: Quality, Oilfield Review 5, no. 4
(October 1993): 46-59.
22
Oilfield Review
Middle East Offshore: Quality in Action
nThe Trident III. This cantilever jackup is currently equipped to operate in water
up to 250 ft [76 m] deep.
nThe Trident 18 at sunset. This cantilever jackup is equipped to operate in water

depths to 300 ft [91 m].
The Sedco Forex Trident III (above left) jackup rig
closely with the drilling contractor and other ser-
bers of the teamfrom initial discussion to fol-
has been working for Dubai Petroleum Company
vice suppliers on the rig, can bring an effective
low-up action. For example, new handling meth-
(DPC), a subsidiary of Conoco, since the early
team approach to well planning and construction.
ods were put in place to avert the potential of dis-
1980s. But, operations today are far different
It also points out the benefits to clients of having
charging oily cuttings while drilling the pay zone.
than they were over a decade ago.
a comprehensive quality program as part of the
Also, the jackups were having difficulties with
drilling contractors culture.
close alignments to the platforms. Analysis
In 1995, the Trident 18 (above right) joined the

Trident III as the only other jackup rig working for
Early on, Sedco Forex implemented a number
showed that revised operational procedures
DPC. The quality program implemented on the
of quality practices in the interest of continuous
would increase their proximity and permit better
Trident III was one of the primary reasons the
improvement, such as improved methods for han-
access. This has allowed DPC to add more
contract was awarded to the Trident 18, even
dling towing lines during rig moves and for secur-
drilling slots to the platforms.
though another drilling contractor had submitted
ing rigs, as well as installing test stumps for
a competitive bid. Also, instead of rebidding the
blowout preventers (BOPs). By pretesting BOPs
solving them, says Hal Schlindler, District Man-
Trident III contract in 1994, DPC and Sedco Forex
on the stumps, there is a 4-hour savings in the
ager for Sedco Forex. No one is pointing the fin-
worked together to renegotiate and extend the
time needed to install BOPs.
ger or trying to determine whos at fault. Instead,
contract for two more years.

The Trident III and Trident 18 each typically drill
Starting in 1992, Sedco Forex began to track 60

distinct rig procedures under its control, such as
When problems arise, there is teamwork in
the philosophy is what does the team need to do

to fix it.
eight to ten wells per year for DPC offshore Dubai
the amount of time for tripping drillpipe and for
Close communication and analysis between
in water depths ranging up to 200 ft [61 m] with
running casing, to establish a series of bench-
DPC, Sedco Forex and other service companies
well depths of 9000 to 18,000 ft [2750 to 5500
marks. After a quality improvement program
overcame difficult problems while drilling a trou-
m]. Today, these wells are almost exclusively
based on this assessment was established, the
blesome shale section. During drilling of the
extended-reach and horizontal.
time spent on these operations was reduced by
shale, the well angle is typically built from 30
22% in 1993 compared to 1992, with a further
degrees to nearly horizontal. Problems were
Recent experience on the Trident III and Trident

18 demonstrates how an oil company, working
14% decrease in 1994 from 1993. In total, this

adds up to a savings of over 120 hours per well,
which is equivalent to drilling eleven wells in the
same time previously needed for ten wells.
When problems arise on the rig, they are
solved jointly through participation by all mem-
Spring 1996
23
nElements of the
encountered while running the 7-in. [17.8-cm]

liner through this drilled section. Often, the liner
Continuous improvement
could not be run to bottom and had to be pulled,

and the section was then redrilled or sidetracked.
Well-defined
Teamwork
Recommendations to overcome this problem

included higher mud weights and drilling speed,
and increased frequency of wiper trips. Since
Proactive
Consistent
Systematic
these modifications were implemented, all liners

have been successfully run and landed without
remedial operations.
Awareness
All-pervasive
Employee
and client
oriented
Quality Management System (QMS).

Implementation of a
successful QMS
requires that certain
key elements be present, tied together by
an ongoing commitment to continuous
improvement in all
activities.
According to Schindler, Every manager from

every company on the rig meets with DPC management each morning to review the morning
report and the three-day forecast. We define and
Quality Doesnt Just Happen
analyze problems on the spot, and by the end of

the meeting, everyone leaves knowing exactly
what their responsibilities are.
Service Quality Appraisals are conducted on a
quarterly basis, and the Trident III and Trident 18
averaged a remarkable 98% rating from DPC for
1995 (see Service Quality at the Wellsite, page 33).
Performance tracking is invaluable, says
Schindler. Looking at every aspect of the operation, in every possible way, pays dividends.
In addition, the combined drilling team, made
up of Sedco Forex and the other service providers
on the rig, received Conoco Drilling Safety Excellence Awards for outstanding safety performance
for the periods 1993-1994 and 1994-1995.
DPC Drilling Manager Ed Nordquist says,
One of the keys to the successful operation is
the cooperation between DPC and Sedco Forex.
However, this is becoming the norm today
between operator and contractor. More important
is the fact that Sedco Forex has been involved
with DPC operations for a long time, and rig personnel know what we expect from them and are
ready to deliver it.
If quality isnt ingrained in the organization, it will never happen. 6

How does one go about changing a culture and infusing a new way of thinking and
doing business in an industry that historically accepts change slowly, and often
reluctantly? Change can be a daunting challenge and requires a concerted approach,
nurtured by the top echelons of the organization and effectively transmitted through
the rank and file. Specific, measurable
objectives are prerequisites, and the task
takes much time, patience and persistence.
Quality gurus, like W. Edwards Deming,
Philip Crosby and Joseph Juran, have proposed a number of procedures for bringing
a quality outlook to an organization. No single approach is necessarily superior, for they
all have many fundamentals in common.
Whatever route is chosen, the basic principles of quality will apply, adapted, of necessity, to fit the particular industry and company structure. To be successful though, a
cultural change must evolve through three
distinct phases (below ).7
Convictiondeciding something needs
changing
Commitmentdemonstrating a serious
desire to change
Conversionembracing the change.
Conviction
Commitment
All three elements are critical. Without

conviction, the effort will never get off the
ground. Without commitment, once the
process has started, it will dwindle and fall
short of its aims. But once conversion has
been achieved, the converted stay converted, and there is no return to the shortcuts or deficiencies of the past. Achieving
the ultimate goal requires the implementation of a Quality Management System
(QMS), one that is grounded in a number of
key principles (above ).
For a QMS to be successful, it must be
simple and well-defined so that it can be
understood and effectively communicated
to all participants through a comprehensive
awareness program and, as a result, become
all-pervasive within the organization. The
QMS must focus both inwardly and outwardly and be simultaneously employeeand client-oriented . Internal procedures
need to be systematic, and application must
be consistent. Actions should be proactive,
not reactive, constantly seizing the initiative
rather than waiting for events to happen. It
must foster an environment of cooperation,
mutual goal-setting and teamwork where all
employees are empowered not only to participate in the system but also to contribute
in demonstrable ways to achieve established goals. Above all, there must be a
Conversion
nThe three phases of cultural change. A basic change in corporate
culture requires passage through the phases of conviction, commitment and conversion. The result is a mindset geared toward creating
a climate of zero defects.
24
Oilfield Review
commitment to continuous improvement in

all areas.
The basis for continuous improvement is
the belief that within any situation or any
activity there is room to improve. The goal
is perfection or zero defects, nothing less.
The road to achieving this passes through
three specific stages (right ). In the first stage,
the Present Situation, the status quo is investigated to fully understand where an opportunity exists for improvement, defining the
driving forces for change and whether
change is really worthwhile.
In the second stage, the Preferred Situation, potential solutions to the improvement
opportunity are analyzed and the optimal
one chosen. This stage focuses on defining
factors that could inhibit successful implementation of the change and, therefore,
require selection of an alternate strategy.
In the third stage, Action, proof of the
validity of the investigation and the planning of the two previous stages are confirmed. The solution is implemented, and
its success is monitored to ensure that what
is achieved is what was expected. The
cycle then repeats, focusing on additional
opportunities for further improvement. The
overall process increases efficiency and
competitiveness, reveals opportunities that
might otherwise be overlooked and promotes teamwork and proactive problem
solving. This leads to the ultimate goal of
Total Quality Management (TQM) in which
every person and every activity in an organization contribute to the achievement of
overall quality objectives. This open and
honest culture includes standard systems
for recording, investigating, implementing
and monitoring improvement opportunities.
The goal, again, is to get things right the
first time, every time.
7. Crosby PB: Lets Talk Quality. New York, New
York, USA: McGraw-Hill, 1989.
9. Burnett et al, reference 5.
10. Voehl F, Jackson P and Ashton D: ISO 9000: An
Implementation Guide for Small to Mid-Sized
Businesses. Delray Beach, Florida, USA: St. Lucie
Press, 1994.
Spring 1996
nContinuous
Present
situation
Present situation
revealed
Implementation
Formulating
and planning
Focusing
Data
gathering
Identifying
strategies
Action
Choice and
commitment
Analysis
New
situation
improvement.
Analyzing the status quo highlights
opportunities for
improvement.
Optimal solutions
for achieving
improvement are
defined and then
implemented and
monitored to
ensure that results
meet expectations.
Preferred
situation
The Case for Quality Certification
Quality management is needed because

nothing is simple anymore, if indeed it
ever was. 8
Todays complex world has led many to
seek ways to safeguard quality through set
procedures and controls. The main body
that assists industry in doing so is the International Organization for Standardization,
based in Geneva, Switzerland, with its ISO
9000 family of programsthe recognized
standard for a quality system.9
ISO 9000 is concerned with process
(what is supposed to happen, how it is supposed to be done, who is supposed to do it,
where it is to occur and when) rather than
the product itself. ISO certification assures
that a business does what it claims to, that
this can be documented, and that problems
will be resolved, not ignored. It has nothing
to do with approving a product or service.
Implementation of an ISO 9000 system is
based on identifying and understanding customers requirements and systematizing the
methods and procedures necessary for
meeting their needs, even as these needs
change. These procedures are then documented in a reference quality manual.
Standards, in general, imply specification
(against which a product can be measured
to establish if it meets the standard), com-
monality, and some recognized method of

assessment. Achieving ISO certification
involves (1) design and implementation of a
quality system that meets the requirements
of the standard, and (2) a successful assessment completed by a suitable assessor body.
The benefits of having a quality system in
place, which include improved efficiency
and assuring a constant level of quality, can
result in reduced production and inspection
costs. Furthermore, by providing assurance
that a business will correctly meet customer
requirements in a timely manner, compliance with an internationally recognized
quality standard can increase confidence in
a supplier, particularly when it may be
located in another country.10
As will be seen in the next section, ISO
certification has become an integral part of
the Sedco Forex drive to develop a corporate quality culture.
25
Quality and Teamwork

Pay Dividends in West Africa
nNKossa derrick sets.
Offshore field development economics are influ-
These modular, purpose-built units provide

the capabilities and flexibility required by Elf in
West Africa and were
designed for rapid, efficient installation on the
platforms.
enced significantly by the size and weight of the

platforms deployed and their installation times. In
the NKossa field, West Africa, where water depths
range to 590 ft [180 m], Elf and Sedco Forex have
worked jointly to improve economics by reducing
the time and costs involved in, and by increasing
the efficiency of, platform installation and well
construction.
The NKossa field was to be developed with two
platforms. Elf wanted several wells drilled in
advance, so that as soon as platform jackets, deck
equipment and production facilitiesin this case,
a barge as the main gathering center, offloading to
a tankerwere in place, production could commence from both platforms at near maximum
rates. The field would, thereby, generate significant revenue while the remaining wells were
drilled and placed on stream. To achieve this
objective, Elf and Sedco Forex tackled the project
with a coordinated team approach.
From start to finish, the emphasis was on quality and communication. Beginning in the spring of
1994, both companies appointed special project
teams to work together on all phases of development. Communication channels were established,
and formal and informal group meetings were held
at regular intervals.
The development plan for the NKossa field consisted of four phases:
First, prior to mobilizing the rigs to West Africa,
the modifications and upgrades that were
required for both drilling campaigns were car-
Third, the aft sections of the two semis were

modified to accommodate heavy-lift cranes for
tioning the lifeboats so that the aft sections of the
use in installing derrick sets on the platforms.
semisubmersibles could face the platforms
Fourth, two specially designed, modular derrick
ried out while the rigs underwent shipyard refur-
sets were constructed and transported to loca-
bishments in Rotterdam.
tion for placement on the platforms using the
Second, two subsea templates were preset and
stacks to a surface stack arrangement; and reposi-
reconfigured semis.
directly during derrick set placement and during

operation in the tender-assisted mode.1
The Elf and Sedco Forex teams devoted much of
their time and effort to the design and logistics
several wells predrilled through them using the
In addition to the crane installations, modifica-
associated with the derrick sets, covering the
semisubmersibles Sedco 700 and Sedneth 701,
tions to the semis included changing power and
entire spectrum from conceptual design to detailed
after which the platform jackets were installed.
fluid lines to permit tender-assisted operations
engineering, construction, movement to location
during the subsequent drilling phase of the project, when umbilicals would connect the semis to
the derrick sets; reconfiguring the subsea BOP
26
Oilfield Review
and, finally, installation on the platforms. During
are deoiled using a cuttings dryer installation
aspects of the project by both operator and drilling
the construction phase, procedures were defined
based on centrifugation of a mixture of base oil
contractor, the following economic benefits were
to ensure compliance with specifications of all
and cuttings.
realized:
components received from vendors and for quality
Stainless steel was used for low-pressure piping
The decision to contract two rigs at the same
control and inspection. Detailed acceptance test
and the drilling shelter to minimize corrosion.
time with almost identical features allowed Elf
procedures were issued in conformance with ISO
Drilling controls were ergonomically designed for
to optimize the field development plan for both
9001 guidelines. Elf had a representative present
comfort and efficiency, with a 180-degree view of
predrilling (stand-alone mode) and tender-
at all times overseeing construction and witness-
the rig floor and derrick provided for the driller.
ing inspections and component testing.
BOPs could be repositioned without breaking out
Problems or discrepancies were resolved via
assisted drilling mode.

The decision to modify the semis saved signifi-
well-control lines, and handling facilities for the
cant rig-up and installation time, and cost com-
direct communications between Elf, Sedco Forex,
BOPs allowed the wellhead to be lifted and
pared to the option of securing an expensive
other service companies and parts vendors. A final
installed preassembled. Fast-connect couplings
debriefing and quality check was held with all ser-
were used throughout to minimize downtime in the
vice companies involved prior to shipment of the
nippling up of the BOP stack to the wellhead, and
support and accommodation facilities on the
derrick sets to West Africa.
quick-disconnect couplings were used on hydraulic
semis, enabled Elf to minimize the size, weight
The 700-ton, self-erecting, modular derrick sets

were designed to be as integrated and compact as
possible to 1) minimize the number of crane lifts
control circuits to minimize both oil spillage and

downtime.
Construction began in France in October 1994,
during installation, thereby eliminating as many
with both derrick sets fabricated simultaneously
peripheral small lifts as possible, 2) limit the
barges to the French coast and offloaded onto an
motion of the semis, and 3) minimize dead time
ocean-going barge for the trip to West Africa. Tran-
during the loading from the semis to the platforms.
sit time was 24 days. The barges were anchored
Placement would include a total of 14 lifts each,
alongside the semisubmersibles, and the derrick
with the heaviest being 93 tons.
derrick sets provide enhanced capabilities, as
May 1995, and the units were shipped by river
time and potential problems due to dynamic
and cost of the platforms.

The modular and flexible design features of the
(previous page). Construction was completed in
number of connections and tie-ins to reduce lost
crane barge.
Use of a tender-assisted configuration, with key
sets were offloaded onto the decks of the semis
Several special features were included. The
well as lower maintenance and operating costs.
with the heavy-lift cranes. The two semis were
derrick sets were designed to adapt to the jacket
then towed to the NKossa field, anchored on loca-
configuration used in West Africawith jacket
tion, and the derrick sets were offloaded and
rails perpendicular to the tender-support ves-
rigged up. The process, from derrick set arrival to
selor to jackets with rails parallel to the tender
final installation, took 25 days. At present, the
and to be drip-proof, with all runoff collected at a
predrilled wells are being tied-back to surface
central point and then pumped to the tender-sup-
wellheads on the platforms and completed, while
port vessel for separation and disposal. On the
awaiting the arrival of the production barge and
tender-support vessel, the shale-shaker cuttings
final preparations for drilling additional wells.
1. For background on tender-assisted drilling: Spiers RL,

Tranter PH, Burr GR and Unsworth MI: Conversion of a
Semisubmersible Drilling Unit for Tender-Assisted and
Conventional Drilling Operations, paper SPE 26755,
presented at the Offshore Europe Conference, Aberdeen,
Scotland, September 7-10, 1995.
and an overriding commitment to quality in all
As a result of the coordinated team approach
Spring 1996
27
nThe HSE manage-
How Have Things Evolved in

Sedco Forex?
Corporate statement of policy
Improvement comes with each step of the

overall program. 11

12. Bobillier AAY and Keary T: Audits Emphasize
Need for Long-Term Relationship to Improve Prevention, paper SPE 27073, presented at the Second International Conference on Health, Safety
and the Environment in Oil & Gas Exploration,
Jakarta, Indonesia, January 25-27, 1994.
13. A lost-time injury is any work-related injury resulting from an accident that prevents the person from
continuing, in the next following shift, the same
job that he or she was performing before the injury.
The frequency rate is expressed as the number of
incidents per million person-hours worked.
28
Results
versus
objectives
Inspections
and
assessment
HSE plan
Communication of HSE plan
Worksite/base risk
Minimization mechanisms
Emergency response
HSE meetings
Permit to work
Checklists
Rig up 3rd party
equipment
Authorization for
exemption
Modification
proposal note
STOP program
Accident
risk
data base
Accident
report 2nd
analysis
Adequacy of plan?
Company
policies and
procedures
Reporting HSE results

Indicators/statistics
Compliance?
18
Safety first District HSE STOP program, Compliance Field Q-HSE
16
culture
plans
SMS concept Q-HSE audits instructors
14.5
SL commitment
14
to halve rate in
5 years
12
10.2
9.7
10
7.8
8
7
6.1
5.2
6
4.9
4.5
3.5
4
LTI frequency rate
Sedco Forex is one of the largest drilling

contractors in the world, employing 5100 people of 50 nationalities and operating 42 offshore and 34 land rigs in 26 countries. With
such a far-flung organization and cultural
diversity, implementing a universal quality
program represented a formidable task.
As with any company committed to
installing a quality program, Sedco Forex
began with the tools at hand. The starting
point was the companys health, safety and
environment (HSE) system, which was recognized as a model within the drilling contractor industry.12
Over the years, Sedco Forex had developed
a comprehensive HSE Management System
that included policies, procedures, tracking
mechanisms and compliance assessment
methods (above right ). This system had its origins in a Safety Management System (SMS)
which had received considerable attention
from industry peers in the late 1980s.
In 1986, Schlumberger management committed to a 50% reduction, over a five-year
period, in the drilling lost-time injury (LTI)
frequency rateas defined and reported by
the International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC)as a show of the corporations dedication to safer drilling operations
in the industry.13 This commitment motivated the staff and paved the way for a revitalized safety awareness program in which
safety activities grew more focused, professional and proactive. Results improved and
the target was achieved (right ).
The safety system proved to be a good
starting point, first for HSE and then for
quality efforts. Much of what was needed
was already in place. Over time, managers
recognized that every aspect of operations
could profit from the quality drive. Analysis
of accidents and operating failures pointed
out the need for better tracking and for closing the loop with specific solutions. Still
lacking, however, was a mechanism for
HSE objectives
ment system in
Sedco Forex. This
system combines
the basic policies,
procedures, tracking mechanisms
and compliance
assessment methods
to form a comprehensive system
which has been a
useful foundation for
a quality culture.
nSafety performance
and program implementation. The evolution of the safety

program, with
greater emphasis on
preventive programs
and compliance
audits, has resulted
in a marked
improvement in the
lost-time injury (LTI)
frequency rate.
2
0
1986
1988
1990
1992
identifying the cost of quality nonconformance and quantitative measurements of

real losses.
In general, other than IADC statistics,
there are few internationally recognized
benchmarks for the drilling industry. This
meant that Sedco Forex had to define and
implement its own set of benchmarks. This
has been done. Each year, targets are set for
key indicators, and these targets become
integral to the companys objectives, on a
par with financial goals.
The system is simple and focused. Fatalities, LTIs and major losses, as well as compliance with HSE training, identification of
risks and service quality appraisals are
tracked and analyzed at headquarters.
Results are regularly summarized and communicated to the field. Deeper into the field
1994
organization, the number of benchmarks

increases accordingly, finally reaching rigspecific needs. For the first time, a systematic and coordinated effort is being used to
quantify and understand losses in real financial terms.
ISO certification of selected locations has
helped further emphasize the drive toward a
quality culture. Operations in Aberdeen,
Scotland and Brazil, the Engineering
Department in Montrouge, France, and the
logistics and supply center in Channelview,
Texas, USA, have been awarded ISO certification (see The Road to ISO Certification,
page 32 ).
Oilfield Review
A New Approach to Quality and Efficiency in Australia
In 1993, Woodside Offshore Petroleum Pty. Ltd.
Operations
Planning
committed to improve its offshore well construction performance on the Northwest Shelf of Aus-
Planning feedback loop
tralia. The companys analysis of operations con-
Remove or
refine process
(what if)
ducted from 1968 to 1992 showed erratic results,
Reporting
Track
against plan
with high average drilling times compared to published benchmarks.

For the upcoming Wanaea and Cossack developments in 270 ft [82 m] of water, which would
Develop
theoretical
well
Assign time
estimates
Finalize plan,
develop
technical
limit
include directional wells and the first-ever subsea

completions for the company, Woodside instituted
Develop
ways to
remove
Expertise
an aggressive target-setting and planning method-
Analysis
Identify
deviation
from plan
TQM
feedback loop
nTechnical limit model.
This innovative approach

to improvement in well
construction efficiency
targets the best possible
level of performance as
the goal, seeking to eliminate all nonproductive
time and efficiency blockers involved in drilling
and completion operations. (Courtesy of Woodside Offshore Petroleum
Pty. Ltd.)
ology, based on asking the question What is possible? instead of How can we improve? The
approach had a central philosophy: targeting the
technical limit, a level of performance judged as
Review
offset data
Identify
magnitude
of blockers
Team
building
Expertise
the best possible for a given set of parameters

(right).1 Implementation of such a radical change
marksthe technical limitsoptimizing the oper-
assembly (BHA) components were made up
in thinking required an extraordinary effort and
ational process and communicating the plan and
off-line, allowing pickup and mounting of the
commitment, and the building of new relationships
process to everyone involved, including
BHA in one piece using a specially designed
with the drilling contractor and other service sup-
roustabouts on the rig, to enlist their commitment
roller system.
pliers, founded on teamwork and effective commu-
and ownership. Start-up seminars and regular,
nications.
joint management visits and presentations helped
three new wells and installed six subsea comple-
facilitate and underscore the communication pro-
tions 20% under budget. By successfully reducing
importance of the drilling rigs specifications. The
cess. Throughout, a no-blame culture was
lost and down time and increasing the percentage
cost of higher level rig specifications could easily
adopted by Woodside in all its dealings with ser-
of effective time, they were able to drill the third
be justified if the added capabilities translated into
vice suppliers, a culture that encouraged problem
well in the project in 20 fewer days than the first.
significant efficiency gains toward the goal of
solving rather than finger pointing.
Studies by Woodside had pointed out the critical
achieving the theoretical minimum well time, the
Critical path thinking was adopted during the
Applying this methodology, Woodside drilled
Everything we did targeted process optimization and control. It has been enormously satisfying
technical limit. This permitted fit-for-purpose rig
assessment phase. All activities that could affect
to see our team of people from different compa-
selection and sole source negotiation of the
the critical path, either positively or negatively,
nies pull togetherand in the same directionto
selected rig, eliminating the need for a low-bid
were identified and analyzed. Much of the effort
achieve top-class results, says Phil Scott, Well
tendering process. Working with Woodside, Sedco
focused on areas normally defined as conventional
Construction Manager for Woodside. According to
Forex assessed rig options that would deliver the
down time and lost time. But, studies went further
Ted Pittman, Sedco Forex District Manager,
desired specifications, and the Sedco 702
to concentrate on what became known as invisi-
The way the team worked together can best be
semisubmersible was selected for the project.
ble lost time, inefficiencies targeted for the first
summed up in the project motto: Pride in Perfor-
time using the technical limit approach.
mance. From the start, it motivated all members
Sedco Forex was involved from the outset in the

extensive planning phase that spanned a period of
The process resulted in improved procedures
nine months. The company placed a former rig
and techniques that speeded operations. For
superintendent in the Woodside office to liaise
example, subsea trees were normally assembled
directly with Woodsides engineers and design
and pressure tested in the moonpool of the
team. The emphasis was on developing bench-
semisubmersible, inhibiting other activities. Tree
of the team and kept us continually focused on
and tree-handling operations were removed from

the moonpool area for improved efficiency. During
quality and efficiency.

1. Bond DF, Scott PW, Page PE and Windham TM: Step
Change Improvement and High Rate Learning Curve are
Delivered by Targeting Technical Limits on Sub-Sea Wells,
paper IADC/SPE 35077, presented at the 1996 IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, March
12-15, 1996.
drilling, running of the drilling riser and BOPs was

streamlined with better make up of lifting subs and
pickup procedures. Where possible, bottomhole
Spring 1996
29
Quality
management system
Quality manual
Measurement
Communication
Continuous
improvement
nQuality management system. The quality manual collects the key aspects of the system that include measurement, communication and continuous improvement.
Uniting all aspects of the QMS is the

recently issued Quality Manual, which
defines a consistent methodology for the
pursuit, tracking and structure of the quality
effort and emphasizes measurement, communication and continuous improvement
( above ). The HSE and quality functions
have been merged into a universal Q-HSE
function for coordinating and managing the
quality system. The focus is constantly on
the three prime elements, or dimensions,
that must be considered in every quality
activityproduct, process and people
(below ). These elements provide the foundation for the new quality culture.
A corporate definition of quality has
emerged: Giving the client what he wants,
when he wants it, at a mutually agreed
cost. This entails defining and meeting the
clients specifications and expectations;
keeping to schedules, programs and project
plans; and satisfying the financial requirements of both parties. Specifications must
be agreed to in advance, must be backed up
by an effective delivery system and must
never be less stringent than the internal
Product
Fit-for-purpose
design
Conformance
Follow-up
Process
People
Consistency
Optimization
Controllable
Satisfaction
Ownership
nQuality dimensions. The QMS is con-
stantly focused on three interconnected

aspects of quality: the product, the process
and the people involved.
30
Q-HSE guidelines established within Sedco

Forex. The remainder of this article focuses
on the implementation of specific Sedco
Forex quality programs in training, engineering and field operations.
Changing the Training Focus
Think of change as skill-building and concentrate on training as part of the change

process. 14
Thanks to new technology and greater rig
automation, drilling today is less demanding
physically than a decade ago. But, it still
remains a dangerous business. This is why
comprehensive training has always received
top priority.15
Within Sedco Forex, four training centers
(see The French (Training) Connection,
page 34 ) provide formal courses for new
and experienced personnel. A follow-up
system ensures proper application of new
skills. Roving instructors visit rigs and check
for safe work practices. Each rig has safety
committees that set standards, hold regular
information and problem-solving meetings,
and track compliance. Data bases have
been developed and are constantly updated
to communicate risk information and profile
critical risk areas. Health and safety campaigns are mounted to target areas where
improvement is needed. Initiatives, like the
Dupont STOP program, a systematic
approach to recognizing potential problems
and addressing them before they turn into
incidents, provide quality focal points for rig
personnel.
Within the training effort, benchmarking
has been critical. Monthly measurements of
compliance in areas such as HSE and wellcontrol training, providing feedback, and
developing action plans to rectify deficiencies have been at the heart of the program.
Without a focused training effort in quality
from the top to the bottom of the organization, there can be no change toward a quality culture. To this end, two initiatives have
helped instill the quality mentality. Within

Sedco Forex, training had historically been
technical and geared to career development
needs for engineers, rig supervisors and rig
workers. This formed the basis for loss control and service quality instruction. As the
quality thrust gained momentum, however,
it became apparent that training had to be
broadened and, at the same time, more
sharply focused.
The first initiative was a shift to a competency-based approachwhere assessment
and measurement of proficiency levels and
a step-by-step methodology to correct noted
deficiencies was implemented and tracked
for compliance. In essence, this transformed
the training function directly into a total
quality support function.
The second initiative focused on communicating the quality goals of the company
through the development and application
of a training matrix for line management
(next page ). In all facets of this initiative,
the ultimate clients of the programboth
employees and customerswere consulted
on scope and content. In some instances,
training tools and courses were identified
and added to fill gaps.
To deliver the message, a train-the-trainer
methodology was employed. Supporting
materials were prepared and presented to
management via a Quality Awareness course.
Supervisors, in turn, were given the training
necessary, as well as a comprehensive presentation package, to transmit the quality message throughout their organizations.
In training and follow-up, the emphasis
has evolved from strictly technical training
to a broader view: how to better manage,
how to better recognize problems and
issues, how to empower and facilitate, and
how to communicate. At the same time,
training became more focusedfocused on
quality as the end goal.
Reengineering Engineering
There is absolutely no reason for having

errors or defects in any product or service. 16
While some aspects of drilling operations
have changed little over the past 50 years,
technological advances, such as top drives,
improved downhole motors, and loggingand measurements-while-drilling techniques, have had a pronounced influence on
efficiency and cost. Ensuring rapid and effective development of new technology and its
transfer to the rigsite requires a quality
approach within the engineering organization of the drilling contractor.
Oilfield Review
Rig
supervisors
Rig superintendents
BEST 1
Staff
engineers
Rig managers
District
managers
Project
managers
Rig
engineers
Management 1
Communication skills
Train the trainer
IT module
1
2
1
1
TQM awareness
Management 2
Sales training 1
Sales training 2
BEST 3 - Finance
Financial analysis
BEST 3 - Project mgt
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
as needed
2
1
1
1
1
as needed
as needed
Bidding workshop
Advanced mkt seminar
Advanced mgt seminar
Presentation skills
Recruiting skills
1
2
2
as needed
2
as needed
as needed
as needed
as needed
as needed
as needed
as needed
as needed
as needed
as needed
Courses run by Sedco Forex Courses shared with sister Schlumberger companies Outside courses
1
2
as needed
BEST
Priority 1: High priority training and highly recommended

Priority 2: Lower priority training but also recommended
Where either the job or the development plan indicates the need
Better Exempt Schlumberger Training
nManagement training matrix. The matrix outlines priority courses and essential supple-
mental programs for training rig personnel and regional management in quality, providing instruction on improving supervision, problem identification and communications.
For Sedco Forex, the engineering department is one of the sites that has achieved
ISO recognition. But here the approach was
initially directed at analyzing existing practices and developing innovative approaches
to improve the quality and deliverability of
new products and techniques. The goal was
to have a practical, workable system in
place, rather than to achieve ISO certification. However, in the drive to set up a quality system, ISO became viewed as the most
effective means to this end. Certification
was a natural outcome of the process.
Examples, ranging from electronic documentation to improved field support and
shipyard construction and repair, highlight
how recently introduced products and procedures are helping achieve more for the client.
If youve ever been on a drilling rig,
youve seen the overwhelming number of
printed technical and procedural manuals
needed to support day-to-day operations.
One engineering project focused on replacing these bulky, hard-copy manuals with
electronic documentation on CD-ROM
saving storage space and streamlining the
massive effort to keep them updated.
Spring 1996
The first corporate documentation CDROM was sent to all rigs in December 1995
after pilot testing in four field locations in
the Middle East and Far East. Each rig has
been equipped with CD-ROM readers. A
single CD contains 11 operations, Q-HSE
and training manuals; 20 marine operations
manuals; maintenance policies and procedures; and other location- and disciplinespecific documents, for a total of 1664 files.
Documents are linked; searches by key
word and topic can be conducted; and a
variety of navigation tools make finding key
information straightforward and efficient.
The contents of the CD will be updated and
expanded regularly.
This approach to documentation ensures
access to the most current information and
improves the productivity and efficiency of
rig workers by providing the data they
require to perform their jobs, thus reducing
errors, downtime and losses.
A second area of quality improvement has
been in field support. Historically, when a
problem arose on a rig, an engineer would
ask for help from a contact in the engineering department. There were many potential
pitfalls with this approach: the person might
not be the right one to contact; descriptions

of the problem might be incorrect or incomplete; similarly, the recommended solution
might be incorrect or incomplete; or, finally,
no action might be takenthe request simply being ignored.
To correct these deficiencies, new procedures were established, including a complete set of specifications and communication channels known as the Request for
Engineering Action (REA) system. When
help is needed, rig personnel describe the
nature of the problem to the regional organization. The region then relays the request to
an engineering point contact who determines the expert or group of experts best
equipped to answer the question. If the
problem can be solved faster and more efficiently outside the engineering organization,
for example by using a consultant, the point
contact will funnel the project accordingly.
Since at any one time there might be 60
to 80 such requests in process, priority setting is important, particularly with costly
drilling times at stake. The REA system
allows much tighter control over priorities
and assignment of the proper sense of
urgencyall features lacking in the previous system. The region and rig are both kept
informed of progress toward, and the deadline for, a solution.
With the checks and balances involved,
how rapidly are results delivered? The formalized procedures bypass many of the previous pinch points, and deliverability is as
good or better. The key benefit is enhanced
quality management of the solutions.
The quality system is also reaping benefits
in shipyard construction and repair. Typically, shipyard activities were treated as
one-off projects. Each time a new project
came along, there was a tendency to reinvent the wheel. Today, a retrievable data
base captures project information, allowing
prior experience to be drawn on. Also, there
is a formalized approach to project management and coordination, as well as document control.
Task force managers are appointed, and
the scope of work is defined up-front. New
communication channels facilitate early
exchange of ideas. Staff and facilities benefit
from better organization, which specifies
14. Deal T and Kennedy A: Corporate Cultures. Reading, Massachusetts, USA: Addison-Wesley, 1982.
15. Burt GL and Stibbs W: Personnel Development
in the 1990s: Preparing the Next Generation Rig
Professionals, paper SPE 23156, presented at the
Offshore Europe Conference, Aberdeen, Scotland,
September 3-6, 1991.
31
The Road to ISO Certification
In todays marketplace, identifying and understanding a customers requirements and meeting

those needs are critical for maintaining a competitive advantage and serve as underlying factors in the movement toward total quality management and implementation of quality systems.
An effective system is one that has commitment
to quality and continuous improvement at all levels of the company. Learning from mistakes and
ensuring that problems do not recur are accomplished through problem identification (auditing),
investigation (corrective action) and long-term
rectification (controlled procedural change).
Sedco Forex prides itself on being close to its
clients and providing innovative approaches to
better meet their needs and reduce costs in
drilling operations. Following the general movement of many businesses to comply with ISO
9000 standards and the specific desires of several customers to deal with ISO 9000-certified
vendors and service providers, certain Sedco
Forex facilities have sought and achieved ISO
9000 certification.
nThe Jacintoport distribution center. The facility was the first within Sedco Forex, and the first of its type anywhere in the USA, to receive ISO 9002 certification.
In particular, in 1993, the Materials Logistics

Center (International Chandlers, Jacintoport
could create a good quality system for our opera-
Facility) in Channelview, Texas, USA, outside of
tion, says Ellis Duncan, Materials Manager at
Houston, was the first within Sedco Forex, and
the Jacintoport facility, that it would be advanta-
the first distribution center of any kind in the
geous to our clients,and that it would alsosat-
USA, to achieve ISO 9000 certification (above
isfy the needs of our North Sea operation (right).
right). Specifically, the center has been certified
On the first point, Ira Gervais, Jacintoport Quality
by Det Norske Veritas (DNV), the foremost certify-
Manager, points out that ISO certification is the
ing body, to conform to ISO 9002 quality system
facilitys first effort in developing a quality sys-
standards for procurement and logistic services
tem. We thought we were doing great, he com-
for oilfield equipment, spare parts, and consum-
ments, but he also notes that there was no mech-
ables. As the procurement center for the pur-
anism to identify what they were doing wrong
chase and resupply of critical parts and materials
when problems did arise. Discussing the advan-
for Sedco Forex rigs operating worldwide, this
tages to their clients, Duncan says, We wanted
group plays a central role in minimizing drilling
to be sure that if there was any question concern-
tude, the experience and positive results paved
rig downtime. Rig time lost by errors in procuring
ing the quality of our fleet in the North Sea, we
the way for subsequent ISO certification of other
or shipping replacement parts can significantly
could say that we are buying from suppliers
Sedco Forex locations.
impact operational efficiency, profits, customer
through an ISO quality system. Regarding the
relations and company image.
last factor, Duncan says that the need to stay
to improvements resulting from the ISO-related
competitive played a major role in the decision to
changes. How do you put a figure on acciden-
seek ISO certification. Major clients started
tally purchasing the wrong part or an inferior
pushing this in the North Sea.
product, or sending a part to the wrong place or
The motivating factors behind the effort to seek

ISO certification were threefold. We felt that we
nJacintoport management staff. Materials manager

Ellis Duncan (left) and quality manager Ira Gervais
assure that the ISO policies are properly implemented and tracked.
Its difficult to compute exact dollars saved due
Although the Channelview facility went into ISO

certification as a trial, taking a wait-and-see atti-
32
Oilfield Review
quality criteria for the shipyard, including

testing and reporting procedures and
detailed financial controls. ISO guidelines
help to plug the holes and impose a schedule for fixing problems. In this example, as
in others, its often a few simple improvements that together produce a significant
increase in quality.
the wrong rig, and ending up having to repur-
World Wide Web. What we've done is put the
chase or reship a product, Gervais points out.
current copy on our network, says Gervais. It's
ISO 9002 uses the combination of internal

audits and periodic audits by an external organi-
the official copy for downloading and printing.

Duncan indicates that the primary benefits of
zation to review procedures, documentation and
ISO certification for the Jacintoport facility are
corrective actions in purchasing, contracts, pur-
awareness, discipline and accountability. These
chaser-supplier product control and process con-
are derived from the ISO 9000 requirements for
trol.1 DNV, the auditing body for the Jacintoport
establishing formal procedures for recognizing
facility, focuses on one of these areas during its
and handling problems, both internally and in the
semi-annual audits. The DNV auditors review
field, for accurate documentation and control of
paperwork to verify that the documented proce-
that documentation, and for taking corrective
dures are being followed and make spot checks
action. He says that prior to ISO certification,
of portions of the operation. For example, Ger-
There were no established procedures for mak-
vais says, to avoid mistakes in shipping, we
ing sure things were actually handled correctly.
must specify how we handle noncompliant prod-
Now, when the field has any type of problem with
ucts when they come in. If they cant be identi-
something we handled, they fill out a procure-
fied, we place them in a special location, prop-
ment incident report and send it to us, and we
erly tagged. DNV checks that on a regular basis.
have to correct it. One example involved
If something does goes wrong, we must specify
changes in receiving and packing procedures to
how we will correct the problem and isolate the
address complaints that supplies were arriving in
nonconforming material in the future. A full
the field wet or damaged. To ensure accountabil-
recertification is performed every three
ity and corrective action, the Jacintoport facility
yearswith the next due in 1996 for the Jacinto-
now sends out a semi-annual service quality
port facility.
analysis questionnaire to the field to learn how
The quality manual, containing the documenta-
Service Quality at the Wellsite
customers feel about their service. Documenta-
tion of procedures required for ISO certification,
tion produced by this communication must be
must describe whats actually done in the busi-
says Duncan. They want us to react quicker. We
of flow charts and organizational charts has kept
werent as accountable before. But you are with
the Channelview quality manual to a concise and
this system. Its all documented. Its all there. Its
readable 35 pages, in comparison to other com-
ignored. Without a doubt, a key area is speed
overly burdensome to employees. The liberal use
Closing the feedback loop with the oil

and gas operator is one key to ensuring a
climate of continuous improvement. To aid
in this goal, Sedco Forex implemented a
Service Quality Appraisal (SQA) system
three years ago. The system is based on a
comprehensive set of guidelines. The first
level, the SQA form, is filled out by the
client (below ). It provides a quantitative
assessment of how the rig and its personnel
stack up in several categories, including
HSE, overall drilling performance, organization and skills of the personnel, condition
and utility of the equipment, and quality of
rigsite communications. The bottom line is
an overall performance rating, or index,
with a maximum score of 100%.
The SQA covers a particular time period
and is used by the rig manager to assess the
operation and for discussion with clients in
quarterly meetings. These sessions review
the strengths and deficiencies of the service
addressed and acted on; problems cannot be
ness process, while at the same time not be
Think where your company could be if

you completely eliminated failure costs. 17
all auditable.
panies where such manuals may be several vol-
Since ISO certification, Jacintoport has
umes in length. According to Gervais, A side
received additional business from sister compa-
benefit of having all procedures documented in a
nies like Dowell for procuring, packing and ship-
manual is that new employees now have a refer-
ping goods to the field. These companies could
ence and learn the proper procedures from the
use anyone, but, Gervais says, ISO certification
onset. The quality manual must be updated, and
has allowed the Jacintoport facility to improve its
all employees must have access to the most cur-
systems and to demonstrate that were very pro-
rent version. Depending on the size of a facility,
fessional in what we do and that mechanisms
maintaining and updating documentation can be
for redressing complaints are in place. SP
complicated and cumbersome. In this area, the

Channelview group has taken an innovative
approach: their manual is accessible to employees through the Sedco Forex home page on the
Spring 1996
1. Patterson JG: ISO 9000 Worldwide Quality Standard:

Criteria for Documentation and Performance. Menlo Park,
California, USA: Crisp Publications, 1995.
nService quality appraisal form. The SQA
gives quantitative measures of the performance of rig and personnel in several categories, summarized by an overall rating.
The SQA provides the basis for regular meetings with clients on quality improvement.
33
The French (Training) Connection
The Pyrenees mountains form a spectacular
yard space. Eight instructors and support staff
backdrop to the Sedco Forex training center in a
provided 4400 man-days of training in the latest
picturesque suburb of Pau, France. It is the
drilling technology during 1995. For 1996, that
largest, best-equipped and busiest of the four
figure is expected to increase to 7000 man-days.
training centers the company operates world-
There are four principal classrooms, one
wide. Sister facilities are located in Aberdeen,
equipped with a state-of-the-art drilling simula-
Scotland; Warri, Nigeria; and Singapore.
tor. This simulator, used primarily for instruction
Today, with even greater emphasis on the
on well-control procedures, also models stuck
health and safety of employees, protection of the
pipe situations and various techniques for drilling
environment, and quality, the center is fulfilling
optimization, and interfaces with an advanced
an expanded role that reflects the Sedco Forex
computer system that allows trainees to access,
commitment to training as a core element of the
and interact with, actual well data. Extensive
companys culture.
computer and video facilities in the classrooms
The Pau site was originally established in 1949
permit maximum use of new information technol-
as a base for North African and European drilling
ogy tools and multimedia training aids.
operations. Training courses were first conducted
The sites most striking feature is also its prin-
in 1972 and, during the nearly two and a half
cipal piece of equipmentan ultraheavy, diesel-
decades since, the training mandate has evolved
electric land rig with a rated drilling depth of
and the course list has grown considerably, in
18,000 ft [5500 m] and a 600-ton capacity mast
line with the changing needs of the drilling indus-
and substructure (above left). The size and capa-
try and the profile of the companys workforce.

Today, the extensive complex includes 10,800
ft 2
[1000
m 2]
of classrooms, workshops and office
buildings, supported by 80,700 ft2 [7500 m2] of
nThe training rig. At the Pau training center, this
diesel-electric land rig provides hands-on instruction

for new engineers and technicians during an intensive initiation course.
nWell-control training
class. At least every two

years, each Sedco Forex
drilling crew must successfully complete a fiveday course in well control to be recertified to
international standards.
bilities provide a training tool unique in Europe.

The rig is fully equipped with hoisting, rotating,
circulating and well-control systems. It is positioned over a 4400 ft [1350 m] cased well, with
casings ranging from conductor and surface
strings to 9 5/8 in. [25 cm] at total depth. The rig
and well combination permits realistic simulation
of a wide range of drilling conditions encountered
daily in field operations.
The rig is fitted with a high-pressure air compression, storage and injection system. Air can
be introduced into the well through tubing run
outside the casing to simulate a gas influx (kick)
on a live well. Each Sedco Forex drilling crew
receives mandatory well-control training every
two years, carried out to the certification standards of the International Well Control Forum, an
organization representing operators, contractors
and drilling schools around the world. Sedco
Forex is a founding member of the group. The
crews must be able to resolve a variety of wellcontrol problems and successfully shut in and circulate out gas kicks to pass the course and be
recertified (left).
34
Oilfield Review
Overall performance, %
nService Quality
100
Overall average
performance
82%
Index (SQI). The SQI

shows the overall
rating achieved for a
particular rig. In this
example, the indices
are for seven rigs for
the second quarter
of 1995.
90
80
Highest
scoring rig
93%
Lowest
scoring rig
76%
70
60
50
Today, induction training for newly recruited
40
drilling engineers and technicians, initiated in
30
1980, is the principal business of the training
20
center. In a 19-day course for engineers and a
10
10-day course for technicians, which combine
0
Rig 1 Rig 2 Rig 3 Rig 4 Rig 5 Rig 6 Rig 7
theory, classroom lectures, homework and practical exercises, the rig and well provide a controlled environment for hands-on training in the
Total possible score

Actual score
Overall performance, %
180
152
84
180
137
76
180
136
76
168
154
92
180
167
93
176
135
77
180
138
77
latest technology and operational techniques.
nClosing the loop
Knowledge and skills developed during the

course form the foundation necessary to ensure
that new recruits perform safely and effectively in
their first actual rig assignments.
A complete mechanical workshop maintains all
critical pieces of drilling gear and gives trainees
Client perception
SQA
the opportunity to witness and participate in disassembly and major overhauls of both surface
equipment and downhole tools during hands-on
training sessions.
Closing the
loop with
clients
In addition to new trainee induction and wellcontrol schools, the center schedules a variety of
other courses. These include drilling technology
with the client. The

SQA and specific
follow-up actions
assure the degree
and frequency of
feedback necessary to keep the
client informed and
foster an environment of joint problem solving.
Performance review
Quality teams
courses, covering both the fundamentals of casing and cementing, directional drilling, drill bits,
drillstring design, hydraulics and solids control,
as well as advanced work on formation evaluation and well design. In addition, there are
marine courses on the stability of offshore rigs
and procedures for moving and operating off-
Client forum
shore rigs.
For many years, Sedco Forex has been a recognized industry leader in training field personnel. Never has this been more evident than today,
as reflected in the dedication shown by the training staff at Pau.
Spring 1996
being provided and define necessary corrective actions (top ).

Recently, with input from clients, the form
has been updated to make it even more
meaningful in addressing client needs. A
newly introduced criterion that goes beyond
just performance ratings is client perception
of service quality. For the future, both performance and perception will be given
equal attention in client reviews. Application of SQA procedures and adherence to
prescribed follow-up actions have achieved
the objective of effectively closing the loop
with the client (above).
As specific examples pointed out at the
beginning of this article, the implementation of a quality culture, programs on quality in training and engineering, and the
SQA system have translated into improved
performance on the rig and better results for
the client.
The Journey is Only Beginning
To develop and thrive, a corporate quality

culture requires a never-ending journey
along a route marked with road signs reading conviction, commitment and conversion. At times, the route is rough and winding, but every step forward brings
substantive benefits for both clients and
employees.
The words of Philip Crosby sum it up
best. Quality is an achievable, measurable, profitable entity that can be installed
once you have commitment and understanding and are prepared for hard work.18
DEO
35
Getting to the Root of Gas Migration
Of the two principal objectives facing primary cementing operationscasing support and zonal isolation
the latter usually raises the most concern, and is perhaps the hardest to achieve when there is potential for
formation gas to migrate into the cement sheath. The challenge for industry is to achieve a long-term annular
cement seal and prevent formation gas entry. Successful handling of gas migration is an evolving science.
This article looks at causes, consequences, predictive methods, new solutions and the latest state of play.
Art Bonett
Cambridge, England
Demos Pafitis
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
Five years ago, an article in Oilfield Review

stated, Understanding gas intrusion is an
evolutionary process that has not yet run its
full course.1 Since then, the evolution has
continued, providing a more detailed picture of the downhole phenomena active
during gas migration. Although many possible solutions are similar to those available in
1991, increased knowledge of gas entry
mechanisms means that these solutions can
now be deployed in a more logical and
cost-effective way.
Gas invasion occurs when pressure is
lower in the annulus than at the formation
face. Gas then migrates either to a lower
pressure formation or to the surface. The
severity of the problem may range from
residual gas pressure of a few psi at the
wellhead to a blowout. Whatever the severity, the major factors contributing to gas
migration are common. Successfully achieving a long-term annular cement seal begins
by understanding these contributing factors
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Art
Milne, Dowell, Clamart, France and Tom Griffin,
Dowell, Sugar Land, Texas.
CemCADE, GASBLOK, GASRULE , VIP Mixer and
WELLCLEAN are marks of Schlumberger. MicroVAX is a
trademark of Digital Equipment Corp.
36
Oilfield Review
Wrong density
Poor mud/filter-cake removal
Premature gelation
Excessive fluid loss
Highly permeable slurry
High shrinkage
Cement failure under stress
Poor interfacial bonding
n Major contributing parameters during the cementing process, in the order that they typically occur. Incorrect
cement densities can result in hydrostatic imbalance. Poor mud and filter-cake removal leaves a route for gas
to flow up the annulus. Premature gelation leads to loss of hydrostatic pressure control. Excessive fluid loss contributes to available space in the cement slurry column for gas to enter. Highly permeable slurries result in
poor zonal isolation and offer little resistance to gas flow. High cement shrinkage leads to increased porosity
and stresses in the cement sheath that may cause a microannulus to form. Cement failure under stress helps
gas fracture cement sheaths. Poor bonding can cause failure at cement-casing or cement-formation interfaces.
and knowing what can be done to minimize

or counteract their effects.
In the past, various techniques have been
developed to tackle individual factors that
contribute to gas migration. However, gas
migration is caused by numerous related
factors. Only by addressing each factor systematically can a reasonable degree of success be expected. There is no single magic
bullet for gas migration.
This article summarizes the current state
of knowledge about gas migration, drawing
on field expertise from Dowell, and on
experimental work carried out predominantly at Schlumberger Cambridge Research
(SCR) in England. Much of this experimental
work is unpublished.
Setting the Scene
Successfully cementing a well that has

potential for gas migration involves a wide
range of parameters: fluid density, mud
removal strategy, cement slurry design
(including fluid-loss control and slurry free
water), cement hydration processes,
cement-casing-formation bonding and set
cement mechanical properties (above ).
Spring 1996
Although gas may enter the annulus by a

number of distinct mechanisms, the prerequisites for gas entry are similar. There must
be a driving force to initiate the flow of gas,
and space within the cemented annulus for
the gas to occupy. The driving force comes
when pressure in the annulus adjacent to a
gas zone falls below the formation gas pressure. Space for the gas to occupy may be
within the cement medium or adjacent to it.
To understand how, and under what circumstances, gas entry occurs, a review of
the main mechanisms, including cement
hydration and resultant pressure decline,
follows. First, however, no cementing article
is complete without emphasizing that good
cementing practices are vital.2 To effectively
cement gas-bearing formations the central
pillars of good practicedensity control,
mud removal and slurry designare critical, and here is why.
Density: Controlling the driving force
Gas can invade and migrate within the
cement sheath only if formation pressure is
higher than hydrostatic pressure at the borehole wall. Therefore, as a primary requirement, slurry density must be correctly
designed to prevent gas flow during cement
placement. However, there is a danger of
losing circulation or fracturing an interval if
fluid densities are too high. Also, consideration must be given to the free-fall or U-tubing phenomenon that occurs during cement
jobs.3 Therefore, cement jobs should be
designed using a placement computer simulator program to assure that the pressure at
critical zones remains between the pore and
fracture pressures during and immediately
after the cement job.
Any density errors made while mixing a
slurry on surface may induce large changes
in critical slurry properties, such as rheology
and setting time. Inconsistent mixing also
results in placement of a nonuniform column of cement in the annulus that may lead
to solids settling, free-water development or
premature bridging in some parts of the
annulus. This is why modern, process-controlled mixing systems that offer accurate
1. Bol G, Grant H, Keller S, Marcassa F and de Rozieres
J: Putting a Stop to Gas Channeling, Oilfield Review
3, no. 2 (April 1991): 35-43.
2. Bittleston S and Guillot D: Mud Removal: Research
Improves Traditional Cementing Guidelines, Oilfield
Review 3, no. 2 (April 1991): 44-54.
3. Cement free-fall or U-tubing occurs when the weight
of the slurry causes it to fall faster than it is being
pumped. This must be considered when designing
displacement rates and pumping schedules.
37
n Process-controlled
mixing. The VIP
Mixer delivers
highly consistent
cement slurries
(top). The computerized log shows
consistent slurry
density throughout
the job (bottom).
Time
Pressure
Tot. Flowrate
CumVolume
Fluid Density
Messages
Start pumping spacer

Pressure test lines
04:30:00
End spacer
Start cement slurry
05:24:00
End cement slurry
Start displacement
06:18:00
07:12:00
hh:mm:ss 0
38
End displacement
Bump top plug
Bleed off pressure
bar
300 0
sgu
3 0
0
m3
L/min
95
950
density control are proving popular for critical cement operations (left ).
A cement slurry will not transmit hydrostatic pressure forever. The transition from a
liquid that controls formation pressure to an
impermeable solid is not instantaneous. Consequently, there is a period during which
cement loses the ability to transmit pressure.
No matter how carefully a slurry has been
designed to counterbalance formation pressure, it will not necessarily resist gas invasion
throughout the hydration process.
Mud removal: No easy paths for gasIf
channels of mud remain in the annulus, the
lower yield stresses of drilling fluids may
offer a preferential route for gas migration.
Furthermore, water may be drawn from the
mud channels when they come into contact
with cement. This can lead to shrinkageinduced cracking of the mud, which also
provides a route for gas to flow. If the mud
filter cake dehydrates after the cement sets,
an annulus may form at the formationcement interface, thus providing another
path for gas to migrate. For example, a 2 mm
[0.08 in.] thick mud filter cake contracting
by 5% will leave a void 0.1 mm [0.004 in.]
wide that has a permeability on the order
of several darcies.
Cement slurry design: Mixing the right
stuffFluid-loss control is essential. Under
static conditions following placement,
uncontrolled fluid loss from the cement
slurry into the formation contributes to volume reduction. This reduces pressure
within the cement column and allows
space for gas to enter.
Before the cement slurry sets, interstitial
water is mobile. Therefore, some degree of
fluid loss always occurs when the annular
hydrostatic pressure exceeds the formation
pressure. The process slows when a low-permeability filter cake forms against the formation wall, or can stop altogether when annular and formation pressures equilibrate.
Once equilibrium is reached, any volume
change within the cement will cause a sharp
pore-pressure decline in the cement slurry or
the developing matrix, and severe gas influx
may be induced. Poor fluid-loss control in
front of a gas-bearing zone may accelerate
the decrease in cement pore pressure. It is
equally important to have a cement slurry
with low or zero free water, particularly in
deviated wells. As cement particles settle to
the low side, a continuous water channel
may be formed on the upper side of the
hole, creating a path for gas migration.
Oilfield Review
How Gas Gets into the Annulus
Understanding the mechanisms of gas

migration is complicated by the evolution of
the annular cement column with time. The
slurry begins as a dense, granular suspension that fully transmits hydrostatic pressure.
As the slurry gels, a two-phase material
comprised of a solid network with pore fluid
forms. Finally, the setting process reaches a
point where the cement is for all intents and
purposes an impermeable solid. After slurry
placement, gas may enter through different
mechanisms according to the evolution of
the cements state, the pressures it experiences and other wellbore factors.
Cement state 1: Dense granular fluid
When pumping stops, the cement slurry in
the annulus is a dense, granular fluid that
transmits full hydrostatic pressure. If formation pore pressure is not greater than this
hydrostatic pressure, gas cannot invade.
However, almost immediately, pressure
within the annulus begins to fall because of
a combination of gelation, fluid loss and
bulk shrinkage.
This pressure reduction is best described
by the evolution of a wall shear stress (WSS)
that begins to support the annular column
as the cement slurry gels. In order for a
stress to evolve to counteract the hydrostatic
pressure, there must be a vertical or axial
strain at the annulus walls. This strain is
caused by the removal of material during
the hydration and setting processesprimarily through fluid loss and shrinkage.
If it is assumed that WSS equals the static
gel strength (SGS) of the slurry and there is
sufficient axial strain, the following simplified
expression can be used to describe hydrostatic pressure reduction during gelation:
P = SGS
4L
Dh - Dc
where P = hydrostatic pressure change

across column length
SGS = static gel strength
Dh = hole diameter
Dc = casing outside diameter (OD)
L = cement column length.
As the cement sets, static gel strength constantly increases, with the rate of increase
dependent on the nature of the slurry. There
is potential for gas invasion once pressure in
the annulus falls below the pressure in the
gas-bearing formation. Even with a mud filter cake between the formation and cement,
a differential pressure of less than 1 psi may
Spring 1996
Bubble flow
Slug flow
Interface flow
Rising plume
n Gas migration in a
viscoelastic fluid.
Gas may flow
through cement in a
number of different
ways in addition to
bubble flow. It can
rise in the form of
an elongated slug
seen in experiments
carried out at
Schlumberger
Cambridge Research
in Englandas
channels along
cement-formation
and cement-casing
interfaces, or as a
rising plume
where a nearly
spherical chamber
is linked to the
formation by a
narrow umbilical
conduit.
allow gas to invade. The resistance of an

external filter cake to gas flow is controlled
by the cakes strength and adhesion to the
rock face, which both have relatively low
values for drilling fluids and neat cements.
This explains the driving force of gas invasion, however, there must also be space
within the cemented annulus for gas to
occupy. Space is provided by shrinkage,
which occurs because the volume of the
hydrated phase is generally less than that of
the initial reactants. This total shrinkage is
split between a bulk or external volumetric
shrinkage, less than 1%, and a matrix internal contraction representing 4 to 6% by volume of cement slurry.4
Permeability is a more complicated issue.
Once gelation begins, a cement slurry can
be considered as a pseudoporous medium
as long as the stress that it must withstand
from formation fluid is less than its intrinsic
strength. Thus, even though only a partial
structure has been formed and the cement
column is not yet fully self-supporting, with
regard to its flow capacities, it can be said to
have permeability.
Cement slurries display an evolving yield
stress that must be overcome before gas
entry and flow can occur. Depending on the
state of the slurry, gas can migrate by
micropercolation, bubbles or fractures.
Opportunity for gas entry decreases as the
cement cures. The rate and degree of yield
stress development at the time of invasion
will influence the form in which gas flows.
Gas may enter and flow through the porosity of the gelling structure without disrupting
itmicropercolation. Gas may also move
by disrupting the gel structure in the form of

bubbles or elongated slugs, in channels
along the interfaces with the casing and formation or as bubbles which adhere to one
of the surfaces of the annulus. If rising gas
remains connected to the influx source it
may form a plume as it moves through the
cement slurry (above ).
The size of gas bubbles entering the annulus is governed by the size of the cement
pore throats and the surface tension
between the gas and the slurry. Once bubbles have invaded the annulus, their lower
density provides a driving forcebuoyancyfor them to move up the annulus
through any available path. Bubble flow is
controlled by slurry gel strength, and is
restricted to early in slurry development.
When cement shear strength is greater than
about 25 Pa, bubble flow ceases.5
At higher yield stress values, slurry behavior changes from that of a viscous fluid to a
viscoelastic fluid, and the possibility of flow
by viscous fingering or viscoelastic fractures
arises.6 The differential pressurebetween
4. Parcevaux PA and Sault PH: Cement Shrinkage and
Elasticity: A New Approach for a Good Zonal Isolation, paper SPE 13176, presented at the 59th SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, USA, September 16-19, 1984.
5. Beris AN, Tsamopoulos JA, Armstrong RC and Brown
RA: Creeping Motion of a Sphere Through a Bingham Plastic, Journal of Fluid Mechanics 158
(September 1985): 219-244.
6. Geometry separates fingering and viscoelastic fractures. A fracture has a sharp tip; a finger has a smooth
tip. This difference is determined by a fractal length
scale that is associated with the fracture or finger
geometry.
39
annulus and formationcombines with the

developing elasticity of the cement to determine the rates of deformation and internal
relaxation. The relative values of these
determine the transition from fingering to
fracture.7 The transition to fracture is exacerbated if the cemented annulus contains an
internal tensile stress caused by the strain of
shrinkage, fluid loss or pressure fluctuations
in the casing. Gas may then drive the propagation of fractures and lead to a rapidly
extending gas channel. Hydrostatic pressure
will continue to decline as static gel
strengthand resultant wall shear
stressdevelop sufficiently to support the
weight of the cement column. The cement
has now reached its second state.
Cement state 2: A two-phase material
Once a cement column becomes fully self-
supporting, it may be considered to act as a

matrix of interconnected solid particles containing a fluid phase. Setting continues and
hydration accelerates. Pressure, now a pore
pressure, decreases further as cement hydration consumes mix water. This leads to an
absolute volume reduction or shrinkage of
the internal cement matrix by up to 6%.
Furthermore, the majority of shrinkage
occurs at this stage, leading to tangential
tensile stresses in the annulus, which may
assist the initiation of fractures and disrupt
bonding between the cement and the casing
or formation.
Internal shrinkage creates a secondary
porosity in the cement composed mainly of
conductive pores. At the same time, the volume of water continuously decreases due to
hydration, and its ability to move within the
Fraction of connected pores, %
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Degree of hydration, %
n Connected pores versus hydration of a 0.45 water-tocement ratio slurry. From this curve, the degree of hydration
needed to achieve capillary pore discontinuity for cement
paste can be calculated. In this case, it was found that a
solids fraction of about 82% was required for discontinuity.
A solids fraction of this level is typically not achieved until
well after the cement has solidified. Hence, at most stages
of setting, some connected paths remain within the pore
space. [After Bentz PB and Garboczi EJ: Percolation of Phases in
a Three-Dimensional Cement Microstructural Model, Cement

and Concrete Research 21 (1991):325-344.]
40
pores is reduced by chemical and capillary

forces. Shrinkage and water reduction
sharply decrease the hydrostatic pressure
that cement exerts on formations.
There are two essentially different mechanisms for gas invasion at this stage, depending on the strength of the solid structure and
the ease with which pore fluid can be forced
through the cement pores by invading gas.
Early in the setting process, while the cement
still has a weak solid structure, the possibility
of creating fingers or viscoelastic fractures
remains. Later, the solid network becomes
sufficiently stiff and strong to withstand this
effect, and gas invasion and subsequent flow
are limited by the impermeability of the solid
network to pore fluids. Now, the flow of gas
through a channel of connected, fluid-filled
cement pores is limited by the flow of that
pore fluid as it is displaced through the
porous structure and by the connectivity of
the channel (left ).
Once gas has invaded the porous structure of the cement, it may rise due to buoyancy forces. Alternatively, if the invading
gas remains connected through the cement
pore space to the gas-bearing formation, the
higher pressure in the formation may force
gas farther into the annulus. If gas pressure
is higher than the minimum compressive
stress in the cement and the permeability is
too low to allow significant flow, then the
cement may fracture. However, this is likely
to occur only where residual tensile stresses
in the annulus are sufficiently high to allow
cracks to open under the influence of the
gas pressure.
During the latter stages of this phase,
there is a significant and rapid decrease in
pore pressure as water is further consumed
by hydration. If this occurs while the pore
structure is still interconnected, gas may
invade and flow rapidly through this pore
space (next page ). Gas flow may also displace fluid remaining in the pores and prevent complete hydration that would eventually block pore spaces with reaction
products.
Cement state 3: An elastic solidOnce
hydration is complete, cement becomes an
elastic and brittle material that is isotropic,
homogeneous and essentially impermeable.8
In most cases, gas can no longer migrate
within the cement matrix and can flow only
through interfacial channels or where there
has been mechanical failure of the cement.
Oilfield Review
7. Lemaire E, Levitz P, Daccord G and Van Damme H:

From Viscous Fingering to Viscoelastic Fracturing
in Colloidal Fluids, Physical Review Letters 67
(October 1991): 2009-2012.
8. A limited exception to this may occur in the case of
cement systems with high water-cement ratios,
resulting in fairly high innate permeabilities (0.5 to
5 md). However, these are exceptional and not considered significant among those cements generally
placed when a potential gas migration problem is
thought to exist.
9. Deformability is the reciprocal of elastic modulus.
10. Parcevaux and Sault, reference 4.
Spring 1996
10-2
Slurry Permeability
Permeability, darcies
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
0
10
15
20
25
21
Slurry Pore Pressure
20
Pore pressure, bar
19
18
n Changes in slurry
permeability, pore
pressure and
temperature versus
hydration time.
These graphs show
that cement pore
structure is still interconnected when
pore pressure begins
to decrease rapidly.
In this Dykerhoff
class G plus 1% calcium chloride slurry,
pore pressure begins
to drop after about 5
hours, just before the
peak temperature of
hydration is reached.
When cement pore
pressure drops below
formation gas pressure, it is likely that
cement permeability
will still be in the
millidarcy range,
potentially allowing
significant gas flow
by micropercolation.
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
0
10
15
20
25
36
Slurry Temperature
35
Slurry temperature, C
Regardless of the cement system used, gas

can still migrate at the cement-formation or
cement-casing interfaces if a microannulus
develops, or along paths of weakness where
the bond strength is reduced. Both shear
and hydraulic bond strengths vary as a function of the same external parameters. Bond
strengths increase with effective mud
removal, and with water-wet rather than oilwet surfaces.
Researchers at Schlumberger Cambridge
Research (SCR) have characterized the
nature of hydraulic bonding by measuring
shear bond stress and interfacial permeability. This work showed that lower chemical
shrinkage and higher cement deformability
promote better bonding.9 In addition, SCR
researchers found that bonding is not influenced by the cements compressive
strength.10
Although cement shrinkage leaves partially unbonded areas, it does not by itself
lead to the development of a microannulus.
Development of a true microannulus more
likely results from stress imbalances at the
interfaces due to:
thermal stressesfrom cement hydration,
steam or cold fluid injection
hydraulic pressure stressescaused by
fluid density changes in the casing,
communication tests, casing pressure
tests, squeeze pressure or stimulation
treatment pressures
mechanical stressescaused by drillpipe
and other tubulars banging in the casing.
The second potential conduit for gas in set
cement is the mechanical failure of the
cement sheath due to propagation of radial
fractures or cracks across the annulus. These
cracks may be due to shrinkage-induced
stresses, thermal expansion and contraction
of the casing, and pressure fluctuations
within the casing.
Radial expansion at the cement-casing
interface, due to increased pressure in the
casing, creates a stress that compresses the
cement radially and eventually induces tensile tangential stress in the cement. When
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
10
15
20
25
Time, hr
41
this tangential stress reaches the tensile

strength of the cementwhich may be
close to zero if shrinkage-induced cracks
already exista crack initiates at the casingcement interface (below ).
Cracks change the stress distribution in
the cement sheath. Once a crack is initiated, tangential stress in the cracked section
is reduced to zero. Conversely, stress in
adjacent uncracked cement eventually
increases because of stress redistribution.
This process helps the crack propagate radially outward and eventually reach the
cement-formation interface. Stress is now
fully transferred to the cement-formation
interface. If this cracking occurs over a significant axial distance, a channel is formed
through which gas can readily flow.
Long-term cement durability is important
if a well is to remain safe throughout its lifetime. During its active life, a cemented
annulus may be subjected to wide variations of temperature and stress from pressure testing, workover operations and variations in producing conditions.
However, field surveys on gas storage
wellswhich endure some of the most
extreme swings in conditionsdetermined
that annular gas leakage occurs early, within
the first few cyclic fluctuations in temperature and pressure, rather than over a long
period. This implies that leakage occurs due
to failure induced by static loads rather than
long-term, low-cycle fatigue crack growth.
Deeper and higher-pressure wells showed
the greatest tendency to leak.11
The propensity of a particular cement to
crack and for that crack to propagate has
often been equated with compressive
strength. In fact, work carried out at SCR
shows that a property termed toughness
determines the extent to which a cement
slurry fractures under stress. Toughness is
generally described in terms of the ability of
a material to resist the initiation and subsequent propagation of a fracture. However,
the situation is somewhat more complicated,
since initiation and propagation of fractures
are controlled by physical phenomena that
differ, depending on the materials structure
(see Compressive Strength Versus Toughness: A Brief Overview, next page ).
11. Marlow RS: Cement Bonding Characteristics in Gas
Wells, Journal of Petroleum Technology 41, no. 11
(November 1989): 1146-1153.
42
Annulus
Using Theory to Define Best Practice
Gas flows
around
ECP seal
because of
incompetent
formation
Over the years, a number of solutions to gas

migration have been proposed by the industry. Theoretical understanding helps to
explain how these solutions workand
their limitations.
Physical techniquesA number of physical techniques are available to combat gas
entry. Annular pressure can be applied at
surface to keep formation gas from entering,
and external casing packers (ECPs) can be
employed to mechanically seal off the annulus at intervals and prevent gas migration.
Each of these techniques may sometimes
be valid, but well conditions often limit their
application. Annular pressure may be
restricted by the risk of inducing lost circulation in weak zones and, once the cement
starts to set, surface pressure is not transmit-
Cement
External
casing
packer
ECP
More gas
enters
because
ECP reduces
hydrostatic
pressure
Mechanical barrier limitations. External casing packers (ECPs) may fail to seal
against some types of formation. Alternatively, the reduction in hydrostatic pressure due to the ECP may allow gas to
enter the annulus, leaving the packer as
the only barrier to gas movement.
n
Rock
Cement
Displacement
P
Tensile
stress
(Partially cracked)
Cement
Casing
(Fully cracked)
n Casing under pressure. Radial expansion at the cement-casing interface due to

increased pressure (P) in the casing displaces the cement sheath creating stress.
This stress compresses the cement radially and eventually induces tensile tangential stress in the cement (top). As soon
as the tangential stress reaches the tensile
strength of the cementwhich may be
close to zero if there are also shrinkage
cracksa crack initiates at the casingcement interface. This crack propagates
radially outwards and may eventually
reach the cement-formation interface
(bottom). If this occurs over a significant
axial distance, a channel is formed
through which gas can flow.
ted to the formation. Alternatively, hole conditions and type of formation may not allow
ECPs to seal the annulus. Furthermore,
reduction of hydrostatic pressure through
use of ECPs may enable more gas to immediately enter the slurry than would have
been the case without ECPs (above ).
Impermeable cements Gas migration
may be prevented by reducing the matrix
permeability of cement systems during the
critical liquid-to-solid transition. There are
two approaches to achieving this: stop fluid
from moving through the pores or close off
the pores themselves.
The use of water-soluble polymers that
viscosify cement interstitial water and
reduce permeability within setting cement
falls into the first category. Since at least a
part of gas migration involves displacement
of cement pore fluid, this viscosification can
limit gas mobility. Unfortunately, the process also tends to affect slurry rheology,
making it more viscous and raising the displacement pressure. This method is also
usually limited to low-temperature applications because efficiency of viscosifiers
decreases with temperature.
The second strategy of reducing the
spaces in the cement matrix, preventing
bubble entry and locking the fluids within
the cement pore spaces, has proven more
fertile. As a solid structure develops in setting cement, the smaller pore throats reduce
Oilfield Review
Compressive Strength Versus Toughness:

A Brief Overview
The compressive strength of a material describes

pressive load is applied (top right). When a compressive load is applied to a sample of brittle,
elastic material such as cement, stress generally
Failure
Cement
increases linearly with strain (displacement) until

Compressive
strength
small microcracks and flaws in the sample begin

to grow.
Compressive
strength
This is a progressive mechanism and manifests

Stress
a softening section of the curve near the failure
Stress
itself on the stress-strain plot by the change from

linear proportionality between stress and strain to
Cement behavior
under compression.
The load or stress at
which complete failure
occurs defines the ultimate compressive
strength of a material.
Toughness, on the other
hand, is an indication of
the ability of a material
to deform and absorb
energy before fractures
initiate and propagate.
Compressive load
the stress at which a material fails when a com-
point. Once the cracks coalesce and reach a critical size, the sample will fracture via a complicated
A
A
mechanism, which is determined by the boundary

stress conditions and geometry of the sample.
Compare this with a description of cement
Strain
Strain
Area indicates toughness
toughness. Simplistically, toughness describes the

property of the material to resist the initiation and
propagation of a crack in a particular orientation.1
Fracture toughness is quantitatively defined as the
energy required to propagate a fracture of unit
width by unit length.
Without considering mathematical details, a
reasonable indication of toughness for similar
materials is given by the area (A) under the
stress-strain curve to the failure point. This area
varies according to the toughness of the material
being tested.
Microfractures
develop under
tensile stress and
result in failure if
allowed to grow and
communicate
Homogeneous
cement (X)
Cement with
latex (Y)
For example, consider two materials X and Y

that have the same compressive strength. The
Three-Point Bend Test Equipment
material X has a much smaller strain to failure

material Y can deform further and absorb more
energy before it fractures. Material Y is tougher
than material X.
Three-point bend test.

This equipment is
designed so that cement
samples always fail in
tension. Strain
(displacement) and load
(stress) are recorded
using computerized data
recording systems.
than material Y, which contains latex. Therefore,
Upper moving knife edge
Data like these were gathered at Schlumberger

Cambridge Research using three-point bend test
Sample
equipment (right). The cement sample is placed
Static
knife
edges
on two lower static knife edges and the upper

moveable knife edge is moved downward until the
cement fails. The equipment is designed so that
Displacement transducer
the sample always fails in tension. Strain (displacement) and load (stress) are recorded using
computerized data recording systems.
1. The situation is somewhat more complicated, since initiation and propagation of fractures are controlled by physical
phenomena that differ depending on a materials structure.
43
n Latex particles in
cement slurry.
After some structure or compressive
strength develops,
the primary latex
gas-blocking
mechanism is
matrix permeability reduction by
plugging of pore
spaces between
cement grains.
Because of its
small size and
lower density
compared to
cement particles,
latex reduces
cement slurry
porosity, improves
fluid-loss control,
decreases relative
permeability to
water and limits
gas migration.
systems that show no progressive gelation

tendency, yet set rapidly. Before setting, RAS
systems maintain a full hydrostatic head on
gas zones, developing a low-permeability
matrix with sufficient speed to prevent significant gas migration.
It is important to differentiate between
true RAS systems and cement slurries that
only build a gel strength. The high-gelstrength systems quickly revert to a water
hydrostatic gradient and, since their gel
strength development is not related to actual
setting, permeability can remain high for a
considerable time. This may allow gas to
enter the cement matrix many hours before
the cement sets. On the other hand, RAS
cement systems rapidly build consistency as
a direct result of the setting process.13
SurfactantsSurfactants may be included
in cement slurries and preflushes. Under the
right circumstances, they entrain invading
gas downhole and create a stable foam. This
foam offers significant resistance to flow,
limiting upward gas migration.14
Compressible cements Compressible
cements are sometimes used in an attempt
to maintain the cement pore pressure above
formation gas pressure. These slurries fall
into two main categories: foamed cements
and in-situ gas generators.
Foamed cements work by expanding to
occupy the reduction in slurry volume due
to fluid loss or chemical contraction. This
the size of bubbles that enter, slowing their

subsequent riseeven when the yield stress
of the cement is relatively low.
Polymer latex additives are effective in
resisting gas migration. A latex is an aqueous dispersion of solid polymer particles,
including surfactants and protective colloids
that impart stability to the dispersion. In the
past, the gas-blocking mechanism of latex
additives was attributed to a capability to
form filmswhen latex particles come in
contact with a gas or when their concentration exceeds a given threshold value, they
coalesce to form an impermeable polymer
barrier to gas.
However, new work has revealed that
latex particles are also able to block gas
when the cement slurry has developed
some structure or some compressive
strength. This demonstrates that the primary
effect of latex particles is matrix permeability reduction by plugging spaces between
cement particles, rather than by the forma-
44
tion of an impermeable plastic film. Due to

its smaller size and lower density compared
to cement particles, latex reduces cement
slurry porosity, improves fluid-loss control,
reduces relative permeability to water and
limits gas migration (above ). Latex particles
reduce slurry porosity by 10 to 15%,
depending on slurry density and composition (see A Robust System to Cement GasBearing Formations, next page ).12 Latex
additives also affect the properties of the
cement when it is set (see Tough cements,
page 46 ).
The addition of other types of fine fillers
with particle size in the micron range may
decrease permeability throughout the rapid
hydration stage by quickly decreasing pore
continuity. For example, if 30% by weight
of these fine particles is added to a slurry
with a water-cement ratio of 0.45, the pores
become discontinuous about 30% more
quickly. In addition to latex additives, silica
fume and microsilica have been used successfully in the field.
Right-angle-set cementsRight-angle-set
(RAS) cement slurries are well-dispersed
12. Appleby S and Wilson A: Permeability and Suction

in Setting Cement, Chemical Engineering Science
51, no. 2 (1996): 251-267.
13. Rang CL: Evaluation of Gas Flows in Cement,
paper SPE 16385, presented at the SPE California
Regional Meeting, Ventura, California, USA, April 810, 1987.
14. Stewart RB and Schouten FC: Gas Invasion and
Migration in Cemented Annuli: Causes and Cures,
paper SPE 14779, presented at the 1986 IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, Dallas, Texas, USA, February
10-12, 1986.
Oilfield Review
A Robust System to Cement

Gas-Bearing Formations
The ideal slurry properties required to success-
Neat Class G Cement slurry
efficient placement
no gel strength development to maintain
hydrostatic balance
rapid transition to set
low shrinkage to minimize gas entry
Permeability, darcies
favorable rheology to facilitate
mation of water channels or pockets (especially in
10-2
fully withstand gas invasion include:
deviated wells) is therefore greatly reduced and

slurry density variations, with resulting changes in
10-4
slurry properties, are avoided.

Once set, a cement must also possess good
10-5
mechanical properties to withstand thermal and

mechanical stresses. Poor shear bond strength
may lead to formation of microannuli through
10-6
low fluid loss
which gas can migrate. GASBLOK slurries display
GASBLOK slurry
low permeability as the slurry sets
increased tensile strength, reduced drying shrink10-7
toughness to absorb stress changes

good bonding to avoid microannuli.
The Dowell GASBLOK gas migration control
cement system combines specific additives and
strict adherence to good cementing practices,
including spacers and washes, and casing central-
20
30
40
50
Time from hydration peak, hr
Comparison of cement permeabilities. The GASBLOK

slurry retains lower permeability throughout the hydration process. Compared to a neat cement slurry, after
about 40 hours of hydration, it has permeability that is
an order of magnitude lower.
ization. It has a wide range of applications and has
age, increased fracture toughness and improved

adhesion or bond strength. Dowell latex slurries
demonstrate all of the necessary properties to
keep gas at bay. In certain cases, other cement
systems used together with proper placement
techniques have been as successful as, or even
better than, latex in achieving particular individual
had excellent success. The system is based on
removal, since the friction pressure during place-
properties, but none demonstrate the same
using a well-dispersed, thin, nongelling slurry
ment is reduced and the critical rate for turbulent
complete range of desirable properties as the
with fluid-loss control. The slurry is also imperme-
flow will be lower. If turbulent flow cannot be
GASBLOK slurries.
able to gas in the cement matrix due to plugging of
achieved and an effective laminar regime is
pore throats during the setting period (above).
chosen, it is necessary to increase the value of the
In addition to reducing permeability in the pres-
rheological parameters to satisfy WELLCLEAN
ence of gas, GASBLOK slurries exhibit many other
mud removal service criteria. Viscosification of a
desirable properties. The main advantages are
GASBLOK slurry is easily achieved.
ease of design and consistent properties over a

wide range of temperatures.
The lubricating action of the aqueous dispersion
Fluid loss is minimal50 ml/30 min at the recommended latex concentrationdue to the plugging of pore throats in the cement filter cake by
of the latex beads creates low-viscosity slurries.
latex particles and improved dispersion of cement
These thin slurries are beneficial for effective mud
grains. Setting and thickening times are straightforward and slurries exhibit rapid sets. There is
no premature gelation of the slurry when the
GASBLOK additive is well stabilized. The slurry
remains thin until final setting. The criterion
used is that the slurry should remain below
30 units of consistency for at least 70% of the
thickening time. Above 250F [121C] bottomhole
circulating temperature, a right-angle set should
be easily obtained.
The tendencies for free-water development and
settling of GASBLOK slurries are minimal. The for-
Spring 1996
45
expansion maintains a higher pore pressure

in the slurry for longer than would have
been the case with incompressible slurries.
Foamed cement may be limited by depth
because in deeper, higher pressure wells
more gas is needed than is available in the
cement to compensate for the chemical
contraction.
In-situ gas generators are designed to
maintain cement pore pressure by chemical
reactions that produce gas downhole. The
gas produced may be hydrogen or nitrogen
depending upon the technique used.15
The principal criticism of these systemsother than concerns about the safety
of those that generate hydrogenis the
inability of a gas at typical downhole pressure to achieve the 4 to 6% volumetric
expansion necessary to maintain pore pressure. The volume of gas required to offset
chemical shrinkage alone would be excessive at high pressure. Also, in unstabilized
gas-generating systems, individual gas bubbles may coalesce and begin migrating, creating channels for formation gas to follow.
Expansive cementsFractures occur in
gelled cement according to the distribution
of stress in the annulus. Eliminating this
stressand avoiding fractureslimits gas
invasion. Tensile stresses build up in the gel
if annular volume increases or cement volume decreases. Thus, designing cement slurries with low shrinkage and controlled fluid
loss during the gelation stage, and avoiding
excessive pressure fluctuations in the casing
are important in preventing fractures.
Designing cement slurries that expand as
they set takes this one step further. The two
principal techniques for inducing expansion
in oilwell cements are gas generation and
crystal growth. The gas-generating technique operates on the same principle as that
used for compressible cements, except that
the concentration of gas-generating material
is reduced. Also, expansion can occur only
before the cement develops significant
structural strength.
The most common way of inducing
expansion is to encourage the development
46
of ettringitea highly hydrated form of

calcium sulfoaluminateduring the
hydration reaction. This is often achieved by
adding gypsum or plaster of Paris to the
cement powder. Ettringite increases the
growth of certain expansive crystalline
species within the set cement matrix. Bulk
volumetric expansion is generally less than
one percent.
Alternatively, oxides of certain alkaline
earth metals may be added to achieve
expansion. An advantage of these is that the
expansion occurs above 170F [77C], a
temperature at which ettringite is unstable.
There is little doubt that controlled cement
expansion by crystalline growth can help
seal small gaps between the cement sheath
and the casing or formation, but it is unlikely
to be effective in sealing large channels created by gas migration. Much of the expansion takes place after gas flow has been initiated and the size of the created channels is
simply too large. Also, these cements
undergo a bulk expansion, but still exhibit a
net chemical contraction and experience the
same hydrostatic and pore pressure
decreases as nonexpansive cements.
Thixotropic cements16During cement
state 1when cement is a liquid suspensiongas bubbles can move within a
cement column only if cement yield stress
remains below a critical value. Designing a
slurry with a rapid increase in gel strength
helps trap invading gas before it can rise in
the form of a bubble, preventing zonal communication or gas flow to surface. Some
thixotropic slurries offer such a rapid
increase in gel strength.17
There are two ways to induce thixotropic
behavior in a cement slurry. The first
involves creation of a microcrystalline network of mineral hydrates throughout the
slurry by adding a small amount of plaster,
bentonite or silicate materials. This friable
and temporary microstructure supports the
bulk of cement solids from an early stage in
the slurrys life. The second technique
employs polymers (dissolved or dispersed in
the interstitial water), which are crosslinked
to create a self-supporting viscous gel by
chemical reaction.
The transmitted hydrostatic pressure of
thixotropic systems should revert to the gradient of the interstitial water and remain as
such until the setting period begins. How-
ever, at this point hydrostatic pressure may

begin to decrease and gas may enter by
some other mechanism.
Tough cementsProperties of set cement
may also be modified by inclusion of various additives. Once again, attention has
turned to polymeric latex additives that
have had widespread use outside the oil
field, largely because of their ability to act
as tougheners. Latex-modified cements have
increased tensile strength, reduced shrinkage during hydration, increased fracture
toughness and improved adhesion or bonding (see Compressive Strength Versus
Toughness: A Brief Overview, page 43 ).18
Predicting Gas Migration and Designing
an Appropriate Solution
Armed with an understanding of the phenomena, completions engineers face the

challenge of finding the right solutions (see
Gas Migration Mechanisms and Controlling
Factors, next page, bottom). Predicting likelihood of postplacement gas migration allows
the design of cost-effective remedies based
on the relative risk of gas migration.
Modeling gas migration is difficult
because it represents a series of complex
physical processes. Furthermore, it is a nonsteady-state phenomenon involving varying
pressure fields, changing fluid saturation
and an evolving matrix structure. Heterogeneity within the cement paste or boundary effects at the casing or formation can
induce events such as nonuniform gas
breakthrough which are, by definition,
unpredictable. Therefore, it is not possible
to predict gas migration with absolute reliability. The following section describes how
one company, Dowell, has developed modeling and software techniques to assess gas
migration risk.19
The Dowell methodology for predicting
potential gas migration began in 1989 with
the GASRULE gas migration predictive slide
rule. This simple slide-rule-based method
uses well data, gas-zone permeability and
height, gas pressure, hydrostatic conditions,
mud spacer and cement characteristics,
fluid volumes and mud-removal efficiency
to estimate four dimensionless factors: formation factor, mud-removal factor, hydro-
Oilfield Review
n Qualitative gasmigration prediction.

The GASRULE sliderule-based method
of working out the
optimal cementing
solution has been
refined and incorporated into a quantitative design approach.
Gas Migration Mechanisms and Controlling Factors

State
Mechanism
Limiting parameters
Potential
gas flow rate
Viscoelastic fluid Bubble flow

Yield stress, gap width 10-9m3/sec
Tube flow
Yield stress, gap width 10-6m3/sec
Viscous fingering Plastic viscosity,
10-7m3/sec
viscosity ratio
Fracture
Elasticity,
10-6m3/sec
stress in annulus,
Relaxation Time
Porous solid
Fingering
Fracture
Permeation
Elastic solid
Fracture
Fluid viscosity
10-6m3/sec
Elasticity, darcy drag, 10-5m3/sec
stress in cement,
elasticity
Permeability,
10-9m3/sec
darcy drag,
capillary pressure
Fracture toughness, 10-1m3/sec
interfacial toughness,
stress state
15. Fery JJ and Romieu J: Improved Gas Migration Control in a New Oil Well Cement, paper SPE 17926,
presented at the Middle East Oil Technical Conference and Exhibition, Manama, Bahrain, March 1114, 1989.
Richardson EA: Nitrogen Gas Stabilized Cement
and a Process for Making and Using It, US Patent
No. 4,333,764 (1982).
Burkhalter JF, Childs JD and Sutton DL: Well
Cementing Process and Gasified Cements Useful
Therein, US Patent No. 4,450,010 (1984).
16. Thixotropic gels are viscous when static, but become
more fluid-like and less viscous when disturbed or
moved by pumping.
Spring 1996
17. Sutton DL, Sabins F and Faul R: Annular Gas-Flow

Theory and Prevention Methods Described, Oil
and Gas Journal 82 (December 10, 1984): 84-92.
18. Ohama Y: Polymer-Modified Mortars and Concretes, in Ramachandran VS (ed): Concrete Admixtures Handbook: Properties, Science & Technology.
Park Ridge, New Jersey, USA: Noyes Publications
(1984): 337-429.
19. The prediction methodology outlined is based on
experiment, engineering and statistical analysis. This
approach assumes gas flow through the evolving
cement matrix. The model cannot predict the
appearance of gas flow weeks or months after the
cement job.
static factor and slurry-performance factor

( above ). Each factor may be optimized
independently and combined into an index
that classifies the possibility of controlling
gas migrationeither poor, moderate or
excellent. While strictly qualitative, these
classifications do allow testing of different
completion strategies against one another.
Three developments have helped refine
the GASRULE approach. First, in 1990, the
empirical mud-removal factor was replaced
with a more complete approach, based on
the Dowell WELLCLEAN mud removal
technologywhich helps choose washes,
spacers and slurry types, while indicating
whether a turbulent or laminar displacement regime is the most favorable. Second,
the hydrostatic factor used in the GASRULE
system has been replaced by a more rigorous postplacement analysis.
The third development marks a major
advance. A quantitative design approach
has now been incorporated in the new
CemCADE cement job computer-aided
47
design and evaluation software (right ).20

Today, the CemCADE gas-migration module assists in design and assesses alternative
solutions. This methodology is a considerable improvement over the GASRULE
approach, but it does retain four similar
design factors: formation factor, mudremoval factor, postplacement factor and
slurry-performance factor.
Formation factorAnalysis begins with
characterizing all possible gas-bearing formations in terms of position, height, pressure and permeability. An accurate description of pore pressure versus depth is
required to optimize hydrostatic parameters.
Good descriptions of the pore pressure of
other permeable layers and the fracture gradient are also required. The formation factor, indicating the risk of gas flow, is calculated from these formation parameters.
The more information about the formation
that is available, the greater likelihood of a
good design. Trying to understand the gas
migration problem is quite difficult using
only an average pore-pressure gradient for
the entire openhole section.
Mud-removal factorAs mentioned, a
primary goal when cementing across a gas
zone is optimum mud removal. The correct
application of WELLCLEAN technology is
mandatory for gas-migration control. For
practical purposes, good zonal isolation
over a 600-ft [180-m] section above the top
of a gas zone should be achieved. In the
gas-migration module, information about
several factors is required to determine the
quality of mud removal, including:
Mud-circulation factoran estimate of
whether enough of the mud in the well is
in circulation prior to cement placement.
WELLCLEAN factorthe factor chosen is
either the turbulent or laminar flow result
for a given simulation, whichever is
appropriate for the well conditions and
delivers the required mud removal. Time
of turbulence across the zone is calculated, along with effective volume of
spacer to displace the mud in laminar
flow, and effective volume of cement to
displace the spacer in laminar flow, as
estimated from the U-tube simulation.
48
n Designer cement
jobs. CemCADE
software improves
the design and
evaluation of
cementing job
operations. In the
first step of a
CemCADE session,
well geometry
and casing configuration to be
cemented are
defined (top).
The composition,
sequence, volume
and final positions
in the wellbore of
the fluids that will
be pumped (mud,
wash, spacer,
and lead and tail
slurries) are then
defined, and
hydrostatic pressures are checked
(middle). The
Placement Simulator module is used
to determine necessary centralization and to select
the pump rate for
mud removal; friction pressures and
flow regimes are
calculated (bottom). Finally, the
job is simulated
using the U-Tube
Simulator module,
indicating the rates
at which fluids
must be pumped.
Oilfield Review
Pipe-movement factorassigns a positive

value for pipe movement, which aids in
breaking the gel strength of the mud and
makes it easier to remove. This factor
depends on whether reciprocation, rotation or both are used to enhance mud
mobilization.
Bottom-plug factordepends on the
number of bottom plugs used to reduce
the degree of contamination occurring as
fluids are circulated.
Fluids-compatibility factorrelates to
possible chemical interaction between
various fluids.
The final mud-removal factor is then computed by summing these five factorsthe
greater the final value, the better the anticipated result.
Postplacement factor Postplacement
analysis is used to evaluate the severity of a
potential gas migration problem and to
quantify the influence of simple solutions
such as applying annular pressure. As previously discussed, gas migration is generally
caused by a loss of hydrostatic pressure.
First-level understanding of this may be
derived from gelation alone.
To characterize gelation, the notion of
wall shear stress (WSS) has been introduced
(see How Gas Gets into the Annulus, page
39 ). As WSS increases, annular hydrostatic
pressure falls. When hydrostatic pressure
equals formation gas pressure, WSS is
termed critical WSS (CWSS). Further
increase in WSS beyond this critical value
will allow gas to enter the annulus. WSS
depends on parameters such as formation
gas pressure, openhole diameter, and density and position of fluids. It is also sensitive
to any extra annular pressure, the presence
of external casing packers or techniques like
two-stage cementing that may sometimes be
employed to improve gas control.
CemCADE software calculates WSS and
assesses how use of hydrostatic modifiers
such as ECPsmay be adjusted to maximize the critical WSS, delaying gas entry
and allowing more time for cement to
harden uninvaded. However, the calculation does not take into account possible
fluid loss that may accelerate annular pressure decrease.
Slurry-performance factorOnce gas
enters the cement column, it may migrate to
a point of lower pressure. Resistance to gas
Spring 1996
depends on slurry composition. For every

slurry there is a minimum wall shear stress
(MWSS) above which gas can no longer
migrate. The MWSS depends mainly on the
chemical composition of the slurry as well
as bottomhole static temperature.
For every design there is a critical range
for WSS and, therefore, a critical time
period during which gas can migrate in the
slurry. This period extends from the time at
which the slurry reaches critical WSS to the
time it becomes impermeable to gas. Optimizing a design consists of reducing this
time period by increasing critical WSS,
decreasing MWSS or shortening the time to
go from the CWSS to the MWSS.
The two parameters used by the Dowell
CemCADE system to calculate the slurryperformance factor are transition time and
fluid loss. The faster the slurry develops
impermeability to gas, the lower the probability that gas migration will occur. The
measure of the evolution of the relative permeability of a cement slurry to gas during
the hydration period determines whether a
cement slurry can control gas. The rate of
cement-slurry permeability decline is difficult to measure. But it is possible to correlate permeability decline to the rate of
change in consistency of a cement slurry
during an API thickening time testthat is,
the transition time.
During cement hydration, a major cause of
pore-pressure loss is the loss of fluid to surrounding formations. The propensity for gas
to percolate may thus be related to the fluidloss potential of the slurry. Transition time
and fluid loss have been incorporated into a
single term, the slurry-performance factor.
Gas-migration factor The formation,
mud-removal, postplacement and slurry-performance factors are then linearly combined
to give the final index or gas-migration factor.
Evaluation of the risk associated with a given
design is based on the gas-migration factor
compared to a scale ranging from very critical to very low risk of migration.
Looking Forward to Further Change
Every completions engineer knows that gas

migration is a complex problem. Successful
control requires systematically addressing
the gamut of factors that affect final job
quality. Attempting to prevent gas migration
by addressing a single factor chosen from
the list of possible chemical and mechanical
events will inevitably result in failure.
This year, CemCADE design software will
become available on a PC platform. The
transition from rules-of-thumb governing
choice of solution through a slide-rule system of assessing gas migration to a computer-based design system will be complete.
Some of the advances and technology that
have been described contribute not only to
combating gas migration, but also to
improving the quality of all critical cement
operations. Mud removal, correct choice of
slurry type and accurate mixing technology
are key elements in the evolving world of
cementing design and execution.
CF
20. Catala G, de Montmollin V, Hayman A, Hutin R,
Rouault G, Guillot D, Jutten J, Qureshi U, Kelly B,
Piot B, Simien T and Toma I: Modernizing Well
Cementation Design and Evaluation, Oilfield
Review 3, no. 2 (April 1991): 55-71.
49
Exploring the Subsalt
Paul Farmer
Gatwick, England
Advances in seismic imaging have changed the way explorationists

view salt bodies. Once seen as impenetrable barriers to geophysical
Douglas Miller
Ridgefield, Connecticut, USA
Andy Pieprzak
Jeff Rutledge
Richard Woods
Houston, Texas, USA
probing with some flanking pay zones, many salt structures are now
proving to be thin blankets shielding rich reserves. Geophysicists are
developing new methods to see through salt, illuminating the reservoirs
below. This new vision of subsalt is impacting E&P decisions from well
planning and drilling to field delineation and development.
From the earliest days of exploration,

prospectors associated salt with oil and
gasbut not always for the right reasons. In
the 1920s, so many successful wells were
drilled around salt domes that logging methods were tuned to identify the high-salinity
water in formations overlying pay zones.1 By
1923, gravity and seismic methods became
successful in spotting salt domes, and the
industry was on its way to understanding the
structural role played by salt. Today, interpreters can view and tour salt structures
with the help of powerful graphics workstations (next page, top).
Salt is one of the most effective agents in
nature for trapping oil and gas: as a ductile
material, it can move and deform surrounding sediments, creating traps; salt is also
impermeable to hydrocarbons and acts as a
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Mark
Bogaards, Cliff Kelly and Mark Puckett, Wireline & Testing, Houston, Texas, USA; Bob Godfrey, Colin Hulme,
Tore Karlsson, Jane Lam, Dominique Pajot, John Ullo and
z Yilmaz, Geco-Prakla, Gatwick, England;
George Jamieson, Geco-Prakla, Houston, Texas; and
Ron Roberts, Amoco, Denver, Colorado, USA.
50
60
30
30
s Distribution of offshore salt sheets. [Adapted from Ward RW, MacKay S, Greenlee SM
and Dengo CA: Imaging Sediments Under Salt: Where are We? The Leading Edge 13,
no. 8 (August 1994): 834.]
Charisma seismic interpretation system, KUDOS 3D

velocity modeling system, and SALTBOND cement system are marks of Schlumberger. CM-5 is a mark of Thinking Machines Corporation. GeoDepth is a mark of
Paradigm Geophysical. InDepth is a mark of Western
Geophysical.
1. Allaud LA and Martin MH: Schlumberger The History

of a Technique. New York, New York, USA: John
Wiley & Sons (1977): 68-69.
2. Western PG and Ball GJ: 3D Prestack Depth Migration in the Gulf of Suez: A Case Study, Geophysical
Prospecting 40 (1992): 379-402.
Oilfield Review
nFlying through a seismic interpretation. The top of a salt feature (yellow surface) has been interpreted on a seismic workstation. Also
shown is a panel of seismic data (background), a reflector above the salt (brown surface), seismic velocities at vertical well locations
(multicolored vertical logs) and deviated well trajectories (blue lines).
seal. Most of the hydrocarbons in North

America are trapped in salt-related structures, as are significant amounts in other oil
provinces around the world (previous page ).
Many reservoirs in the North Sea are below
salt, as are large fields in the Gulf of Suez.2
A product of seawater evaporation, salt
accumulation can reach thousands of feet in
thickness. Salt retains a low density of
2.1g/cm3 even after burial. However, the surrounding sediments compact and at some
depth become denser than the saltan
unstable situation. If the overlying sediments
offer little resistance, as is sometimes the
case in the Gulf of Mexico, the salt rises, creating characteristic domes, pillows and
wedges that truncate upturned sedimentary
layers (right ). If the overburden does resist,
salt can still push through, creating faults in
the process. If tectonic conditions are right,
extensional faulting in the rigid overburden
can open the way for salt ascent. Much of
the Zechstein salt pervasive in the North Sea
has been mobilized this way.
In contrast to salts low density is its high
seismic wave velocity4400 m/sec (14,432
ft/sec)often more than twice that of surrounding sediments. The strong velocity
contrast at the sediment-salt interface acts
like an irregularly shaped lens, refracting and
PassiveNo Space Problem
ActiveDiapir Creates Space
Radial or
subparallel
faults
Thinning,
arching
ReactiveExtension Creates Space
nStyles of salt intrusion. When the overlying sediments offer

little resistance (top),
salt can rise, often
dragging flanking
layers up with it. If
the overburden does
resist, salt pressured
from below (middle)
can still push
through, doming the
overburden and creating radial faults in
the process. In the
case of regional
extension (bottom)
faulting in the rigid
overburden can open
the way for salt to
rise. [Adapted from
Jackson MPA, Vendeville BC and Schultz-Ela
DD: Salt-Related Structures in the Gulf of
Mexico: A Field Guide
for Geophysicists, The
Leading Edge 13, no. 8
(August 1994): 837.]
Fan of
normal
faults
Spring 1996
51
Evolution of a Salt Wall
Evolution of a Salt Diapir
nEvolution of salt intrusions. Salt walls and diapirs are initiated at instabilities on extensive salt layers. As the salt rises and then
flows horizontally, the walls and diapirs change shape. Eventually some salt features become completely detached from the parent
salt layer.
0
Two-way time
Two-way time, sec
1.0
2.0
3.0
Distance
Distance
nEarly imaging results around salt. Seismic data processing resulted in images of bottomless salt diapirs (left). Enhancements in processing began to correctly image the
steeply dipping and sometimes overhanging faces of salt (right). [Reprinted with permission from Ratcliff DW, Gray SH and Whitmore ND: Seismic Imaging of Salt Structures in the
Gulf of Mexico, The Leading Edge 11, no. 4 (April 1992): 15 and 22.]
Lake Charles
Houston
New Orleans
reflecting seismic energy. Early data processing techniques treated this contrast like a
mirror, resulting in images that portrayed salt
features as bottomless diapirs extending to
the deepest level of seismic data (left ). In the
1980s, seismic processing began to correctly
image the steeply dipping and sometimes
overhanging faces of salt where hydrocarbons could accumulate.
But in the last five years, a new image of
salt has emerged. In some areas, not only is
the top of salt clearly visible, but the bottom
also. Geologists hypothesize that in these
areas of allocthonous saltfound away
from its original depositional positionconditions allow the salt, having reached vertical equilibrium, to begin flowing horizontally (above ). In the Gulf of Mexico, this
occurs mainly in deep water beyond the
continental shelf, where sediment cover is
not as thick as it is near shore (bottom left ).
Wells drilled through thin salt sheets have
encountered oil-bearing sediments below.
However, knowledge of the existence of
hydrocarbons below salt is insufficient reason to start drilling. Drilling salt is risky (see
Drilling and Completions Through Salt,
page 54 ). The salt itself is weak and undergoes continuous deformation. Below
intruded salt, sediment layers are often disrupted and overpressured. And most important, unless seismic data have been processed to image through the salt, the
position of the target is unknown.
Mickey
Mouse
Teak
Gemini
Mahogany
Enchilada
Discovery
Plugged and abandoned
Salt sheets
nSalt sheets mapped in the Gulf of Mexico.

Recent exploration wells correspond to wells mentioned in table (next page).
52
Oilfield Review
Subsalt Scorecard in January 1996

Prospect
Operators/Partners
Result
Date
Mickey Mouse
Mississippi
Canyon 211
Exxon and
Conoco
Noncommercial
discovery
1991
Mahogany
Ship Shoal 349
Phillips, Anadarko
and Amoco
Commercial
discovery
1993
Amoco 1
South Marsh
Island 169
Amoco
Dry hole
1993
Mesquite
Vermillion 349
Phillips
and Anadarko
Dry hole
1994
Teak
South Timbalier
Addition 260
Anadarko
(originally with
Phillips)
Potentially
commercial
discovery
1994
Ship Shoal 250
Japex and Vastar
Dry hole
1994
Ship Shoal 360
Unocal
and Conoco
Plugged
and abandoned
1994
Ship Shoal 368
Amerada Hess
and Shell
Dry hole
1994
South Timbalier 289
Consolidated Natural Gas and

Louisiana Land & Exploration
Dry hole
1994
Enchilada
Garden Bank 128
Shell Offshore Inc.,

Amerada Hess
and Pennzoil
Commercial
discovery
1994
South Ana
Vermillion 308
Amoco
and Vastar
Dry hole
1994
Garden Banks 119
Oryx
Dry hole
1995
Alexandrite
Ship Shoal 337
Phillips, Anadarko
and Amoco
Dry hole
1996
Monazite
Vermillion 375
Anadarko
Drilling in 1996
Agate
Ship Shoal 361
Phillips
and Anadarko
Commercial
discovery
South Timbalier 231
Louisiana Land & Exploration,

Anadarko and Agip
Drilling in 1996
North Lobster
South Timbalier 308
Marathon
Drilling started
in 1995
1995
Gemini
Mississippi
Canyon 292
Texaco
and Chevron
Potentially
commercial
discovery
1995
No Name
South Marsh
Island 97
Pennzoil, OXY
and Total
Drilling in 1996
Spudded
in 1995
Bald Pate
Garden Banks 260
Oryx and
Amerada
Development
under way
1996
A few operators have announced significant oil discoveries beneath salt in the Gulf
of Mexico, rekindling a spirit of exploration
in the Gulf. Phillips Petroleum Company, in
partnership with Anadarko Petroleum Corporation and Amoco Production Company,
announced the first commercial Gulf of
Mexico subsalt discovery with the
Mahogany prospect in 1993, and attributed
the success to the imaging technique called
prestack depth migration.3 Drilled in 375 ft
[114 m] of water to a depth of 16,500 ft
[5030 m], the well produces from sediment
layers beneath a salt sheet 3000 to 8000 ft
[915 to 2439 m] thick.
Since the Mahogany find, many more
wells have been drilled in the area, with
other operators experiencing similar success (left ). Before prestack depth migration,
the success ratio in the subsalt play was
around 5%. The new technique is increasing that to 25%. Depth migration is also
bringing first-time details to light in some of
the many North Sea reservoirs that produce
from below salt, and operators plan exploration campaigns in the Red Sea using the
same method.4
What is this imaging technique and how
does it help illuminate subsalt reservoirs? The
answers are found in a review of the family
of imaging methods, including prestack
depth migration, that are bringing subsalt
and other complex structures to light.5
1995
Hydrocarbons present
nSubsalt drilling scorecard in the Gulf of Mexico. Since the successful well drilled by
Phillips and partners in 1993, subsalt exploration in the Gulf of Mexico has blossomed.
3. Westcott ME, Leach MC, Wyatt KD, Valasek PA and

Branham KL: Mahogany: Seismic Technology Leading to the First Economic Subsalt Field, Expanded
Abstracts, 65th SEG International Meeting and Exposition, Houston, Texas, USA (October 8-13, 1995):
1161-1164.
4. Salpukas A: Anadarko Planning to Drill in Red Sea
Using Computers, New York Times, September 29,
1995.
5. For more on subsalt imaging topics: The Leading Edge
13, no. 8 (August 1994).
[From Taylor G: Subsalt Returns to the Top, AAPG EXPLORER 17, no. 2 (February 1996): 8.]
Spring 1996
53
Drilling and Completions

Through Salt
Potential Problems
Casing Strings
Wellbore Displacement
150F
Caprock
Radial stress relaxation

Shear zone
Salt
Salt creep ledges

impinge on drillstring
Salt
flow
Salt
Salt
Borehole wall weakened
by leaching water, gas
and other minerals
out of salt
200F
Wellbore enlargement
results from salt
dissolution
Potential
overpressure
Unconsolidated
zone
Accumulated cuttings
jam drillstring
nSpectrum of challenges in subsalt drilling and completion. Drillers have to address factors that cause openhole instability and accompanying problems, including
borehole walls weakened by incompatible muds, restrictions and undergauge hole caused by salt creep, or enlargement due to dissolution (left). In rapidly moving salt,
liners cemented inside cemented casing reduce radial pipe deformation and so increase wellbore resistance to nonuniform loads (center). During the life of a well, salt
movement can displace wellbore tubulars, possibly causing casing failure or restricted access (right).
Properties of saltpseudoplastic flow under sub-
from overburden, salt is like a fluid, with stresses
low salt concentrations try to balance salt erosion
surface temperatures and pressures, and low per-
in all directions approximately equal to the over-
and dissolution with creep rate to maintain hole
meabilitythat make salt bodies effective hydro-
burden. Therefore, if borehole fluid pressure is
size. However, because salt creep and dissolution
carbon traps also present unique challenges for oil
less than in-situ salt strength, stress relaxation
change across thick salt sections, this can be
and gas operators (above). Special considerations,
may significantly reduce openhole diameters. In
problematic and hole size may vary with depth.
from selecting drilling fluids and bits to imple-
some cases, relaxation and salt creep can cause
High-salt-concentration, water-base muds dissolve
menting casing programs and cementing proce-
borehole restrictions even before drilling and com-
enough salt to offset creep, but can become under-
dures, are required to produce long-lasting wells.
pletion operations are finished. Undergauge bore-
saturated at high temperatures and enlarge the
Methods developed on the US Gulf Coast and in
holes can lead to stuck drillpipe, problems running
hole. Oil and synthetic muds prevent dissolution
the Gulf of Suez, Egypt have improved the effi-
casing and ultimately casing failuresovaling,
and can be used effectively in salt, but are expen-
ciency and reliability of drilling and completion
bending or collapse.
sive, can leach water, gas and other mineral inclu-
operations in thick salt sections.1

Unlike typical sediment sequences in which horizontal stresses are less than vertical stresses
To maintain near-gauge boreholes, drilling flu-
sions out of salt and may not offset creep.2 Eco-
ids must minimize hole closure and washouts.
nomic, easy to maintain and adaptable
Water- and oil-base muds with saturated and
salt-saturated, water-base muds are often used.
undersaturated salt concentrations, and synthetic

fluids have been used to drill salt, but no single
system works all the time. Water-base muds with
54
Oilfield Review
Salt is weak and soft, so polycrystalline dia-
cemented inside cemented casing increase
mond and other mill-tooth insert cutters, which
nonuniform load capacity by reducing casing
make hole by scraping, are used. Stronger inserts
deformation. Collapse resistance of properly
may be needed to penetrate caprock formed on the
cemented concentric strings can equal or exceed
top of some salt layers by groundwater leaching of
the combined strengths of individual liners and
minerals. Side-cutting, eccentric or bicentered
casings.6 Casing across salt zones is subjected to
reamers above bits have been proposed to open up
tension, compression, burst and hydrostatic loads
hole diameters that are larger than the bit and
combined with nonuniform forces, which must be
allow for some salt creep before the borehole
included in design calculations.7 Casing can be set
becomes undergauge.3
just below salt to save time or in deeper forma-
After drilling into salt, heavier than expected
tions for better support, depending on the salt
mud weights may be needed to control salt flow.
interval.8 A diversion stage tool in the casing
Drilling speeds vary among operators, but reason-
string just below the salt may be needed to place
ably fast penetration rates60 to 150 ft/hr [18 to
specialized cements across the salt, reduce hydro-
46 m/hr]are required, so wells can be cased
static pressure on weaker subsalt intervals or
quickly. Good hole cleaning and periodic back-
ensure efficient slurry placement.
reaming, however, should not be sacrificed just to
Effective cement fill in the annulus between the
make hole faster. Circulating a small volume of
outer casing and borehole minimizes nonuniform
fresh water can remove salt restrictions and free
load effects. Long slurry thickening times may
stuck pipe, but care must be used to prevent
allow salt to encroach on casing before a complete
washouts. Enlarged or undergauge holes make
set occurs, and inadequate displacement across
directional control difficult.
washouts may cause unequal loading or localized
Thick salt bodies can affect temperature and
bending. Adequate fluid-loss control is needed to
pressure in surrounding formations. Salt thermal
prevent excessive loss of slurry mix water that can
conductivity is high compared to other sediments,
dissolve or weaken salt, adversely affect cement
so overlying formations are heated and underlying
properties or cause annular bridging, loss of
formations are cooled. Because salt is a barrier to
hydrostatic pressure and gas migration (see Get-
basin fluids, if outward flow is insufficient to
ting to the Root of Gas Migration, page 36).
achieve normal compaction, high pressure may
Salt-saturated cements prevent salt dissolution,
develop below salt.4 As disrupted sediments
but are more difficult to mix on surface and extend
below salt are penetrated, fluid losses or flow
slurry set times (over-retardation). Freshwater and
can occur, depending on mud weight and forma-
2. Leyendecker EA and Murray SC: Properly Prepared Oil

Muds Aid Massive Salt Drilling, World Oil 180, no. 4
(April 1975): 93-95.
3. Warren TM, Sinor LA and Dykstra MW: Simultaneous
Drilling and Reaming with Fixed Blade Reamers, paper SPE
30474, presented at the 71st SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, October 22-25, 1996.
4. OBrien J and Lerche I: Understanding Subsalt
Overpressure May Reduce Drilling Risks, Oil & Gas Journal 2, no. 4 (January 24, 1994): 28-34.
5. Cheatham JB and McEver JW: Behavior of Casing Subjected to Salt Loading, Journal of Petroleum Technology 16
(September 1964): 1069-1075.
6. Burkowsky M, Ott H and Schillinger H: Cemented Pipe-inPipe Casing Strings Solve Field Problems, World Oil 193,
no. 5 (October 1981): 143-147.
El-Sayed AAH and Khalaf F: Resistance of Cemented Concentric Casing Strings Under Nonuniform Loading, SPE
Drilling Engineering 7, no. 1 (March 1992): 59-64.
7. Recent methods use common Von Mises calculations for
normal loads along with the addition of stresses to account
for nonuniform collapse. For more on these methods: Hackney RM: A New Approach to Casing Design for Salt Formations, paper SPE/IADC 13431, presented at the 1985
SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana,
USA, March 6-8, 1985.
8. An article in three parts: LeBlanc L: Drilling, Completion,
Workover Challenges in Subsalt Formations, Offshore
(June 1994): 21-22, 49 (part I); (July 1994): 42-44, 59 (part
II); (August 1994): 38-40 (part III).
9. Yearwood J, Drecq P and Rae P: Cementing Across Massive Salt Formations, paper 88-39-104, presented at the
39th Annual Technical Meeting of the Petroleum Society of
CIM, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, June 12-16, 1988.
problems and are easier to handle, but long-term
and carefully.
Pattillo PD and Rankin TE: How Amoco Solved Casing

Design Problems in The Gulf of Suez, Petroleum Engineer
International 53, no. 11 (November 1981): 86-112.
low-salt concentration slurries avoid retardation
tion pressures, unless drillers proceed slowly
1. Barker JW, Feland KW and Tsao YH: Drilling Long Salt Sections Along the U.S. Gulf Coast, paper SPE 24605, presented at the 67th SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Washington, DC, USA, October 4-7, 1992.
exposure to salt may lead to cement failures.
Washouts, restrictions, ledges and moving salt
Additives introduced in the late 1980s helped solve
exert nonuniform loads on casing.5 Increasing wall
over-retardation and strength development prob-
thickness offers better resistance to these loads
lems in salt-rich slurries.9 This led to development
than higher yield strength steels, so heavy-wall
of proprietary slurries for cementing across salt
casing can be used if salt creep rates are low and
zones like the Dowell SALTBOND cement system,
good cement jobs can be obtained. In more
which provides controllable thickening times,
extreme cases of rapidly moving salt, liners
good early compressive strengths, effective placement rheology, excellent fluid-loss control and
resistance to aggressive brine attack.
Spring 1996
MET
55
Offset 4
Offset 3
Offset 2
Offset 1
0 offset
1
Offset
2
3
Offset
2
3
Two-way time
Hyperbolic
curve
Stacking
=
velocity
+
Common midpoint
(CMP)
Corrected CMP gather
Stacked
CMP
nStacking to enhance and focus seismic signals by summing traces reflected midway between several source-receiver pairs. Energy
arrives on each seismic record at a different time, depending on the source-receiver separation, or offset. The arrival times define a
hyperbola. Before the traces can be stacked, they must be shifted to align arrivals. The offset versus time relationship that describes
the shifts defines the stacking velocity of that layer.
Imaging
Imaging describes the two seismic data processing steps, stacking and migration, that
bring seismic reflections into focus. Stacking
attempts to increase signal-to-noise ratio by
summing records obtained from several
seismic shots reflecting at the same point
(above ). Energy arrives on each trace at a
different time, depending on the sourcereceiver separation, or offset. For a uniformvelocity layer overlying the reflector, seismic
rays are straight, and the arrival times define
a hyperbola. The set of traces is called a
common midpoint (CMP) gather. Before the
CMP gather can be stacked, the traces must
be shifted to align arrivals. The offset versus
time parameter that describes the shifts
defines the stacking velocity of that layer.
Shifting is performed for all reflections visible in the traces. The result of stacking is a
single trace, taken to represent the signal
that would have been recorded in a normalincidence experiment at the midpoint of the
source-receiver pairs. The basic assumption
in stacking is that velocity does not vary
horizontally over the extent of the gather.
The second component of imaging,
migration, redistributes reflected seismic
energy from its recorded position to its true
position using a velocity model ( right ).
There are many classes of migration, varying in environment of applicability from
simple structures and smooth velocity variations to complex structures and rapidly
varying velocities.6
The main distinctions, for the purpose of
this article, are the imaging domaineither
56
Migrated
trace
Source
Midpoint
trace
Receiver
MIG
Original
data
Salt
nRedistribution of reflected seismic energy

by migration. In this simple 2D rendition,
migration (MIG) repositions a reflected
trace from its recorded position to its true
position using a velocity model. In more
complex and 3D cases, reflections may be
redistributed to positions outside the plane
containing the source and receivers.
Energy may also be distributed among
multiple locations.
time or depthand the order of migration
in the work flowpoststack or prestack. To
process any one survey, combinations of
migration techniques may be used. The
trend today, as complex reservoirs come
under scrutiny, is to use depth rather than
time and prestack instead of poststack.
In time migration, the velocity model,
sometimes called the velocity field, may vary
only smoothly (next page, bottom ). Velocity
should increase with depth, and any variations in the horizontal direction should be
gradual. The output of the process is a seis-
mic volume with time as the vertical axis.

Time migration is most successful when
velocities are laterally invariant or smoothly
varying. It is often applicable and, hence
chosen in most parts of the world.
In depth migration, the velocity model
may have strong velocity contrasts vertically
or horizontally. Depth migration is suited for
environments in which velocities change
abruptly, often the case with complex structures such as steep dips, faults, folds, salt
intrusions and truncated layers. The output
volume has depth as the vertical axis. Depth
migration, though often appropriate, is still
rarely done because of the difficulty in constructing an accurate velocity model.
Poststack migration is migration applied
after the seismic traces have been stacked.
Stacking enhances the seismic signal, and
also reduces by an order of magnitude the
number of traces that comprise the stacked
seismic volume, so migration poststack is
roughly 100 times faster than prestack. For
poststack migration to be effective, the
assumptions made in stacking must be
valid. The amplitude of the stacked trace
must represent that of the normal-incidence
trace and reflected arrivals must be approximately hyperbolic (next page, top ). These
assumptions are valid only when the structure is simple. Otherwise prestack migration
is more suitable.
Prestack migration is run before stacking,
and can handle the most complex structures
6. For a review: Farmer P, Gray S, Hodgkiss G, Pieprzak
A, Ratcliff D, Whitcombe D and Whitmore D: Structural Imaging: Toward a Sharper Subsurface View,
Oilfield Review 5, no. 1 (January 1993): 28-41.
Oilfield Review
Snapshot
1000
Snapshot
Distance, ft
0
1000
2000
3000
1000
1000
2000
Depth, ft
500
1000
1500
Salt
wedge
1000
1500
Reservoir top
Reservoir top
2000
2000
Shot Gather
1000
Shot Gather
Distance, ft
0
1000
2000
3000
1000
100
1000
2000
3000
100
200
Distance, ft
0
200
Two-way time, msec
Two-way time, msec
3000
500
Depth, ft
Distance, ft
0
300
Snapshot
time
400
500
Bottom salt
300
Snapshot
time
Top salt
400
500
Reservoir
Reservoir
600
600
700
700
nThe effects of velocity variations on raytracing and common midpoint (CMP) assumptions. In a flat model with simple
structures and velocities (top left), raypaths are straight and wavefronts are spherical. Arrival times on seismic records can
be fit with a hyperbola (bottom left). In such a case, the CMP and reflection point would be coincident. Inserting a salt wedge
over the flat reflector (top right) gives rise to bent raypaths. The arrivals do not have a hyperbolic shape on seismic records
(bottom right). In this case, the CMP would not be coincident with the reflection point. Also visible in the salt case are multiplesarrivals from multiply reflected wavesthat present additional processing problems. These waveforms and traces
were created with 2D acoustic finite-difference modeling.
Increasing velocity
Simple velocities + simple

structure = poststack time migration
Simple velocities + complex

structure = prestack time migration
Complex velocities + simple

structure = poststack depth migration
Complex velocities + complex

structure = prestack depth migration
Spring 1996
nVelocity models for four migration

classes: time, depth, poststack and
prestack. Poststack models are on the left,
prestack on the right. Time-based models
are on the top, depth-based on the bottom. In time migration, the velocity
model may vary only smoothly or monotonicallyalways increasing with depth.
Depth migration is required for more complex velocity models. Poststack migration
works with models of low complexity,
while prestack migration can handle the
most complex models.
57
Inputs
3D stack
volume
3D CMP gathers
Interpretation of
current layer
in time domain
Velocity model
in depth
3D prestack travel-time
inversion from ray-based
velocity analysis
Compute and output

velocity nodes
Model validation
Update velocity
component of model
Prestack depth
migration of
selected offsets
Analyze
CIP gathers
3D poststack
depth migration
volume
3D poststack
depth migration
Delineate geometry
of base of layer
in depth domain
Update depth
component of model
Current layer < maximum
Current layer = maximum

3D prestack
depth migration
3D prestack
depth migration
volume
nSubsalt prestack depth migration flow chart.

Some of the steps, such as velocity modeling and
layer boundary interpretation, require interactive
workstations. The migrations are run on powerful
mainframe or MPP computers.
58
and velocity fields. With the amount of data

in modern 3D surveys, the main constraints
on this method are the time and skill
needed to construct velocity models and the
computing power required for reasonable
processing turnaround time.
Imaging a seismic volume containing a
salt body is unlike traditional processing, in
which thousands of tapes are sent off to a
processing group that sends back a finished
product, ready for interpretation. Subsalt
imaging requires several iterations of migration and interpretation. The process is a
complex interplay of many steps ( left ). 7
Some of the steps, such as the migrations,
are run as batch input to mainframe or massively parallel processor (MPP) computers.
Others, such as velocity modeling and layer
boundary interpretation, require interactive
workstations.
Different operators and service companies
may have variants of these methods, but the
general processing flow is the same. The
first step is to build an initial model of the
velocity in the overburdenthe velocities of
layers overlying the salt. In the North Sea,
several major velocity contrasts may overlie
the salt. Velocity estimates can come from
ray-tracing-based velocity analysis on CMP
gathers. If the common midpoint geometry
is not suitable, such as when velocities vary
horizontally, a CMP gather cannot be used.
Instead, a common image point (CIP) gather
is created using a prestack migration technique to assemble all the traces that image
the depths below a given surface location.8
In the Gulf of Mexico, sediments are typically sand-shale sequences with small
velocity contrasts between layers. Without
strong velocity contrast, CMP-based velocity
analysis is not necessary, so initial velocities
are taken from stacking velocities. In both
cases, velocities are checked for trends with
well data such as sonic logs or borehole
seismic data.
The second step uses this early velocity
model to predict reflection arrival times on
CMP or CIP gathers at control points. The
shape of the arrival times of the shallowest
major reflector is analyzed for the velocity
that best flattens the times, and the velocity
model is updated. This is the most timeintensive step, and requires the intervention
of an expert and the versatility of an interactive velocity modeling workstation. (For a
tour of the Geco-Prakla KUDOS 3D velocity model building workstation, see Foundations in Velocity, page 60.)
Oilfield Review
Time Migration
Distance, m
11,250
1700
1800
1900
Two-way time, msec
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
Depth Migration
Distance, m
11,250
2500
2750
3000
Depth, m
3250
3500
With the updated velocity model, poststack or prestack depth migration is applied,
and the gathers are recomputed and
checked for arrival flatness. If necessary,
these few steps are iterated to obtain an
accurate velocity of the topmost layer. Then
the process is repeated for as many layers as
are identified above the salt.
If the top of salt appears to be structurally
simple based on preliminary time migration,
the velocities of the overburden can be used
in a poststack depth migration to image the
top of salt with good precision. An example
of this is the imaging of the Cavendish 3D
survey in the North Sea. The velocity model
indicates a smooth top of the Zechstein salt
(bottom left ). Encased within the Zechstein
is a thin, complexly folded dolomite, called
Plattendolomit, that causes strong distortion
of seismic ray paths before they reach the
Silverpit target. An important step in the
construction of an accurate depth-velocity
model was characterizing the shape of the
Plattendolomit (below right ). The complexity of the velocity modelhigh-velocity salt
overlying lower-velocity sedimentssuggests that depth migration is better suited for
imaging than is time migration. Applying
depth migration makes a dramatic difference in subsalt structure: the dip of subsalt
layers, and so the locations of potential
traps, changes significantly compared to the
time migration results (left ).
3750
4000
4250
4500
nComparing poststack time (top) to poststack depth migration (bottom) on the
Cavendish survey. The complex velocity model requires depth migration to

accurately image subsalt structures. Without depth migration, the dips on subsalt layers may be incorrectly imaged.
Amoco Survey Velocity Section
7. Modified from: Godfrey B, Pieprzak A, Berg K and

Yilmaz : 3-D Salt and Sub-Salt Imaging Strategy:
A Case History from the Gulf of Mexico, Technical
Program and Abstracts SEG Summer Research Workshop on 3-D Seismology: Integrated Comprehension
of Large Data Volumes, Rancho Mirage, California,
USA, (August 1-6, 1993): 128-134.
8. Common image point gathers are assembled by a
method that has been likened to looking for a needle
in a haystack. Every possible source-receiver pair in
the 3D volume of interest is checked to see whether it
contributes to the signal generated by the reflection at
a test point in the volume.
Plattendolomit Surface
Plattendolomit
Top Zechstein
Base Zechstein
1500
3250
Velocity, m/sec
Spring 1996
5000
Silverpit formation
nVelocity model for the North Sea

Cavendish survey. The Zechstein salt
top is relatively smooth, allowing poststack migration. Within the salt layer
the lower-velocity Plattendolomit can
be seen. The target layer is the Silverpit formation.
nSurface of the complexly folded Plattendolomit.
59
Foundations in Velocity
Before the arrival of massively parallel processor
processing steps such as computing travel times
computers, migration was the stumbling block in
through the model can be executed rapidly and
defined that has its vertical dimension in depth.
prestack depth imaging. Now that MPPs can han-
nearly automatically.
Surfaces corresponding to the main geological
In the KUDOS system, a modeling volume is
dle migration in reasonably short order, the con-
In contrast, earth models in depth usually have
struction of an accurate 3D velocity model is the
strong horizontal and vertical velocity variations.
ing it. Interval velocity fields are derived and
most time-consuming task. The Geco-Prakla
Rays can bend sharply at interfaces and so the
assigned to each subvolume, forming a spatially
KUDOS 3D velocity model building system allows
reflector geometry must be known very accu-
variant velocity-depth model.
specialists in interpretive processing to construct
rately. Processing must take an interpretive pause
and visualize velocity models interactively.
after each layer is built, precluding automation.
sequence. At each stage the model consists of a
Velocity modeling systems developed by other
Efficient construction of depth-based models is
series of layers, each with its own velocity field,
service companies, such as InDepth by Western
the aim of the KUDOS velocity modeler.
and a halfspace of unknown velocity below the
Geophysical and GeoDepth by Paradigm Geophysical, contain similar features.

A velocity model is defined by two sets of
Traditional velocity modeling programs con-
horizons are inserted into this volume, subdivid-
Layers are added to the model in an iterative
bottom layer. This halfspace contains the next
strain models to be simpleunlike the real earth
horizon to be imaged. The velocity that will cor-
with no abrupt terminations, pinchouts or multi-
rectly image the next horizon is derived through
parameterslayer velocities and reflector
ple vertical values. Layers must be continuous
ray-based velocity analysis (below). The velocity
geometries. Such models can have either time or
and extend across the entire survey. The KUDOS
of the layer is mapped by interpolating velocities
depth as their vertical axis. Models with time as
system, by contrast, allows models to be built
determined at control points (next page, bottom).
the vertical axis are relatively easy to derive from
with any structural complexity. Graphic elements
The halfspace is then flooded with the velocity
conventional time-domain processing, and are
are rendered on a high-performance workstation,
field derived for that next horizon.
generally smooth: rays can be traced through the
allowing immediate visualizationa key ability in
models with moderate bending at interfaces, so
velocity model construction and validation.
The subvolume model is then exported from

the KUDOS workstation as either a tessellation or
nInteractive ray-based velocity analysis. For a chosen gather (lower left panel) traces can be shifted interactively to test different interval velocities. A plot of semblancethe coherence achieved between traces shifted with a given velocityshows the best choices for velocities (upper
left). The higher the semblance, the better that velocity flattens the traces. Velocities that are too high leave arrival times drooping at long offsets
(upper right). Velocities that are too low produce corrected gathers that swing up at long offsets (middle right). The correct velocities flatten
arrival times across the gather (lower right).
60
Oilfield Review
Layered Model Before Tessellation
Layered Model After Tessellation
nLayered model before (left) and after (right) tessellation. Tessellation divides layer volumes into tetrahedra and assigns a velocity to each corner of every tetrahedron.
Tessellated Salt Body
a 3D grid, and sent with the seismic data to the

computer for post- or prestack depth migration.
Tessellation involves dividing the layered
velocity model into tetrahedra (above, left and
right). Interval velocities are stored at each corner of every tetrahedron, and the topographies of
the depth surfaces are represented by tetrahedral
facets. Tessellated volumes have special properties; they are especially efficient for modeling
arrival times by raytracingfor generating travel
times for prestack depth migrationand they can
represent realistic geologic models with structural complexity at all scales (left). The KUDOS
nTessellation of salt volume with structural complexity at many scales.

Velocity Control Points
nVelocity control points
for a chalk reflector

above the salt. Velocities
for the layer immediately
above the reflector are
interpolated between
control points (small
cubes) which are color
coded by interval velocityblue is faster than
green. The spatial position of each control point
is dictated by rays traced
through the velocity
fields of the overlying
layers. A 2D slice
through the seismic volume is displayed with
rays contributing to
selected control points.
Spring 1996
61
system can also express the velocity model as an
Correct Velocities
array of evenly spaced 3D grid points. This creates

a volume that may not look as complex as the tessellated volume, but has a velocity representation
more suited for some migration algorithms.
Following migration, the seismic data are
loaded to the interpretation workstation, where
the newly imaged horizon is delineated in depth.
This surface is then incorporated into the KUDOS
model, forming a new base layer. The velocity
field below this layer now needs to be determined,
so the next iteration of velocity analysis begins.
In some areas, such as the Gulf of Mexico, the
background velocity is slowly varying and layer
boundaries are difficult to identify (next page, top).
Instead of proceeding in steps, layer by layer, the
background velocity model is built in just a few
steps, each handling several layers. At selected
locations, CIP gathers are analyzed for the overall
velocity function that best flattens all the arrivals
simultaneously. In the KUDOS system, this
High Velocities
method is called image-based velocity analysis.

The velocity function can be modified interactively
and a corrected gather can be viewed (right).
nFinding the velocity function that flattens all arrivals simultaneously. Common image point (CIP) gathers
(top) obtained from prestack depth migration are converted from depth to time using the current velocity
model and displayed twice (left and center). The interval (green) and root mean square (RMS) velocity functions (red) for this model are shown as a pair of curves on a semblance display (right). Interval velocities can
be modified interactively, automatically adjusting the corresponding RMS velocity function. A new gather is
then computed, and the arrival curvature can be compared to that on the reference gather (left) which remains
unchanged. Other velocities can be tested (bottom). In this example, velocities higher than the reference
model have been picked (green dots) and applied to the gather (center panel). The new velocities are too high,
causing downward curvature to the arrivals. The original velocities remain as black dots on the screen.
62
Oilfield Review
nGulf of Mexico salt sheet with associated velocity functions at control

1500
3250
Velocity, m/sec
5000
points. The background velocity increases gradually with depth (yellow to

green) making layer boundaries above the salt difficult to pick. The strong
contrast and constant velocity of the salt are depicted by the dark blue
band in the velocity functions.
If the top of salt is rough, prestack depth

migration must be applied (right ). Geologists surmise that such complex topographies indicate instabilities where the
upward movement of the salt, once halted,
has been reactivated.
Once the top of salt has been imaged, an
interpreter must delineate the top of salt on
an interactive seismic interpretation workstation. Then the velocity model is updated by
filling the volume below the top of salt with
salt velocity, assumed to be uniform. With
this new model, another prestackor poststack if overburden velocities are smooth
enoughdepth migration is performed, and
the bottom of salt comes into focus.
An interpreter then maps the bottom of
salt. Next, and similar to the first step, velocities of the sedimentary layers below the salt
are estimated. These are first approximated
by the velocities of layers at the same depth
but outside the canopy of salt. Then a
prestack depth migration is run and sets of
gathers are checked for flat arrivals. The
velocity model is updated at these control
points until all control points show flat
Spring 1996
Overlapping Salt Bodies
arrivals on CIP gathers. Then the velocities

are interpolated between control points and
the full-volume velocity model is complete.
The final step is to run a prestack depth
migration using the full-volume velocity
model. Then individual cuts through the
migrated data volume can be displayed for
further interpretation. With the vertical axis
in depth, locations of interpreted features
can be communicated directly to engineers
to guide drilling and well location decisions.
nA structurally
complex salt feature requiring
prestack depth
migration to image
its top and bottom.
The top surface is
white, the bottom
is gold. Imaging
overlapping salt
bodies, such as
those shown in this
figure, requires
additional iterations in processing.
This set of techniques was used to image

the salt and subsalt layers in a survey for
Amoco in the southern North Sea gas basin.
Layers were interpreted on the Charisma
seismic interpretation system, and their
velocities were modeled on the KUDOS
workstation. The target layers were the
Rotleigendes and Westphalian sands below
63
Distance, m
0
2250
Distance, m
6750
4500
2250
4500
6750
Depth, m
1200
2400
3600
Poststack Depth Migration
Prestack Depth Migration
nComparison of poststack (left) and prestack (right) depth migration of the Amoco survey in the North Sea. Poststack migration
produces a broken image of the top and bottom of the Zechstein salt. Prestack migration better images reflections from the
salt boundaries, and brings subsalt layering into focus.
the Zechstein salt. Comparison of poststack

and prestack depth migration shows the
greater clarity of the prestack method in
focusing the top and bottom salt reflections
( above ). The prestack depth migration
shows a more sharply focused reflection off
the base of salt and more coherently imaged
subsalt strata than does the poststack migration, paving the way for more confident
interpretation of subsalt layers.
Algorithms for carrying out these classes
of migration have been known for some
time.9 But only in the past few years has
computer power grown sufficiently to allow
commercially acceptable turnaround for
prestack depth migration. Massively parallel
processors have brought the elapsed time
required to process a typical prestack
depth migration down to one montha tenfold improvement.10 In this case, typical
means an output volume of two to three offshore US blocks at 9 sq mile [23 km2] each.
Specialists estimate that creating an accu-
64
rate velocity model takes about a week for

each layer in the model. Velocities must be
accurate to within a couple percent to be
useful for guiding subsalt drilling.
Much work remains if subsalt reservoirs
are to be understood as fully as other, more
accessible fields. In general, even the most
carefully migrated subsalt images fail to
exhibit the same signal quality as sections
imaged in the absence of salt. Up to now,
nearly all subsalt features drilled and
labeled commercial successes have been
identified by structure rather than by amplitude or other waveform attributes routinely
tracked by interpreters exploring above salt.
Another seismic technique, the borehole
seismic survey, offers subsalt information
unobtainable by other means.11 These surveys, with receivers in the borehole, can
measure subsalt layer velocities with high
accuracy, map reflector locations and measure reflection amplitudes at the subsalt
reflectors. Some operators are using borehole seismic survey results to update velocity models for reprocessing prestack depth
migrations.
An advance anticipated in the future is the

measurement of sonic velocities while
drilling, which can be related to seismic
layer velocities. Operators may be willing to
update seismic velocity models and reprocess 3D surveys to get a clearer image
before drilling deeper.
The future of subsalt exploration and
development promises as many technical
challenges as in the past. And beyond salt,
the same techniques hold the power to
image other complex features such as overthrust faults, reefs, recumbent folds and sediments below high-velocity carbonates.
LS
9. Western PG and Ball GJ, reference 2.
10. The Geco-Prakla processing megacenter in Houston,
Texas, USA relies on a Connection Machine CM-5
with a 400-Gbyte disk and 512 processing nodes,
providing 64 Gigaflops of peak processing power.
11. For a review of borehole seismic applications:
Christie P, Dodds K, Ireson D, Johnston L, Rutherford
J, Schaffner J and Smith N: Borehole Seismic Data
Sharpen the Reservoir Image, Oilfield Review 7,
no. 4 (Winter 1995): 18-31.
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Resistivity While Drilling

Images from the String

Resistivity measurements made while drilling are maturing to match

tools capable of producing borehole images as the drillstring turns.

It is hard to believe that logging while

Ring res. RAB

Shallow res. RAB

Medium res. RAB

Add. gas volume right after drilling

Gas volume 7 days after drilling

tion made by combining data from

1. Bonner S, Clark B, Holenka J, Voisin B, Dusang J,

Bed Dipping Away from Kickoff Point (4)

Bormap in Horizontal Hole (3)

Vertical Well (1)

Folded Bed (5)

Horizontal Well (2)

Vertical induced fracture

Geology From the Bit

Simply stated, resistivity tools fall into two

3. It should be remembered that laterolog and induction

The RAB tool has four main features:

This last feature allows the RAB tool to be

Induction tools do not need to make contact with

Gianzero S, Chemali R, Lin Y, Su S and Foster M:

StrucView GeoFrame structural cross section software (previous page ).

Austin Chalk Trend

Finding the Cracks in Masters Creek

Murray A-1 is a dual-lateral well drilled by

North Bayou Jack

nCrossing bedding planes. As the borehole crosses an almost horizontal, low-resistivity

Although the resolution of the RAB tool is

(continued on page 12)

From Short Normal to Axial Current

Laterologs have their roots in a tool called the

ging tools. Its principles were adapted by many

measurements-while-drilling (MWD) companies

in the early 1980s to provide a simple resistivity

log for correlation (right). The idea is fairly

straightforward: force current from a source

mation; measure the current and voltage drop

electrode to a return electrode through the for-

tions, more sophisticated devices are needed to

An improvement on the short normal is the

laterolog technique commonly used in wireline

two additional current electrodes on either side

collar. This method is ideally suited to LWD

because resistivity tools have to be built into

depends on the induced drive-voltage and the

mechanically strong steel collars. Below the

local formation resistivity. Two resistivity mea-

generating and monitoring axial-current flow in

transmitter, current leaves the tool radially from

surements are made: a focused lateral resistiv-

the RAB tool. However, radial-current flow is

the collar and axially from the drill bit. The

ity measurement and a trend resistivity mea-

measured directly, and multiple toroidal trans-

amount of current leaving the collar at any point

surement at the bit. Two receiver toroids, 6 in.

mitters and receivers are used in a unique

apart, each measure axial current flowing past

focusing technique described later.