Original Research

Contribution of Meals and Snacks to Nutrient Intake of

Male and Female Elite Figure Skaters During Peak
Competitive Season
Paula J. Ziegler, PhD, RD, Satya S. Jonnalagadda, PhD, RD, Judy A. Nelson, MS, Corrinna Lawrence, BS, and Brandy
Baciak, MS, RD
Gerber Products Company, Summit, New Jersey (P.J.Z.), Department of Nutrition, Georgia State University, University Plaza,
Atlanta, Georgia (S.S.J., C.L., B.B.), United States Olympic Committee, One Olympic Plaza, Colorado Springs, Colorado
(J.A.N.)
Key words: figure skaters, meal patterns, macronutrient, micronutrient
Objective: To examine the contribution of breakfast, lunch, dinner and snack to the macronutrient and
micronutrient intake of elite male and female figure skaters during their competitive season.
Subjects: Male (n 46) and female (n 48) figure skaters who participated in the 1999 U.S. National
Figure Skating Championships completed the study.
Methods: Each athlete completed three-day food records, during the athletes competitive season. Food
records were analyzed using Nutritionist V software. Macronutrient and micronutrient contributions from meals
were assessed.
Results: Lunch and dinner meals were the main contributors to the total calorie intake of these skaters (27%
and 32%, respectively). Likewise, lunch and dinner were the main contributors to the total protein (27% and
41%), carbohydrate (26% and 29%), fat (30% and 32%), saturated fat (29% and 32%) and polyunsaturated fat
(31% and 32%) intakes. Dinner was the main source of the monounsaturated fat (34%), cholesterol (40%) and
dietary fiber (34%). Breakfast was the main source of dietary folate (36%), whereas iron and calcium intakes
were mainly contributed by breakfast and dinner (29% and 32%, 27% and 29%, respectively).
Conclusion: These elite figure skaters appear to be starting their day with low energy reserves and therefore
need to be educated about the benefits of consuming breakfast. These athletes also need to be educated about
consuming adequate calories throughout the day in order to meet the energy needs of their activity. It is thus
important to monitor eating patterns throughout the day to ensure adequate energy intake to sustain the physical
and mental aspects of the athletes training and performance.
INTRODUCTION
Figure skating enjoys worldwide popularity. The increasing
competitiveness of the sport raises concerns about the health of
these athletes, which may be compromised due to inadequate
nutrient intake [15]. Nutrient intake may be influenced by
factors such as lack of time, hectic training schedule and
increased emphasis on physical features, such as leanness and
body image [6]. Several studies have shown that many skaters
are not consuming adequate amounts of energy; this not only
can influence performance, but can also influence the risk of
injury, bone health and reproductive health of these skaters [16].
Although dietary intake research has examined the impact of
single nutrients, single foods or meals on physiological responses,
few studies have been conducted to examine the food habits, i.e.
eating patterns, of these competitive figure skaters [7]. Knowledge
of food habits of these athletes is necessary to provide appropriate
nutritional advice to the athletes [8].
Eating patterns are behaviors that develop over the years
and may be influenced by physiological and social factors. Of
Presented in part at the Experimental Biology Annual Meetings, April 2000, San Diego, California.
Address reprint requests to: Satya S. Jonnalagadda, PhD, RD, Department of Nutrition, Room 839 Urban Life Building, 140 Decatur Street, Georgia State University,
Atlanta, GA 30303-3083. E-mail: sjonn@gsu.edu
Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 21, No. 2, 114119 (2002)
Published by the American College of Nutrition
114
the four meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks) typically
consumed by individuals, breakfast is considered the most
important meal of the day and has been observed to influence
cognitive abilities and academic achievements in school-aged
children. Pollitt [9] suggests that omission of breakfast could
significantly alter metabolism, resulting in reduced nutrient
availability to the brain, which in turn can influence an indi-
viduals behavior. On the other hand, consumption of lunch has
been observed to result in decreased alertness and performance
efficiency [10, 11]. The post-lunch dip in functional abilities
appears to occur approximately one hour after lunch and con-
tinue for an additional hour. Craig and Richardson [12] ob-
served changes in performance based on the size of the lunch
consumed, with an increase in performance after a small and
light meal compared to a large and heavy meal. Additionally,
macronutrient composition of a meal can influence mental
abilities and mood. Lloyd et al. [10] observed that a medium-
fat, low-carbohydrate or high-fat, low-carbohydrate meal at
midday resulted in an increase in reaction time to stimulus and
individuals were more drowsy and confused compared to a
medium-fat, medium-carbohydrate meal. Similarly, the
evening meal may have a significant impact on mental func-
tioning [13]. Snacks can also contribute a significant proportion
to total energy intake. They are typically consumed late morn-
ing, afternoon and evening [14] and can contribute to the
nutritional quality of the total diet [15]. Kanarek and Swiney
[16] have noted afternoon snacks to have positive effects on
cognitive performance. Because of these diverse effects of
meals it is important to monitor eating patterns of elite athletes
since their food consumption patterns can impact on their
training and performance.
Given the physical demands of participation in sports and
the constraints placed on elite athletes because of their training,
competition and other routine daily activities, such as school
and work, it is important to ensure that these active individuals
are consuming sufficient food to meet their daily energy needs.
Strategies, such as high carbohydrate-low fat diets, increased
frequency of meals and snacking, may need to be incorporated
into the daily routine of these athletes to ensure adequate
calorie intake during the various times of the day to carry out
their wide range of activities. Feeding plans that include fre-
quent meals and/or mini meals may be appropriate to incorpo-
rate into the athletes training and performance schedule to
ensure adequate delivery of energy during performance [17].
Physiological and metabolic responses during performance can
also be influenced by the athletes meal patterns [18]. A few
studies in the past have observed that athletes may have either
grazing food habits or an increased frequency of food con-
sumption, especially in sports with high-energy requirements
[19]. Triathletes and runners have been noted to consume five
to six meals per day while cyclists consume eight to ten meals
per day [19]. This practice of small meals and snacks, con-
sumed over the course of the day, may ensure that the energy
needs are met during various stages of activity and may also
facilitate increased energy consumption and greater food selec-
tion, while potentially eliminating gastrointestinal discomfort
commonly associated with consumption of a large meal. There-
fore, it is important to gain an understanding of athletes meal
consumption pattern and the nutrient distribution in order to
ensure that energy needs throughout the day are met. Thus the
purpose of the present study was to examine the contribution of
daily meals to the macronutrient and select micronutrient intake
of elite male and female U.S. figure skaters during their com-
petitive season. The main hypothesis of this study was that
breakfast, lunch, dinner and snack will contribute equally to the
macronutrient and micronutrient intake of the elite male and
female figure skaters.
METHODS
Subjects
The present study was conducted during the peak compet-
itive season of these athletes prior to the start of the 1999 U.S.
Figure Skating National Championships at Salt Lake City, UT.
Forty-six male and forty-eight female figure skaters partici-
pated in the study. Informed consent forms describing the
objectives and requirements of the study and any risks and
benefits that might occur were signed by study participants and
where necessary by the legal guardian prior to participation in
the study. The Sports Medicine Advisory Board of the United
States Figure Skating Association approved the study.
Dietary Intake
Three-day food records were collected two weeks prior to
the start of the championships, which represent intake during
the peak competitive season of these elite figure skaters. No
one method of dietary assessment is error proof and each
method has its own strengths and weaknesses. However, it has
been shown that three-day food records are adequate in esti-
mating habitual energy intake to within 90% of actual values in
groups as small as 13 individuals [20]. The three days included
two non-consecutive weekdays and one weekend day. Partici-
pants were given detailed instructions for completing the food
records, and the research dietitian reviewed each record for
accuracy and completeness with the skater. Portion sizes were
estimated using common household measures such as cups,
glasses, bowls, teaspoons and tablespoons along with individ-
ual food items/units. The figure skaters were instructed to
provide as much detail as possible of the foods and fluids
consumed, including brand names, and recipes for home
cooked foods. In order to determine the contribution of meals
to the macronutrient and micronutrient content of the diets of
these figure skaters, the athletes were instructed to record the
time of consumption of the food, and, based on the time of
reported intake, the meals were coded as follows: breakfast
(6am8:59am), lunch (11am1:59pm), dinner (4pm7:59pm),
Meal Patterns of Competitive Figure Skaters
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION 115
and snack (any food or drink consumed during the following
time periods 9am10:59am, 2pm3:59pm, 8pm5:59am) [21].
Although there are several ways of examining eating patterns,
we chose the above method to minimize coding error by
participants and data entry personnel and also since we were
interested in examining the contribution of individual meals to
nutrient intake. Also, the above meal timings reflect typical
training and performance days of the skaters. The food records
were analyzed using Nutritionist V software (First Databank,
Inc., San Bruno, CA). The contribution of breakfast, lunch,
dinner and snacks to the macronutrient and micronutrient in-
take was also analyzed. The same research dietitian entered the
food intake data into the Nutritionist V software for all of the
participants, and the same individual coded the meals based on
the above mentioned categorization. In case a particular food
item was not available in the database, then the recipe and/or
manufacturers nutrient information was entered into the data-
base. All participants received a report of their nutrient intake
analysis, and appropriate counseling was provided to set indi-
vidual dietary goals.
Anthropometric Measurements
The height and weight (with light clothing and without
shoes) of all subjects were determined using calibrated scales.
All measurements were taken first thing in the morning prior to
any activity and a single measurement was made.
Data Analysis
The data collected were analyzed using SPSS (Version 9.0,
Chicago, IL) to provide descriptive information (Mean SE)
for all study variables. Additionally, within each gender group,
the contribution of the meals to the macronutrient and micro-
nutrient intake was tested using the general linear model re-
peated measures analysis of variance, and the Bonferroni post-
hoc test, which adjusts for multiple comparisons, was used to
determine differences between meals (p 0.05).
RESULTS
Table 1 presents the characteristics of the figure skaters. The
male and female skaters were young, lean individuals, with a
mean body mass index (BMI) of 21.2 and 18.5 kg/m
2
, respec-
tively.
Overall, the reported dietary intakes of these figure skaters
suggest that they meet the macronutrient recommendations
(Table 2). Compared to the dietary guidelines for the general
population, the male figure skaters had high carbohydrate,
protein, saturated fat and cholesterol intake (Table 2). The
female figure skaters had low fat, cholesterol and dietary fiber
intakes (Table 2). The micronutrient intakes of the female
figure skaters did not meet the dietary recommendations for
these nutrients (Table 2).
The contribution of breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks to
the macronutrient intake and select micronutrient intake of
male and female figure skaters are shown in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 5 presents the percent contribution of the meals to the
macronutrient and micronutrient intake of these athletes. The
male figure skaters had the lowest energy intake at breakfast
and the greatest energy intake at dinner (Tables 3 and 5). Lunch
was the other major meal providing a greater proportion of their
energy intake. A similar trend was observed with intake of all
macronutrients including dietary fiber (Tables 3 and 5). The
folate intake was mainly obtained from breakfast, whereas
breakfast and dinner contributed to iron and calcium intake of
the male skaters (Tables 3 and 5). On the average, the male
figure skaters reported consuming 1.35 ( 0.86) snacks per
day. Similar to the meal patterns of the male skaters, dinner and
lunch were the main contributors to the energy intake of the
Table 1. Characteristics of elite male and female figure
skaters
Males
(n 46)
Females
(n 48)
Age (years) 17.2 3 15 2.4
Height (inches) 68.6 2.6 61 3.3
Weight (lbs) 144 19.5 99 17.8
BMI (kg/m
2
) 21.2 2.0 18.5 2.0
Values are Mean SE.
Table 2. Macronutrient and micronutrient intake of elite
male and female figure skaters
Males
(n 46)
Females
(n 48)
Energy (kcal) 2649 127 1632 106
Carbohydrate
Gram 374 18 243 16
% Energy 67 10 58 2
Protein
Gram 104 6 70 5
% Energy 16 1 17 1
Total Fat
Gram 86 5 45 4
% Energy 29 1 24 1
Saturated Fat (SFA)
Gram 34 5 15 1
% Energy 12 3 8 0.4
Monounsaturated Fat (MUFA)
Gram 21 2 10 1
% Energy 7 0.3 5 0.3
Polyunsaturated Fat (PUFA)
Gram 12 1 6 1
% Energy 4 0.3 3 0.3
Cholesterol (mg) 329 29 170 2
Total Dietary Fiber (g) 19 1 15 1
Folate (mcg) 351 25 232 17
Iron (mg) 21 2 13 1
Calcium (mg) 1237 94 873 66
Values are Mean SE.
Meal Patterns of Competitive Figure Skaters
116 VOL. 21, NO. 2
female skaters (Tables 4 and 5). Additionally, dinner contrib-
uted substantially to the protein intake of the female figure
skaters, while lunch and dinner were the predominant sources
of fat, cholesterol and dietary fiber intake (Tables 4 and 5). As
in the case of the diets of the male skaters, breakfast was the
main contributor to the folate intake, while breakfast and dinner
equally contributed to iron and calcium intake (Tables 4 and 5).
The female skaters on average reported consuming 1.36 (
0.62) snacks per day. Among both genders, significant differ-
ences were observed in the contribution of the meals to the
Table 3. Contribution of meals to the macronutrient and micronutrient intake of elite male figure skaters (n 46)
Breakfast Lunch Dinner Snack
Calories 519 34
ab
705 44
a
829 47
b
596 73
Protein (g) 17 1.4
ab
29 2.2
acd
41 2.7
bce
17 2.4
de
Carbohydrate (g) 82 6
a
93 6 110 8
a
88 11
Total Fat (g) 14.5 1.3
ab
26 2
a
25 2
b
21 3
Saturated Fat (g) 5.7 1.0
a
8 1 8.6 0.7
a
7.1 1.1
Monounsaturated Fat (g) 3.8 0.4
a
5.7 0.6 6.7 0.5
a
5.1 1.1
Polyunsaturated Fat (g) 2.2 0.3
ab
4.1 0.5
a
3.8 0.4
bc
2.4 0.4
c
Cholesterol (mg) 111 21
a
83 9
b
94 7
c
45 8
abc
Dietary Fiber (g) 3.9 0.5
a
4.7 0.4 6.2 0.5
ab
3.7 0.5
b
Folate (mcg) 131 13
abc
58 6
ad
89 8
bd
74 16
c
Iron (mg) 6 0.9 4.2 0.3
a
6.3 0.5
a
4.7 0.8
Calcium (mg) 310 27 293 29 356 33 279 48
Values are Mean SE.
abcde
Values within a row with similar superscripts are significantly different, p 0.05.
Table 4. Contribution of meals to the macronutrient and micronutrient intake of elite female figure skaters (n 41)
Breakfast Lunch Dinner Snack
Calories 323 27
ab
455 35
a
490 31
b
385 46
Protein (g) 11.6 1.2
ab
18 1.4
ac
27 2
bcd
13.5 3.3
d
Carbohydrate (g) 53 4.5 65 5.3 67 5.4 61 6.5
Total Fat (g) 7.7 1.6
ab
14 1.4
a
13 1.1
b
11 2
Saturated Fat (g) 2.4 0.4
ab
4.5 0.5
a
4.5 0.4
b
3.9 0.6
Monounsaturated Fat (g) 1.9 0.4 2.9 0.3 3.1 0.3 2.6 0.6
Polyunsaturated Fat (g) 1.3 0.3 2 0.3 1.9 0.3 1.3 0.3
Cholesterol (mg) 39 10 38 5.5
a
65 6.4
ab
29 10
b
Dietary Fiber (g) 3.1 0.4
a
4.1 0.4
b
4.9 0.5
ac
2.7 0.3
bc
Folate (mcg) 85 9
abc
47 4.6
a
59 5.4
b
44.5 6.4
c
Iron (mg) 4.2 0.4
a
3.1 0.3 3.9 0.3
b
2.3 0.3
ab
Calcium (mg) 241 26 207 23 243 23 186 22
Values are Mean SE.
abcd
Values within a row with similar superscripts are significantly different, p 0.05.
Table 5. Percent contribution of meals to macronutrient and micronutrient intake of male and female elite figure skaters
Breakfast Lunch Dinner Snack
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
Calories 21 1.2 20 1.1 27 1.3 27 1.3 32 1.4 31 1.6 21 2.1 22 1.6
Protein 18 1.3 17 1.3 27 1.3 27 1.4 40 1.4 40 2 15 1.6 17 1.7
Carbohydrate 23 1.4 22 1.3 25 1.4 27 1.5 30 1.8 28 1.8 22 2.3 24 1.7
Total Fat 17 1.2 16 2 30 1.6 30 2 31 1.5 34 3 22 2.4 21 2.4
Saturated Fat 18 2 16 2.2 29 2 28 2.3 31 1.6 33 2.8 22 2.5 23 2.7
Monounsaturated Fat 18 1.7 17 2.2 29 2.3 29 2.5 33 2 34 2.6 20 3 20 2.6
Polyunsaturated Fat 18 1.9 18 2.2 33 2.8 31 2.8 31 2.1 33 2.6 18 2.7 18 2.5
Cholesterol 26 3.5 19 3.6 27 2.4 23 2.4 34 3 45 3.4 14 2 13 2.2
Dietary Fiber 21 1.9 21 1.8 26 1.6 28 2 34 2 33 2 19 2 18 1.9
Folate 37 3 34 2.6 18 2 21 2.1 28 3 27 2 17 3 18 2
Iron 28 2 30 2.4 21 1.4 24 1.7 32 2 31 2 19 3 16 1.5
Calcium 27 2 27 2.2 24 1.6 23 1.9 29 1.7 28 1.9 20 2.4 22 2.1
Values are Mean SE.
Meal Patterns of Competitive Figure Skaters
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION 117
individual macronutrient and micronutrient intake of these fig-
ure skaters (Tables 3, and 4). The most common snack foods
consumed by these athletes (males and females) were from the
dairy group (17.6%), which included milk, yogurt, ice cream
and cheese. Other foods commonly consumed as snacks in-
cluded fruit (9.5%), ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, cereal bars
(9.3%), processed meats and frozen entrees (8.9%), breads such
as bagels, biscuits, donuts (8.1%), fruit and sport drinks (6.5%),
fruit juices (5.7%), cookies (5.2%), candy (4.7%), vegetables
(4.4%), crackers (3.6%), hot beverages (3.2%), nutritional sup-
plements such as Ensure, Boost (2.5%), ready-to-drink soups
(2%), cakes, pies (2.1%) and nuts (1%).
DISCUSSION
In 1994 the International Union of Nutritional Sciences
established a committee on nutrition and food habits to exam-
ine the impact of changing food choices and habits on nutri-
tional status emphasizing the significance of the impact on
nutritional status and dietary habits of individuals [7]. The
present study is in line with these recommendations, and the
results should be of benefit to individuals working with ath-
letes. Assessment of meal patterns not only can facilitate the
development of health promotion and prevention programs, but
also can provide information about desirable dietary behaviors
and serve as an aid for nutritional counseling.
It is a well-established fact that dietary assessment method-
ology has its limitations. Although the use of food records has
its limitations, in the present study group we have found this
system to work the best given the athletes schedules. Also,
these athletes are motivated individuals and are eager to learn
about their diet and ways of improving it. Furthermore, the
instructions provided by the research dietitian, the emphasis on
the significance of accuracy and completeness of the informa-
tion provided are reinforced with a review of the food records
and the results of the nutrient analysis. We have reason to
believe that the dietary intake information provided by the
figure skaters is complete and accurate; however, it should be
acknowledged that some under- and over-estimation of intake
maybe occurring even among this group of motivated athletes.
The method of classification of meals based on time of con-
sumption has been used previously in order to standardize
definitions of meals [21]. Although athletes could have been
relied upon to classify their intake into the various meals, the
use of a standardized coding system minimizes inter-individual
variation in meal classification. Furthermore, given that only a
single body weight measurement was taken, the adequacy of
the dietary intake in meeting the energy needs of these athletes
cannot be accurately determined. Given the inherent limitations
of dietary assessment, the data from the present study should be
taken to present information regarding the meal patterns of this
group of elite figure skaters and should not be used to classify
individual athletes.
Despite the limitations of the study methodology, results of
the present study are similar to those observed in the general
population. Siega-Riz et al. [22] observed that 57% to 59% of
adolescents consumed three meals per day, with males having
a more consistent eating pattern than females. Among adoles-
cents, dinner was the most commonly consumed meal, fol-
lowed by breakfast and lunch. Adolescents consuming at least
two meals were observed to have adequate intakes of calcium,
iron, vitamin E and fiber compared to those with other eating
patterns. This suggests that consistent meal patterns may have
a significant impact on both macronutrient and micronutrient
intake of individuals and additionally on athletic performance
of athletes.
Studies of endurance athletes show that snack foods provide
24% to 35% of the total energy intake, while in the present
study, snack foods and breakfast foods provided 20% to 22% of
the total energy intake and dinner contributed 31% to 32% of
the total energy intake with the remaining from lunch. National
surveys, such as CSFII, show that snacks provide 10% to 20%
of total energy intake in the general population. Additionally,
those individuals who snacked were observed to consume a
nutritionally adequate diet. Butterworth et al. [21] observed
that breakfast, lunch and dinner provided 71.5% of the total
calorie intake of endurance runners, with dinner providing the
highest percent of total energy intake (34%), snacks providing
28.5% and breakfast providing the lowest percent energy
(13.7%), similar to that observed in the present study. Simi-
larly, Lindeman [23] observed triathletes to be frequent eaters,
consuming foods and beverages three to 16 times per day,
including eating 8.9 meals or snacks per day. This eating
pattern could potentially guarantee that these active individuals
incorporate adequate energy intake into their hectic training
and competition schedule. It has also been suggested that
decreasing leisure time and appetite suppression as a result of
exercise may prompt athletes to adopt these frequent small-
meals eating patterns [23]. Female athletes in the sports of golf,
field hockey, cross-country and tennis were observed to have
lower energy intakes during their competitive season with low
intakes of calcium and iron and adequate intakes of vitamins,
suggesting that these females may be consuming fewer meals
during their competitive season [24]. Thus individuals working
with athletes may need to provide them with tips for preparing
small, quick to fix meals that can be consumed on the run,
which will meet their energy needs during training and perfor-
mance.
Van Erp-Baart et al. [8] examined the contribution of break-
fast, dinner, lunch and snacks to nutrient intake of elite endur-
ance, strength and team sports athletes. In this group, snacks
contributed 32% to 37% of total energy intake with breakfast
contributing the lowest energy intake ( 20% energy). Break-
fast, lunch and dinner contributed 15% to 20% of daily intake,
dinner provided 40% of protein intake and 30% of fat intake
while snacks provided 30% of carbohydrate and 30% of fat
intake, suggesting that nutrient quality of snacks consumed by
Meal Patterns of Competitive Figure Skaters
118 VOL. 21, NO. 2
these athletes should be given special attention considering that
they contribute significantly to their dietary intake. In the
present study these figure skaters were observed to consume a
wide variety of foods as snacks, which if incorporated more
frequently into their eating patterns could assist with meeting
their energy and nutrient needs.
The results of the present study and earlier studies thus
suggest that athletes should be encouraged to consume more
frequent meals and to distribute their energy intake between the
meals based on their activity schedules. Small, frequent meals
that are energy and nutrient dense will assist athletes with
meeting their energy and nutrient needs while at the same time
prevent the adverse gastrointestinal consequences of a large
meal, prevent overeating, and can safeguard against fatigue.
Additionally, since many of these athletes begin their training
very early in the morning, a circumstance which may not be
conducive to eating breakfast, they should be encouraged to
pack nutrient dense foods which can be consumed during
breaks in their training. Nutrition education should be provided
to the athletes to assist them with the preparation of easy and
ready to use meals and snacks.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was supported by the U.S. Figure Skating Asso-
ciation, and the U.S. Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs,
CO; and Gerber Products Company, Summit, N.J.
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