CS2302-COMPUTERNETWORKS

UNIT I 9
Network architecture layers Physical links Channel access on links Hybrid
multiple access techniques - Issues in the data link layer - ramin! "rror correction
and detection #ink-le$el low Control
UNIT II 9
%edium access C&%' "thernet Token rin! ((I - )ireless #'N *rid!es
and &witches
UNIT III 9
Circuit switchin! $s+ packet switchin! , Packet switched networks IP '-P
-'-P (HCP IC%P .ueuein! discipline -outin! al!orithms -IP /&P
&ubnettin! CI(- Interdomain routin! *0P Ip$1 %ulticastin! Con!estion
a$oidance in network layer
UNIT I2 9
U(P TCP 'dapti$e low Control 'dapti$e -etransmission - Con!estion
control Con!estion a$oidance .o&
UNIT 2 9
"mail 3&%TP4 %I%"4 I%'P4 P/P56 HTTP (N&- &N%P Telnet TP
&ecurity P0P - &&H
T/T'#7 89 P"-I/(&
TEXT BOOK:
:+ #arry #+ Peterson4 *ruce &+ (a$ie4 ;Computer Networks< ' &ystems 'pproach=4
ourth "dition4 %or!an >au??mann Publishers Inc+4 @AA94 "lse$ier+
REFERENCES:
:+ Bames + >uross4 >eith )+ -oss4 ;Computer Networkin!4 ' Top-(own 'pproach
eaturin! the Internet=4 Third "dition4 'ddison )esley4 @AA8+
@+ Nader + %ir4 ;Computer and Communication Networks=4 Pearson "ducation4
@AAC
5+ Comer4 ;Computer Networks and Internets with Internet 'pplications=4 ourth
"dition4 Pearson "ducation4 @AA9+
8+ 'ndrew &+ Tanenbaum4 ;Computer Networks=4 &iDth "dition4 @AA54 PHI #earnin!+
9+ )illiam &tallin!s4 ;(ata and Computer Communication=4 &iDth "dition4
Pearson"ducation4 @AAA
%-> Institute o? Technolo!y
Nattarman!alam4 >attumannarkoil - 1AE 5A:+
Department of Compter S!"en!e an# En$"neer"n$
CS2302 % COMPUTER NETWORKS
P&RT-& '2 M&RKS(
UN)T-)
*+ W,at are t,e t,ree !r"ter"a ne!e--ar. for an effe!t"/e an# eff"!"ent net0or12
The most important criteria are per?ormance4 reliability and security+
Performance o? the network depends on number o? users4 type o? transmission
medium4 and the capabilities o? the connected h,w and the e??iciency o? the s,w+
Reliability is measured by ?requency o? ?ailure4 the time it takes a link to reco$er ?rom
the ?ailure and the networkFs robustness in a catastrophe+
Security issues include protectin! data ?rom unauthoriGed access and $iruses+
2+ 3rop t,e OS) 4a.er- 5. fn!t"on2
The se$en layers o? the /&I model belon!in! to three sub!roups+
Physical4 data link and network layers are the network support layersH they deal with
the physical aspects o? mo$in! data ?rom one de$ice to another+
&ession4 presentation and application layers are the user support layersH they allow
interoperability amon! unrelated so?tware systems+
The transport layer ensures end-to-end reliable data transmission.
3+ W,at are ,ea#er an# tra"4er- an# ,o0 #o t,e. $et a##e# an# remo/e#2
"ach layer in the sendin! machine adds its own in?ormation to the messa!e it
recei$es ?rom the layer Iust abo$e it and passes the whole packa!e to the layer Iust
below it+ This in?ormation is added in the ?orm o? headers or trailers+ Headers are
added to the messa!e at the layers 14948454 and @+ ' trailer is added at layer@+ 't the
recei$in! machine4 the headers or trailers attached to the data unit at the
correspondin! sendin! layers are remo$ed4 and actions appropriate to that layer are
taken+
6+ W,at are t,e featre- pro/"#e# 5. 4a.er"n$2
Two nice ?eatures<
It decomposes the problem o? buildin! a network into more
mana!eable components+
It pro$ides a more modular desi!n+
7+ W,. are proto!o4- nee#e#2
In networks4 communication occurs between the entities in di??erent systems+
Two entities cannot Iust send bit streams to each other and eDpect to be understood+
or communication4 the entities must a!ree on a protocol+ ' protocol is a set o? rules
that !o$ern data communication+
8+ W,at are t,e t0o "nterfa!e- pro/"#e# 5. proto!o4-2
&er$ice inter?ace
Peer inter?ace
&er$ice inter?ace- de?ines the operations that local obIects can per?orm on the
protocol+
Peer inter?ace- de?ines the ?orm and meanin! o? messa!es eDchan!ed between
protocol peers to implement the communication ser$ice+
9+ Ment"on t,e #"fferent p,.-"!a4 me#"a2
Twisted pair3the wire that your phone connects to6
CoaDial cable3the wire that your T2 connects to6
/ptical ?iber3the medium most commonly used ?or hi!h-
bandwidth4 lon!-distance links6
&pace3the stu?? that radio wa$es4 microwa$es and in?ra red
beams propa!ate throu!h6
:+ Def"ne S"$na4-2
&i!nals are actually electroma!netic wa$es tra$elin! at the speed o? li!ht+ The
speed o? li!ht is4 howe$er4 medium dependent-electroma!netic wa$es tra$elin!
throu!h copper and ?iber do so at about two-thirds the speed o? li!ht in $acuum+
;+ W,at "- 0a/e<- 0a/e4en$t,2
The distance between a pair o? adIacent maDima or minima o? a wa$e4
typically measured in meters4 is called wa$eFs wa$elen!th+
*0+ Def"ne Mo#4at"on2
%odulation -$aryin! the ?requency4 amplitude or phase o? the si!nal to e??ect
the transmission o? in?ormation+ ' simple eDample o? modulation is to $ary the power
3amplitude6 o? a sin!le wa$elen!th+
**+ E=p4a"n t,e t0o t.pe- of #p4e=2
Full duplex-two bit streams can be simultaneously transmitted
o$er the links at the same time4 one !oin! in each direction+
Half duplex-it supports data ?lowin! in only one direction at a
time+
*2+ W,at "- CODEC2
' de$ice that encodes analo! $oice into a di!ital I&(N link is called a
C/("C4 ?or coder/decoder+
*3+ W,at "- -prea# -pe!trm an# e=p4a"n t,e t0o t.pe- of -prea# -pe!trm2
&pread spectrum is to spread the si!nal o$er a wider ?requency band than
normal in such a way as to minimiGe the impact o? inter?erence ?rom other de$ices+
requency Hoppin!
(irect sequence
*6+ W,at are t,e #"fferent en!o#"n$ te!,n">e-2
N-J
N-JI
%anchester
8*,9*
*7+ ?o0 #oe- NR@-A #"ffer from NR@-)2
In the N-J-# sequence4 positi$e and ne!ati$e $olta!es ha$e speci?ic
meanin!s< positi$e ?or A and ne!ati$e ?or :+ in the N-J-I sequence4 the $olta!es are
meanin!less+
Instead4 the recei$er looks ?or chan!es ?rom one le$el to another as its basis ?or
reco!nition o? :s+
*8+ W,at are t,e re-pon-"5"4"t"e- of #ata 4"n1 4a.er2
&peci?ic responsibilities o? data link layer include the ?ollowin!+ a6 ramin! b6
Physical addressin! c6 low control d6 "rror control e6 'ccess control+
*9+ W,at are t,e 0a.- to a##re-- t,e fram"n$ pro54em2
*yte-/riented Protocols3PPP6
*it-/riented Protocols3H(#C6
Clock-*ased ramin!3&/N"T6
*:+ D"-t"n$"-, 5et0een peer-to-peer re4at"on-,"p an# a pr"mar.--e!on#ar.
re4at"on-,"p+ peer -to- peer re4at"on-,"pK
'll the de$ices share the link equally+
Primary-secondary relationship< /ne de$ice controls tra??ic and the others must
transmit throu!h it+
*;+ Ment"on t,e t.pe- of error- an# #ef"ne t,e term-2
There are @ types o? errors
&in!le-bit error+
*urst-bit error+
&in!le bit error< The term sin!le bit error means that only one bit o? a !i$en data unit
3such as byte character,data unit or packet6 is chan!ed ?rom : to A or ?rom A to :+
*urst error< %eans that @ or more bits in the data unit ha$e chan!ed ?rom : to A ?rom
A to :+
20+ A"-t ot t,e a/a"4a54e #ete!t"on met,o#-+
There are 8 types o? redundancy checks are used in data communication+
2ertical redundancy checks 32-C6+
#on!itudinal redundancy checks 3#-C6+
Cyclic redundancy checks 3C-C6+
Checksum+
2*+ Wr"te -,ort note- on BRC+
The most common and least eDpensi$e mechanism ?or error detection is the
$ertical redundancy check 32-C6 o?ten called a parity check+ In this technique a
redundant bit called a parity bit4 is appended to e$ery data unit so4 that the total
number o? AFs in the unit 3includin! the parity bit6 becomes e$en+
22+ Wr"te -,ort note- on ARC+
In lon!itudinal redundancy check 3#-C64 a block o? bits is di$ided into rows
and a redundant row o? bits is added to the whole block+
23+ Wr"te -,ort note- on CRC+
The third and most power?ul o? the redundancy checkin! techniques is the
cyclic redundancy checks 3C-C6 C-C is based on binary di$ision+ Here a sequence o?
redundant bits4 called the C-C remainder is appended to the end o? data unit+
26+ Wr"te -,ort note- on CRC !,e!1er+
' C-C checker ?unctions eDactly like a !enerator+ '?ter recei$in! the data
appended with the C-C it does the same modulo-@ di$ision+ I? the remainder is all AFs
the C-C is dropped and the data accepted+ /therwise4 the recei$ed stream o? bits is
discarded and the dates are resent+
27+ Def"ne !,e!1-m+
The error detection method used by the hi!her layer protocol is called
checksum+ Checksum is based on the concept o? redundancy+
28+ W,at are t,e -tep- fo44o0e# "n !,e!1-m $enerator2
The sender ?ollows these steps a6 the units are di$ided into k sections each o? n
bits+ b6 'll sections are added to!ether usin! @Fs complement to !et the sum+ c6 The
sum is complemented and become the checksum+ d6 The checksum is sent with the
data+
29+ Ment"on t,e t.pe- of error !orre!t"n$ met,o#-+
There are @ error-correctin! methods+
&in!le bit error correction
*urst error correction+
2:+ Wr"te -,ort note- on error !orre!t"on2
It is the mechanism to correct the errors and it can be handled in @ ways+
)hen an error is disco$ered4 the recei$er can ha$e the sender
retransmit the entire data unit+
' recei$er can use an error correctin! coder4 which
automatically corrects certain errors+
2;+ W,at "- t,e prpo-e of ,amm"n$ !o#e2
' hammin! code can be desi!ned to correct burst errors o? certain len!ths+ &o
the simple strate!y used by the hammin! code to correct sin!le bit errors must be
redesi!ned to be applicable ?or multiple bit correction+
30+ W,at "- re#n#an!.2
It is the error detectin! mechanism4 which means a shorter !roup o? bits or
eDtra bits may be appended at the destination o? each unit+
3*+ Def"ne f4o0 !ontro42
low control re?ers to a set o? procedures used to restrict the amount o? data+
The sender can send be?ore waitin! ?or acknowled!ment+
32+ Ment"on t,e !ate$or"e- of f4o0 !ontro42
There are @ methods ha$e been de$eloped to control ?low o? data across
communication links+ a6 &top and wait- send one ?rom at a time+ b6 &lidin! window-
send se$eral ?rames at a time+
33+ W,at "- a 5ffer2
"ach recei$in! de$ice has a block o? memory called a bu??er4 reser$ed ?or
storin! incomin! data until they are processed+
P&RT-B '*8 M&RKS(
:+ "Dplain the /&I-I&/ model I o? computer with neat dia!ram+ 3:16
@+ (istin!uish between Point to Point links and multi-point links with rele$ant
dia!ram+ 3:16
5+ 3i6 Compare connection oriented and connection less ser$ice+ 3E6
3ii6 "Dplain the $arious topolo!ies+ 3E6
8+ 3i6 )rite a short notes on $arious types o? transmission media4 hi!hli!htin! their
merits and demerits K 3E6
3ii6 (escribe the cate!ories o? network+3E6
9+ "Dplain "rror correction and detection K3:16
1+ "Dplain ?ramin! with its header dia!ramK3:16
C+ 3i6 (iscuss about stop and wait protocol with an eDample 3E6
3ii6 "Dplain slidin! window ?low control mechanism with an eDample 3 E6
E+ )rite in detail about the ?low control mechanisms+
UN)T-))
*+ W,at are t,e fn!t"on- of M&C2
%'C sub layer resol$es the contention ?or the shared media+ It contains
synchroniGation4 ?la!4 ?low and error control speci?ications necessary to mo$e
in?ormation ?rom one place to another4 as well as the physical address o? the neDt
station to recei$e and route a packet+
2+ W,at are t,e fn!t"on- of AAC2
The I""" proIect EA@ models take the structure o? an H(#C ?rame and
di$ides it into @ sets o? ?unctions+ /ne set contains the end user portion o? the H(#C
?rame the lo!ical address4 control in?ormation4 and data+ These ?unctions are
handled by the I""" EA@+@ lo!ical link control 3##C6 protocol+
3+ W,at "- Et,ernet2
"thernet is a multiple-access network4 meanin! that a set o? nodes send and
recei$e ?rames o$er a shared link+
6+ Def"ne t,e term !arr"er -en-e "n CSM&CCD2
'll the nodes can distin!uish between idle and a busy-link and ;collision
detect= means that a node listens as it transmits and can there?ore detect when a ?rame
it is transmittin! has inter?ered 3collided6 with a ?rame transmitted by another node+
7+ Def"ne Repeater2
' repeater is a de$ice that ?orwards di!ital si!nals4 much like an ampli?ier
?orwards analo! si!nals+ Howe$er4 no more than ?our repeaters may be positioned
between any pairs o? hosts4 meanin! that an "thernet has a total reach o? only @49AAm+
8+ Def"ne !o44"-"on #ete!t"on2
In "thernet4 all these hosts are competin! ?or access to the same link4 and as a
consequence4 they are said to be in the same collision detection+
9+ W,. Et,ernet "- -a"# to 5e a )-persistent proto!o42
'n adaptor with a ?rame to send transmits with probability L: Lwhene$er a
busy line !oes idle+
:+ W,at "- e=ponent"a4 5a!1 off2
/nce an adaptor has detected a collision and stopped its transmission4 it waits
a certain amount o? time and tries a!ain+ "ach time it tries to transmit but ?ails4 the
adaptor doubles the amount o? time it waits be?ore tryin! a!ain+ This strate!y o?
doublin! the delay inter$al between each transmission attempt is a !eneral technique
known as eDponential back o??+
;+ W,at "- to1en ,o4#"n$ t"me 'T?T(2
It de?ines that how much data a !i$en node is allowed to transmit each time it
possesses the token or equi$alently4 how lon! a !i$en node is allowed to hold the
token+
*0+ W,at are t,e t0o !4a--e- of traff"! "n FDD)2
&ynchronous
'synchronous
**+ W,at are t,e for prom"nent 0"re4e-- te!,no4o$"e-2
*luetooth
)i-i3?ormally known as EA@+::6
)i%'M3EA@+:16
Third !eneration or 50 cellular wireless+
*2+ Def"ne B4etoot,2
*luetooth ?ills the niche o? $ery short-ran!e communication between mobile
phones4 P('s4 notebook computers4 and other personal or peripheral de$ices+ or
eDample4 *luetooth can be used to connect mobile phones to a headset4 or a notebook
computer to a printer+
*3+ W,at are t,e for -tep- "n/o4/e- "n -!ann"n$2
:+ The node sends a Probe ?rame+
@+ 'll 'Ps within reach reply with a Probe -esponse ?rame+
5+ The node selects one o? the access points4 and sends that 'P an
'ssociation -equest ?rame+
8+ The 'P replies with an 'ssociation -esponse ?rame+
*6+ E=p4a"n t,e term ,an#off2
I? the phone is in$ol$ed in a call at the time 4 the call must be trans?erred to the
new base station in what is called a hand o??+
*7+ Def"ne -atp,one-2
&atphones use communication satellites as base stations4 communicatin! on
?requency bands that ha$e been reser$ed internationally ?or satellite use+
*8+ ?o0 to me#"ate a!!e-- to a -,are# 4"n12
"thernet4token rin!4 and se$eral wireless protocols+ "thernet and token rin!
media access protocols ha$e no central arbitrator o? access+ %edia access in wireless
networks is made more complicated by the ?act that some nodes may be hidden ?rom
each other due to ran!e limitations o? radio transmission+
*9+ Def"ne &$$re$at"on po"nt-2
It collects and processes the data they recei$e ?rom nei!hborin! nodes4 and
then transmit the processed data+ *y processin! the data incrementally4 instead o?
?orwardin! all the raw data to the base station4 the amount o? tra??ic in the network is
reduced+
*:+ Def"ne Bea!on-2
*eacon to determine their own absolute locations based on 0P& or manual
con?i!uration+ The maIority o? nodes can then deri$e their absolute location by
combinin! an estimate o? their position relati$e to the beacons with the absolute
location in?ormation pro$ided by the beacons+
*;+ W,at "- t,e -e of S0"t!,2
It is used to ?orward the packets between shared media #'Ns such as
"thernet+ &uch switches are sometimes known by the ob$ious name o? #'N switches+
20+ E=p4a"n Br"#$e2
It is a collection o? #'Ns connected by one or more brid!es is usually said to
?orm an eDtended #'N+ In their simplest $ariants4 brid!es simply accept #'N ?rames
on their inputs and ?orward them out on all other outputs+
2*+ W,at "- Spann"n$ tree2
It is ?or the brid!es to select the ports o$er which they will ?orward ?rames+
22+ W,at are t,e t,ree p"e!e- of "nformat"on "n t,e !onf"$rat"on me--a$e-2
:+ The I( ?or the brid!e that is sendin! the messa!e+
@+ The I( ?or what the sendin! brid!e belie$es to the root brid!e+
5+ The distance4 measured in hops4 ?rom the sendin! brid!e to the root
brid!e+
23+ W,at "- 5roa#!a-t2
*roadcast is simple each brid!e ?orwards a ?rame with a destination
broadcast address out on each acti$e 3selected6 port other than the one on which the
?rame was recei$ed+
26+ W,at "- m4t"!a-t2
It can be implemented with each host decidin! ?or itsel? whether or not to
accept the messa!e+
27+ ?o0 #oe- a $"/en 5r"#$e 4earn 0,et,er "t -,o4# for0ar# a m4t"!a-t frame
o/er a $"/en port2
It learns eDactly the same way that a brid!e learns whether it should ?orward a
unicast ?rame o$er a particular port- by obser$in! the source addresses that it recei$es
o$er that port+
28+ W,at are t,e 4"m"tat"on- of 5r"#$e-2
scale
hetero!eneity
UN)T ))
:+ "Dplain the ?rame ?ormat ?or token rin! and token bus+ '*8(
@+ "Dplain "thernet protocol + 3:16
8+ "Dplain the ?ollowin! Inter connection de$ices also discuss their uses
a+ -epeater 386
b+ *rid!e 386
c+ &witch 386
d+ 0ateway 386
9+ "Dplain any one o? the protocols used ?or ?low control in noisy channel ?iber
distributed data inter?ace operations+ 3:16
1+3i6 "Dplain about &/N"T ':(
3ii6"Dplain the C&%',C( al!orithm in detail 3E6
C+ 3i6 "Dplain the token passin! mechanism o? Token rin! network 3E6
3ii6 (iscuss the rin! maintenance in Token rin! network 3E6
E+ (iscuss in detail about the wireless #'N 3:16
9+ )rite short notes on Cellphone technolo!ies+
:A+ )rite short notes on )I-i4)i-%aD+
::+ Name the ?our basic network topolo!ies and eDplain them !i$in! all the rele$ant
?eatures+3U.6
:@+ "Dplain the ?unctionin! o? wireless #'N in detail+3U.6
:9+ (i??erentiate ((I ?rom token rin!
UN)T-)))
*+ Def"ne pa!1et -0"t!,"n$2
' packet switch is a de$ice with se$eral inputs and outputs leadin! to and
?rom the hosts that the switch interconnects+
2+ W,at "- a /"rta4 !"r!"t2
' lo!ical circuit made between the sendin! and recei$in! computers+ The
connection is made a?ter both computers do handshakin!+ '?ter the connection4 all
packets ?ollow the same route and arri$e in sequence+
3+ W,at are #ata $ram-2
In data!ram approach4 each packet is treated independently ?rom all others+
"$en when one packet represents Iust a place o? a multi packet transmission4 the
network treats it althou!h it eDisted alone+ Packets in this technolo!y are re?erred to as
data!ram+
6+ W,at "- meant 5. -0"t!,e# /"rta4 !"r!"t2
&witched $irtual circuit ?ormat is comparable conceptually to dial-up line in
circuit switchin!+ In this method4 a $irtual circuit is created whene$er it is needed and
eDits only ?or the duration o? speci?ic eDchan!e+

7+ W,at "- meant 5. Permanent /"rta4 !"r!"t2
Permanent $irtual circuits are comparable to leased lines in circuit switchin!+
In this method4 the same $irtual circuit is pro$ided between two uses on a continuous
basis+ The circuit is dedicated to the speci?ic uses+
8+ W,at are t,e propert"e- "n -tar topo4o$.2
"$en thou!h a switch has a ?iDed number o? inputs and outputs4 which
limits the number o? hosts that can be connected to a sin!le switch 4
lar!e networks can be built by interconnectin! a number o? switches+
)e can connect switches to each other and to hosts usin! point-to
point links4 which typically means that we can build networks o? lar!e
!eo!raphic scope+
9+ W,at "- BC)2
' 2irtual Circuit Identi?ier that uniquely identi?ies the connection at this
switch4 and which will be carried inside the header o? the packets that belon!s to this
connection+
:+ W,at "- ,op-5.-,op f4o0 !ontro42
"ach node is ensured o? ha$in! the bu??ers it needs to queue the packets that
arri$e on that circuit+ This basic strate!y is usually called hop-by-hop ?low control+
;+ E=p4a"n t,e term 5e-t-effort2
I? somethin! !oes wron! and the packet !ets lost4 corrupted4 misdeli$ered4 or
in any way ?ails to reach its intended destination4 the network does nothin!+
*0+ W,at "- ma="mm tran-m"--"on n"t2
%TU- which is the lar!est IP data!ram that it can carry in a ?rame +
**+ Def"ne Rot"n$2
It is the process o? buildin! up the tables that allow thwe collect output ?or a
packet to be determined+
*2+ Def"ne )CMP2
Internet Control %essa!e Protocol is a collection o? error messa!es that are
sent back to the source host whene$er a router or host is unable to process an IP
data!ram success?ully
*3+ Wr"te t,e 1e.- for n#er-tan#"n$ t,e #"-tan!e /e!tor rot"n$2
The three keys ?or understandin! the al!orithm are4
>nowled!e about the whole networks
-outin! only to nei!hbors
In?ormation sharin! at re!ular inter$als
*6+ Wr"te t,e 1e.- for n#er-tan#"n$ t,e 4"n1 -tate rot"n$2
The three keys ?or understandin! the al!orithm are4
>nowled!e about the nei!hborhood+
-outin! to all nei!hbors+
In?ormation sharin! when there is a ran!e+
*7+ ?o0 t,e pa!1et !o-t referre# "n #"-tan!e /e!tor an# 4"n1 -tate rot"n$2
In distance $ector routin!4 cost re?er to hop count while in case o? link state
routin!4 cost is a wei!hted $alue based on a $ariety o? ?actors such as security le$els4
tra??ic or the state o? the link+
*8+ Def"ne Re4"a54e f4oo#"n$2
It is the process o? makin! sure that all the nodes participatin! in the routin!
protocol !et a copy o? the link state in?ormation ?rom all the other nodes+
*9+ W,at are t,e featre- "n OSPF2
'uthentication o? routin! messa!es+
'dditional hierarchy+
#oad balancin!+
*:+ Def"ne S5nett"n$2
&ubnettin! pro$ides an ele!antly simple way to reduce the total number o?
network numbers that are assi!ned+ The idea is to take a sin!le IP network number
and allocate the IP address with that network to se$eral physical networks4 which are
now re?erred to as subnets+
*;+ W,at are t,e #"fferent t.pe- of &S2
&tub '&
%ulti homed '&
Transit '&
20+ W,at "- an &rea2
'n 'rea is a set o? routers that are administrati$ely con?i!ured to eDchan!e
link-state in?ormation with each other+ There is one special area- the backbone area4
also known as area A+
2*+ W,at "- Sor!e Spe!"f"! M4t"!a-t2
&&% 4 a recei$in! host speci?ies both a multicast !roup and a speci?ic host +the
recei$in! host would then recei$e multicast addressed to the speci?ied !roup4 but only
i? they are ?rom the special sender+
22+ W,at "- meant 5. !on$e-t"on2
Con!estion in a network occurs i? user sends data into the network at a rate
!reater than that allowed by network resources+
23+ W,. t,e !on$e-t"on o!!r- "n net0or12
Con!estion occurs because the switches in a network ha$e a limited bu??er
siGe to store arri$ed packets+
26+ W,at are t,e r4e- of non 5on#ar.-4e/e4 ma-1"n$2
The bytes in the IP address that corresponds to @99 in the mask will be
repeated in the sub network address
The bytes in the IP address that corresponds to A in the mask will
chan!e to A in the sub network address
or other bytes4 use the bit-wise 'N( operator+
27+ W,at "- ASP2
In link state routin!4 a small packet containin! routin! in?ormation sent by a
router to all other router by a packet called link state packet+
UN)T )))
:+ (iscuss how these routin! and link state routin! techniques work with eDample+ 3:16
@+ 3i6 "Dplain the two approaches o? packet switchin! techniques and circuit switchin!
techniques 3:16
5+ &tate the maIor di??erence between -IP and /&P+ 3:16
8+ "Dplain IP in detail+ '*8(
9+ 3i6 )hat is the purpose o? subnetin! KeDplain the $arious subnet maskK3E6
3ii6 Compare '-P and -'-P K 3E6
1+ "Dplain IP$1 in detail 3:16
C+ 3i6 )rite notes on *0P and CI(- 3:A6
3ii6 )hat is multicastin! 3@6
3ii6 )hat is interdomain routin! 386
E+ )rite notes on the ?ollowin!3U.6
3i6 Internet protocol+
3ii6 -outers+
9+ (iscuss in detail the $arious aspects o? IP21+ 3U.6
:A+ )hat are the di??erent approaches in Packet &witchin!+"Dplain them in detail+
::+ )rite in detail about brid!es+
:@+ (iscuss the spannin! tree al!orithm in detail+
:5+ )hat are the limitations o? brid!es+
:8+ "Dplain (istance 2ector routin! in detail+
:9+ "Dplain /&P in detail+
:1+ (iscuss -IP in detail+
:C+ Problems in subnettin!+
:E+ )rite short notes on the ?ollowin!
i+ *roadcastin! ii+ %ulticastin! iii+ '-P i$+ -'-P
UN)T-)B
*+ E=p4a"n t,e ma"n "#ea of UDP2
The basic idea is ?or a source process to send a messa!e to a port and ?or the
destination process to recei$e the messa!e ?rom a port+
2+ W,at are t,e #"fferent f"e4#- "n p-e#o ,ea#er2
Protocol number
&ource IP address
(estination IP addresses+
3+ Def"ne TCP2
TCP !uarantees the reliable4 in order deli$ery o? a stream o? bytes+ It is a
?ull-dupleD protocol4 meanin! that each TCP connection supports a pair o? byte
streams4 one ?lowin! in each direction+
6+ Def"ne Con$e-t"on Contro42
It in$ol$es pre$entin! too much data ?rom bein! inIected into the network4
thereby causin! switches or links to become o$erloaded+ Thus ?low control is an end
to an end issue4 while con!estion control is concerned with how hosts and networks
interact+
7+ State t,e t0o 1"n#- of e/ent- tr"$$er a -tate tran-"t"on2
' se!ment arri$es ?rom the peer+
The local application process in$okes an operation on TCP+
8+ W,at "- meant 5. -e$ment2
't the sendin! and recei$in! end o? the transmission4 TCP di$ides lon!
transmissions into smaller data units and packa!es each into a ?rame called a se!ment+
9+ W,at "- meant 5. -e$mentat"on2
)hen the siGe o? the data unit recei$ed ?rom the upper layer is too lon! ?or
the network layer data!ram or data link layer ?rame to handle4 the transport protocol
di$ides it into smaller usable blocks+ The di$idin! process is called se!mentation+
:+ W,at "- meant 5. Con!atenat"on2
The siGe o? the data unit belon!in! to sin!le sessions are so small that se$eral
can ?it to!ether into a sin!le data!ram or ?rame4 the transport protocol combines them
into a sin!le data unit+ The combinin! process is called concatenation+
;+ W,at "- rate 5a-e# #e-"$n2
-ate- based desi!n4 in which the recei$er tells the sender the rate-eDpressed in
either bytes or packets per second at which it is willin! to accept incomin! data+
*0+ Def"ne 3ate0a.+
' de$ice used to connect two separate networks that use di??erent communication
protocols+
**+ W,at "- meant 5. >a4"t. of -er/"!e2
The quality o? ser$ice de?ines a set o? attributes related to the per?ormance o?
the connection+ or each connection4 the user can request a particular attribute each
ser$ice class is associated with a set o? attributes+
*2+ W,at are t,e t0o !ate$or"e- of DoS attr"5te-2
The two main cate!ories are4
User /riented
Network /riented
*3+ A"-t ot t,e -er re4ate# attr"5te-2
User related attributes are &C- &ustainable Cell -ate PC- Peak Cell -ate
%C-- %inimum Cell -ate C2(T Cell 2ariation (elay Tolerance+
*6+ W,at are t,e net0or1- re4ate# attr"5te-2
The network related attributes are4 Cell loss ratio 3C#-6 Cell trans?er delay
3CT(6 Cell delay $ariation 3C(26 Cell error ratio 3C"-6+
*7+ W,at "- RED2
-andom "arly (etection in each router is pro!rammed to monitor its own
queue len!th and when it detects that con!estion is imminent4 to noti?y the source to
adIust its con!estion window+
*8+ W,at are t,e t,ree e/ent- "n/o4/e# "n t,e !onne!t"on2
or security4 the transport layer may create a connection between the two end
ports+ ' connection is a sin!le lo!ical path between the source and destination that is
associated with all packets in a messa!e+ Creatin! a connection in$ol$es three steps<
Connection establishment
(ata trans?er
Connection release
*9+W,at "- S"44. W"n#o0 S.n#rome2
I? the sender or the recei$er application pro!ram processes slowly and can
send only : byte o? data at a time4 then the o$erhead is hi!h+This is because to send
one byte o? data4 @A bytes o? TCP header and @A bytes o? IP header are sent+ This is
called as silly window syndrome+
P&RT B
:+ "Dplain con!estion control and con!estion a$oidance in detail+ 3:16
@+ Compare TCP and U(P with neat dia!ram 3:16
5+ i6 (iscuss about quality o? ser$ices+ 3E6
ii6 "Dplain the three way handshake protocol to establish the transport le$el
connection+3E6
8+3i6 "Dplain the workin! o? TCP usin! the state dia!ram3:@6
3ii6 )hat is adapti$e retransmission and mention the al!orithm used 386
9+ )ith neat architecture4 eDplain TCP in detail+
1+ "Dplain adapti$e ?low control in detail and its uses+
C+ )ith neat architecture4 eDplain U(P in detail+
E+ (iscuss the di??erent .ueuin! (iscipline in detail+
9+ "Dplain the Con!estion '$oidance techniques in detail+
:A+ "Dplain TCP Con!estion control techniques in detail+
::+ "Dplain how .o& is pro$ided
UN)T-B
*+ W,at "- t,e fn!t"on of SMTP2
The TCP,IP protocol supports electronic mail on the Internet is called &imple
%ail Trans?er 3&%TP6+ It is a system ?or sendin! messa!es to other computer users
based
on e-mail addresses+ &%TP pro$ides mail eDchan!e between users on the same or
di??erent computers+
2+ W,at "- t,e #"fferen!e 5et0een a -er a$ent 'U&( an# a ma"4 tran-fer a$ent
'MT&(2
The U' prepares the messa!e4 creates the en$elope4 and puts the messa!e in
the en$elope+ The %T' trans?ers the mail across the Internet+
3+ ?o0 #oe- M)ME en,an!e SMTP2
%I%" is a supplementary protocol that allows non-'&CII data to be sent
throu!h &%TP+ %I%" trans?orms non-'&CII data at the sender site to N2T '&CII
data and deli$erers it to the client &%TP to be sent throu!h the Internet+ The ser$er
&%TP at the recei$in! side recei$es the N2T '&CII data and deli$ers it to %I%" to
be trans?ormed back to the ori!inal data+
8+ W,. "- an app4"!at"on -!, a- POP nee#e# for e4e!tron"! me--a$"n$2
)orkstations interact with the &%TP host4 which recei$es the mail on behal?
o? e$ery host in the or!aniGation4 to retrie$e messa!es by usin! a client-ser$er
protocol such as Post /??ice Protocol4 $ersion 53P/P56+ 'lthou!h P/P5 is used to
download messa!es ?rom the ser$er4 the &%TP client still needed on the desktop to
?orward messa!es ?rom the workstation user to its &%TP mail ser$er+
9+ 0i$e the ?ormat o? HTTP request messa!eK
8+ W,at "- t,e prpo-e of Doma"n Name S.-tem2
(omain Name &ystem can map a name to an address and con$ersely an
address to name+
9+ D"-!-- t,e t,ree ma"n #"/"-"on of t,e #oma"n name -pa!e+
(omain name space is di$ided into three di??erent sections< !eneric domains4
country domains N in$erse domain+
0eneric domain< (e?ine re!istered hosts accordin! to their !eneric beha$ior4 uses
!eneric su??iDes+
Country domain< Uses two characters to identi?y a country as the last su??iD+
In$erse domain< inds the domain name !i$en the IP address+
:+ D"-!-- t,e TCP !onne!t"on- nee#e# "n FTP+
TP establishes two connections between the hosts+ /ne connection is used
?or data trans?er4 the other ?or control in?ormation+ The control connection uses $ery
simple rules o? communication+ The data connection needs more compleD rules due to
the $ariety o? data types trans?erred+
;+ D"-!-- t,e 5a-"! mo#e4 of FTP+
The client has three components< the user inter?ace4 the client control process4
and the client data trans?er process+ The ser$er has two components< the ser$er control
process and the ser$er data trans?er process+ The control connection is made between
the control processes+ The data connection is made between the data trans?er
processes+
*0+ Name for fa!tor- nee#e# for a -e!re net0or12
Privacy: The sender and the recei$er eDpect con?identiality+
ut!entication< The recei$er is sure o? the senderFs identity and that an
imposter has not sent the messa!e+
"nte#rity< The data must arri$e at the recei$er eDactly as it was sent+
$on-Reputation< The recei$er must able to pro$e that a recei$ed messa!e
came ?rom a speci?ic sender+
**+ ?o0 "- a -e!ret 1e. #"fferent from p54"! 1e.2
In secret key4 the same key is used by both parties+ The sender uses this key
and an encryption al!orithm to encrypt dataH the recei$er uses the same key and the
correspondin! decryption al!orithm to decrypt the data+ In public key4 there are two
keys< a pri$ate key and a public key+ The pri$ate key is kept by the recei$er+ The
public key is announced to the public+
*2+ W,at "- a #"$"ta4 -"$natre2
(i!ital si!nature is a method to authenticate the sender o? a messa!e+ It is
similar to that o? si!nin! transactions documents when you do business with a bank+
In network transactions4 you can create an equi$alent o? an electronic or di!ital
si!nature by the way you send data+

*3+ W,at are t,e a#/anta$e- E #"-a#/anta$e- of p54"! 1e. en!r.pt"on2
'd$anta!es<
a6 -emo$e the restriction o? a shared secret key between two entities+
Here each entity can create a pair o? keys4 keep the pri$ate one4 and publicly
distribute the other one+
b6 The no+ o? keys needed is reduced tremendously+ or one million
users to communicate4 only two million keys are needed+
(isad$anta!e<
I? you use lar!e numbers the method to be e??ecti$e+ Calculatin! the
cipher teDt usin! the lon! keys takes a lot o? time+ &o it is not recommended
?or lar!e amounts o? teDt+
*6+ W,at are t,e a#/anta$e- E #"-a#/anta$e- of -e!ret 1e. en!r.pt"on2
'd$anta!e<
&ecret >ey al!orithms are e??icient< it takes less time to encrypt a
messa!e+ The reason is that the key is usually smaller+ &o it is used to encrypt
or decrypt lon! messa!es+
(isad$anta!es<
a6 "ach pair o? users must ha$e a secret key+ I? N people in world want
to use this method4 there needs to be N 3N-:6,@ secret keys+ or one million
people to communicate4 a hal?-billion secret keys are needed+
b6 The distribution o? the keys between two parties can be di??icult+
*7+ Def"ne permtat"on+
Permutation is transposition in bit le$el+
Strai#!t permutation< The no+ o? bits in the input and output are
preser$ed+
%ompressed permutation< The no+ o? bits is reduced 3some o? the bits
are dropped6+
&xpanded permutation< The no+ o? bits is increased 3some bits are
repeated6+
*8+ Def"ne -5-t"tt"on E tran-po-"t"on en!r.pt"on2
+ Substitution: ' character le$el encryption in which each character is replaced
by another character in the set+
'ransposition: ' Character le$el encryption in which the characters retain
their plainteDt but the position o? the character chan!es+
*9+ Def"ne C3)2
+ C0I is a standard ?or communication between HTTP ser$ers and eDecutable
pro!rams+ It is used in cratin! dynamic documents+
*:+ W,at are t,e re>e-t- me--a$e- -pport SNMP an# e=p4a"n "t2
0"T
&"T
The ?ormer is used to retrie$e a piece o? state ?rom some node and the
latter is used to store a new piece o? state in some node+
*;+ Def"ne P3P2
Pretty 0ood Pri$acy is used to pro$ide security ?or electronic mail+ It pro$ides
authentication4 con?identiality4 data inte!rity4 and non repudiation+
20+ Def"ne SS?2
&ecure &hell is used to pro$ide a
remote lo!in4 and used to remotely
eDecute commands and trans?er ?iles
and also pro$ide stron! client,ser$er
authentication , messa!e inte!rity+
2*+ 3"/e t,e format of ?TTP re-pon-e
me--a$e2
22+ W,at "- t,e #"fferen!e 5et0een -er/"!e po"nt a##re--F 4o$"!a4 a##re-- an#
p,.-"!a4 a##re--2 Ser/"!e po"nt a##re--"n$ Ao$"!a4 a##re--"n$ P,.-"!a4
a##re--"n$
Ser/"!e po"nt a##re--"n$ Ao$"!a4 a##re--"n$ P,.-"!a4 a##re--"n$
The transport layer header
includes a type o? address
called a ser$ice point
address or port address4
which makes a data
deli$ery
?rom a speci?ic process on
one computer to a speci?ic
process on another
computer+
I? a packet passes the
network boundary we need
another addressin! to
di??erentiate the source and
destination systems+ The
network layer adds a
header4 which indicate the
lo!ical address o? the
sender
and recei$er+
I? the ?rames are to be
distributed to di??erent
systems on the network4
the
data link layer adds the
header4 which de?ines the
source machineF s address
and the destination
%achineF s address+
23+ D"-!-- t,e 5a-"! mo#e4 of FTP+
The client has three components< the user inter?ace4 the client control process4
and the client data trans?er process+ The ser$er has two components< the ser$er control
process and the ser$er data trans?er process+ The control connection is made between
the control processes+ The data connection is made between the data trans?er
processes+
26+W,at "- a #"$"ta4 -"$natre2
(i!ital si!nature is a method to authenticate the sender o? a messa!e+ It is
similar to that o? si!nin! transactions documents when you do business with a bank+
In network transactions4 you can create an equi$alent o? an electronic or di!ital
si!nature by the way you send data+
27+Dra0 t,e #"a$ram foe e=p4a"n -e!r"t.
28+ Def"ne Cr.pto$rap,.
Crypto!raphy re?ers to the science and art o? trans?ormin! messa!es to make
them secure and immune to attacks+
/ri!inal messa!e be?ore bein! trans?ormed is called p4a"nte=t+
'?ter the messa!e is trans?ormed4 is called !"p,erte=t+
'n encryption al!orithm trans?orms the plainteDt to cipherteDtH a decryption
al!orithm trans?orms the cipherteDt back to plainteDt+
The term cipher is used to re?er to encryption and decryption al!orithms+
27+ W,at are t,e t.pe- of DNS Me--a$e
Two types o? messa!es
.uery< header and question records
-esponse< Header4 question records4 answer records4 authoritati$e
records4 and additional records+
29+ W,at "- TEANET PROTOCOA2
' T"#N"T connection is a Transmission Control Protocol 3TCP6 connection used
to transmit data with interspersed T"#N"T control in?ormation+
The T"#N"T Protocol is built upon three main ideas< ?irst4 the concept o? a
ONetwork 2irtual TerminalOH second4 the principle o? ne!otiated optionsH and third4
a symmetric $iew o? terminals and processes+
2:+ W,at "- P3P2
Pretty 0ood Pri$acy+ ' pro!ram usin! public key encryption popularly used with
email+ ' hi!h security -&' public-key encryption application ?or %&-(/&4 UniD4
2'M,2%&4 and other computers+ It was written by Philip -+ Jimmermann o? PhilPs
Pretty 0ood3tm6 &o?tware and later au!mented by a cast o? thousands4 especially
includin! Hal inney4 *ranko #ankester4 and Peter 0utmann+
2;+ W,at "- POP32
P/P5 3Post /??ice Protocol 56 is the most recent $ersion o? a standard protocol ?or
recei$in! e-mail+ P/P5 is a client,ser$er protocol in which e-mail is recei$ed and held
?or you by your Internet ser$er+ P/P and I%'P deal with the recei$in! o? e-mail and
are not to be con?used with the &imple %ail Trans?er Protocol 3&%TP64 a protocol ?or
trans?errin! e-mail across the Internet+
30+ W,at "- )M&P+
I%'P 3Internet %essa!e 'ccess Protocol6 is a standard protocol ?or accessin! e-mail
?rom your local ser$er+ I%'P 3the latest $ersion is I%'P 2ersion 86 is a client,ser$er
protocol in which e-mail is recei$ed and held ?or you by your Internet ser$er+
I%'P can be thou!ht o? as a remote ?ile ser$er+ P/P5 can be thou!ht o? as a Ostore-
and-?orwardO ser$ice+
3*+ W,at "- SS?2
3Secure S,ell6 ' security protocol ?or lo!!in! into a remote ser$er+ &&H pro$ides an
encrypted session ?or trans?errin! ?iles and eDecutin! ser$er pro!rams+ 'lso ser$in! as
a secure client,ser$er connection ?or applications such as database access and e-mail
&&H supports a $ariety o? authentication methods+
P&RT B
:++ i6 "Dplain in detail a protocol ?or electronic mail+ 3E6
ii6 "Dplain in detail any one &N%P protocol+ 3E6
@+ (escribe the main aspects o? hyper teDt trans?er protocol3HTTP6 in accessin! data
on world wide web+3:16
5+ "Dplain (N& with re?erence to its components and workin!+3:16
8+ )rite notes on &ecurity protocols P0P N &&H 3:16
9+ 3i6 )rite notes on I%'P4 P/P5 3E6
3ii6 (iscuss in detail about TP 3E6
1+ 3i6 "Dplain the salient ?eatures o? the &%TP protocol 3:@6
3ii6 "Dplain telnet in detail 386
C+ "Dplain the &%TP and HTTP+ 0i$e their uses4 state stren!ths and weaknesses+
E+ "Dplain the role o? a (N& on a computer network+
9+ "Dplain "mail protocols in detail+
:A+(iscuss TP in detail+
::+(iscuss &N%P and Telnet in detail+
:@+)rite short notes on
i P0P ii+&&H