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DOI: 10.1177/0033688206071315
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Lindy Woodrow
Anxiety and Speaking English as a Second Language
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Article

Anxiety and Speaking English
as a Second Language

Lindy Woodrow
University of Sydney, Australia
l.woodrow@edfac.usyd.edu.au

Abstract Second language anxiety has a debilitating effect on the oral performance
of speakers of English as a second language. This article describes a research project
concerning the conceptualization of second language speaking anxiety, the relation-
ship between anxiety and second language performance, and the major reported causes
of second language anxiety. The participants in this study were advanced English for
academic purposes (EAP) students studying on intensive EAP courses immediately
prior to entering Australian universities (N = 275). The second language speaking
anxiety scale (SLSAS) was developed for the study. This instrument provided evi-
dence for a dual conceptualization of anxiety reecting both oral communication
within and outside the language learning classroom. The scale was validated using
conrmatory factor analysis. The analysis indicated second language speaking anxiety
to be a signicant predictor of oral achievement. Reported causes of anxiety were
investigated through interviews. The results indicate that the most frequent source of
anxiety was interacting with native speakers. Evidence for two types of anxious
language learner emerged; retrieval interference and skills decit. There was an
indication from the study that English language learners from Confucian Heritage
Cultures (CHCs), China, Korea and Japan were more anxious language learners than
other ethnic groups.

Keywords Anxiety, confirmatory factor analysis, English for academic purposes,
second language learning, tertiary education.

Introduction

An increasing number of international students study at universities in
Australia. Students from China represent the largest group and numbers
are increasing. Prior to engaging in further studies international students
need to attain a certain level of English prociency. Many students do this

Vol 37(3) 308-328 | DOI: 10.1177/0033688206071315
2006 SAGE Publications (London, Thousand Oaks CA and New Delhi)
http://RELC.sagepub.com
309

by attending intensive English language courses prior to university entry.
Research into factors affecting the successful acquisition of English lan-
guage skills and adaptation to the social and academic environment will
benet these students.
Anxiety experienced in communication in English can be debilitating
and can inuence students adaptation to the target environment and ulti-
mately the achievement of their educational goals. Most research in this
area focuses on classroom based anxiety. This research considers second
language anxiety as a two-dimensional construct reecting communication
within the classroom and outside the classroom in everyday communica-
tive situations.
This study sought to investigate the construct of language learning
anxiety of a sample of students studying English for academic purposes.
The study addresses the conceptualization of anxiety communicating in
English, and the relationship between this anxiety and performance in
English. Conrmatory factor analysis was used to determine the construct
structure and correlational analysis was used to investigate the relationship
between anxiety and oral performance in English. The study assumed lan-
guage learning anxiety to be debilitating and investigated the reported
causes using qualitative methods.

Background

In the past two decades there has been a great deal of research into second
or foreign language anxiety. This research indicates that anxiety has a
debilitating effect on the language learning process. There is evidence
that language learning anxiety differs from other forms of anxiety. Early
research into language learning anxiety used measures of test anxiety from
educational research. However, these studies produced inconsistent results
(Scovel 1978; Young 1991). Further, MacIntyre and Gardners research
indicates that language learning anxiety is too specic to be captured by
general anxiety measures (MacIntyre and Gardner 1989, 1991a). A dis-
tinction is made in this study between learning English as a foreign lan-
guage and learning English as a second language. It is argued that living in
an environment where the target language is also the language of everyday
communication may inuence anxiety.
In educational research, anxiety is usually classied as being trait or
state. Trait anxiety is a relatively stable personality trait. A person who
is trait anxious is likely to feel anxious in a variety of situations. State
anxiety, on the other hand, is a temporary condition experienced at a par-
310

Regional Language Centre Journal 37.3
ticular moment. A third type of anxiety is situation specic anxiety. This
reects a trait that recurs in specic situations (Spielberger, Anton and
Bedell 1976). Research into language learning anxiety has indicated that
language learning be classed as situation specic (MacIntyre and Gardner
1991b; Horwitz 2001). That is, a trait which recurs in language learning
situations, namely classrooms.
Anxiety reactions can be categorized as reecting worry or emotion-
ality (Leibert and Morris 1967). Emotionality refers to physiological
reactions, such as blushing or racing heart, and behavioural reactions, such
as, stammering and dgeting. Worry refers to cognitive reactions, such as
self-deprecating thoughts or task irrelevant thoughts (Zeidner 1998;
Naveh-Benjamin 1991). Worry is seen as the more debilitating of the two
because it occupies cognitive capacity that otherwise would be devoted to
the task in hand, for example, speaking a foreign language (Tobias 1985).
Two models of anxiety emerged from Tobias research: an interference
model of anxiety and an interference retrieval model. An interference
retrieval model relates to anxiety as inhibiting the recall of previously
learned material at the output stage, whereas a skills decit model relates
to problems at the input and processing stages of learning, as a result of
poor study habits, or a lack of skills. This results in anxiety at the output
stage due to the realization of this lack of knowledge. Recent research in
language learning has provided some support for this theory (MacIntyre
and Gardner 1994; Onwuegbuzie, Bailey and Daley 2000).
Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986) made a valuable contribution to
theorizing and measurement in language learning anxiety. They consid-
ered anxiety as comprising three components: communication apprehen-
sion, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation. Horwitz and colleagues
viewed the construct of foreign language anxiety as more than a sum of its
parts and dene foreign language anxiety as a distinct complex of self-
perceptions, beliefs, feelings and behaviors related to classroom learning
arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process (Horwitz,
Horwitz and Cope 1986; Horwitz 1986). Emerging from this research was
the thirty-three item Foreign Language Anxiety Scale (FLCAS). This scale
has been used in a large number of research projects (Horwitz 2001). The
scale has been found to be reliable and valid (Aida 1994; Cheng, Horwitz
and Schallert 1999).
Most language learning anxiety research has focused on a one dimen-
sional domain anxiety. This conceptualization reects the anxiety that
occurs in classroom settings (Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope 1986; Aida 1994;
311

Phillips 1992). The orientation of this conceptualization rests with the
linguistic setting of the students learning the language. A lot of research
into language learning anxiety is based in the United States where foreign
language courses are a requirement of undergraduate degree programs.
This is a foreign language situation where most of the communication in
the target language takes place in the classroom. Other research focuses on
learning English in a non-English speaking country. In a second language
situation, such as Australia, where the target language is also the main lan-
guage of communication outside of the classroom, it was felt that the
conceptualization should be expanded to reect potential situations beyond
the classroom that could trigger language anxiety. It is possible that class-
room communication could be considered less anxiety provoking than
many communicative events faced in everyday life by students living in a
second language environment.
Instrumentation to measure foreign language anxiety typically uses
Likert type scales to measure responses to stressors. Horwitzs FLCAS
includes items relating to communication apprehension, for example, I
tremble when I know that Im going to be called on in the language class;
test anxiety, for example, I am usually at ease during tests in my lan-
guage class; and fear of negative evaluation, for example, I get nervous
when the language teacher asks questions which I havent prepared in
advance. In the original published study empirical evidence for classi-
cation was not presented. However, in a factor analytical study of FCLAS
used with students learning Japanese, Aida (1994) produced a four-factor
model: factor one reected speech anxiety, fear of failing, comfortableness
in speaking with native Japanese, and negative attitudes toward the Japa-
nese class. MacIntyre and Gardners (1994) instrument focused on the
stages of foreign language anxiety, that is: input, processing and output
stages. An example of an item in the input anxiety scale is I get ustered
unless French/Spanish/German/Japanese is spoken very slowly; an exam-
ple from the processing stage is: I feel anxious if the French/Spanish/
German/Japanese class seems disorganized; an example of the output
stage is I may know the proper French/Spanish/German/ Japanese
expression but when I am nervous it just wont come out. It is interesting
to note that most of the items used to measure language anxiety include
anxiety reactions, for example, I tremble or I get ustered. Thus, add-
ing the dimension of worry and emotionality to the scales although this is
not exploited or discussed in any detail in any of the foreign language
anxiety studies.
312

The major signicance of research into foreign/second language anxi-
ety is in the relationship between anxiety and performance in the foreign
language. Numerous studies have found that this anxiety is negatively
related to language performance with some researchers claiming it is one
of the strongest predictors of foreign language success (MacIntyre 1999).
Table 1 summarizes the ndings of some of the correlational studies
involving foreign/second language anxiety.

Table 1. Relationship between Foreign Language Anxiety and Performance Variables

Researcher Measure Performance Correlation
Horwitz (1986) FLCAS Final course grade r = -.54, p = <.001
Aida (1994) FLCAS Course grade r = -.38, p = <.01
Phillips (1992) FLCAS Oral test grade r = -.40, p = <.01
Cheng (1999) FLCAS Speaking course
grade
r = -.28, p = <.001
Saito and Samimy
(1996)
Language class
anxiety
Final course grade r =.-51 - -.52, p = <.01
MacIntyre and
Gardner (1989)
French class
anxiety
Vocabulary test r = .-31 - -.42, p = <.001
French use
anxiety
r = .-32 - -.50

Much focus has been on the relationship between the skill of speaking in a
foreign/second language and anxiety (Lucas 1984; Phillips 1992; Price
1991). Although recent research explores other language skills, for exam-
ple, writing (Cheng, Horwitz and Schallert 1999); reading (Saito, Horwitz
and Garza 1999); and listening (Kim 2000). For a review of foreign lan-
guage anxiety and achievement see Horwitz (2001).

The Study

The present study aims to shed light on second language speaking anxi-
ety as experienced by English learners studying in Australia. The study
proposes a dual conceptualization of second language speaking anxiety
reecting the distinction between classroom communication and com-
munication outside of class. Data were collected using a questionnaire
developed for this purpose. The relationship between second language
anxiety and speaking performance was examined and the major causes of
anxiety are considered. The study set out to answer the following research
questions:
313


1. Is a dual conceptualization of second language anxiety according
to in-class and out-of-class communication supported?
2. Is the instrumentation to measure second language anxiety reli-
able and valid?
3. Is there a relationship between speaking performance and second
language speaking anxiety?
4. What are the major stressors reported by students learning English
in Australia?

Participants
The participants for this study were all in their nal months of studying
English immediately prior to enrolling on university courses in Australia
(N = 275, 50.5% male, n = 139; 49.5% female, n = 136). They attended
English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses at accredited intensive
language centres in Australia. The majority of students were from Asian
countries (83.2%, n = 229) with students from China representing the larg-
est group in the sample (34%, n = 92).
At the time of the data collection most of the students still needed to
take a language test to determine adequate English prociency for univer-
sity entry. The most widely used test for university entry in Australia is the
International English Language Testing Service (IELTS) test.

Methodology
The study involved three sources of data; quantitative data from the Sec-
ond Language Anxiety Speaking Scale, IELTS type oral assessment and
qualitative data from the interview data.
The existing instrumentation used to measure language learning anxi-
ety was not considered appropriate because it did not reect the second
language environment of the sample, so the second language speak-
ing anxiety scale (SLSAS) was constructed. The instrument was piloted
and rened based on empirical and theoretical justications (Woodrow
2003).
The questionnaire consists of twelve items on a ve-point Likert type
scale. The items reected the communicative situations the participants
were likely to encounter according to the communicative setting, inter-
locutor (speaker/listener) variables and the nature of the communication.
The communicative setting items concerned the in-class/out-of-class dis-
tinction. The interlocutor variables referred to the number of speakers, the
314

status of the speakers and whether the speaker was a native or non-native
speaker of English. The items for out-of-class communication took into
consideration the communication between the participant and his/her future
academic lecturer. Most of the sample were enrolling on graduate courses
at university and needed to talk to Faculty about this. These items are dif-
ferent from the linguistic communication within the English language
classroom itself. The nature of communication reected initiating and
responding in oral interaction. The items were measured by the extent to
which the participants agreed or disagreed with the statements.
The performance variable was measured using an IELTS type oral
assessment. This assessment took approximately ten minutes and con-
sisted of three stages: introduction and general interview, individual
long turn and two way discussion. The rst stage generally probed the
students ability, the second stage involved the student giving a short
monologue and the third stage pushed the student to his/her linguistic
ceiling. The participants were assessed according to descriptors based
on uency, language usage and pronunciation. The students were given
grades ranging from AF with an F signifying the student was unlikely
to be accepted onto a university course based on English language
prociency.
Forty-seven participants took part in an interview with the researcher.
The interview participants were selected based on class groupings, ethnic-
ity, gender and perception of anxiety so that a representative sample of
participants could be surveyed. The participants took part in a semi-
structured interview concerning their experiences of second language
speaking anxiety. The interviews were used to triangulate the data and to
provide further insights into perceived stressors in speaking English in a
second language environment. The participants were asked about whether
they experienced second language speaking anxiety, in what situations
they felt anxious, and how they felt. These interviews were audio recorded
and transcribed.

Results

The results indicated support for a dual conceptualization of second lan-
guage anxiety and the questionnaire was found to be reliable and valid. A
signicant negative relationship was found between second language
speaking anxiety and oral performance. The major stressor identied by
the participants was interacting with native speakers.
315

To assess whether an in-class and out-of-class distinction of second
language anxiety was appropriate and to assess the validity and reliability
of the questionnaire, a conrmatory factor analysis (CFA) using LISREL
was computed. CFA was chosen to conrm hypothesized latent variables
made a-priori. The assumptions of CFA concern sample size and multi-
variate normality. CFA is a technique classed as structural equation mod-
eling (SEM). SEM is less reliable with small samples and Chi Square (
2
)
tests of data t are sensitive to sample size. According to Boomsa (1983,
cited in Tabachnick and Fidell 1996: 715) a sample size of two hundred is
adequate for small and medium sized models. Therefore, the sample size
in this study was adequate.
Multivariate outliers were removed from the data using the malanho-
bis statistic using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) com-
puter software. Critical values of
2
were assessed at p = <.001. No cases
exceeded this level in the sub-scales.
The CFA model used a correlation rather than covariance matrix be-
cause the items were from a ve-point Likert scale, and therefore, the
variables could not be classed as truly continuous.
A two factor model best tted the data with the observed variables
loading on latent variables of in-class anxiety and out-of-class anxiety.
Although the two latent variables were highly correlated a two factor
model provided a better t to the data than a one factor model. The model
is presented in Figure 1. Item seven of the SLSAS referring to commu-
nication with administrative staff in the language centre seemed ambigu-
ous. It could be classied as both in-class and out-of-class anxiety, so the
item was removed from the analysis. There was an indication of a correla-
tion between variables relating to native speaker interaction, so an error
covariance was included between these. A further error covariance was
included which seemed to reect public performance: answering a ques-
tion from the teacher and giving an oral presentation. To evaluate the
model, multiple t indices were used. The model t indices are shown in
Table 2. The model provided a moderate t to the data with the goodness
of t index (GFI) at .90, the comparative t index at .93 and the non-
normed t index at .90 (Holmes and Smith 2000). This indicates that the
conceptualization of second language speaking anxiety according to in-
and out-of-class communication is relevant to language learners in an ESL
environment.
316


Figure 1. Conrmatory Factor Analysis of Second Language Speaking Anxiety

2
p
2
/df RMR RMSEA GFI AGFI CFI NFI NNFI
172.62 .00 4.32 .07 .11 .90 .83 .93 .84 .90

Table 2. Fit Indices for Two Factor Conrmatory Factor
Analysis of Second Language Speaking Anxiety

Chi-square (
2
)
Probability (p)
Degrees of freedom (df)
Root mean square residual (RMR)
Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)
Goodness of t index (GFI)
Adjusted goodness of t index (AGFI)
Comparative Fit Index (CFI)
Normed t index (NFI)
Non-normed t index (NNFI)

Reliability for the SLAS was calculated based on the CFA model. This
method is considered superior to the traditional alpha () coefcient since
317

error variance is accounted for. Reliability for in-class anxiety was .89 and
for out-of-class .87 and for the combined scales .94. These indices indicate
that the SLSAS is a reliable instrument.
To assess the relationship between second language speaking anxiety
and oral performance, correlations were computed using the Pearson
correlation coefcient in SPSS. The results indicated that there were
signicant negative correlations between both in-class and out-of-class
anxiety and oral performance (in-class anxiety and oral performance:
r = -.23, p = <.01; out-of-class anxiety and oral performance: r = -.24,
p = <.01). The correlation between in-class and out-of-class anxiety was:
r = .58, p = <.01. These results are presented in Table 4. The correlations
indicate that both types of anxiety are related to performance almost
equally. However, the correlation between in-class and out-of-class anxi-
ety is not high enough to suggest they are the same, thus, supporting the
ndings of the CFA. The descriptive statistics for the questionnaire data
are presented in Table 3 and the results for individual anxiety variables
and oral performance are presented in Table 5. These results indicate that
participants found communicating with the teacher and performing in
front of the class to be most stressful.

Table 3. Means and Standard Deviations for
Second Language Speaking Anxiety Scale

Variable M SD
In-class anxiety
Giving oral presentation 2.93 1.09
Role-play in front of class 2.73 1.02
Contribute formal discussion 2.61 1.99
Answer question teacher 2.05 1.93
Speak informally teacher 1.81 1.82
Take part group discussion 1.74 1.87
Out-of-class anxiety
Answer question lecturer 2.65 1.02
Ask question lecturer 2.35 1.02
Take part in conversation with 2.35 1.03
more than one NS
Answer questions NS 2.23 1.01
Start conversation NS 1.93 1.96

318

Table 4. Correlations between Anxiety Sub-scales and Oral Performance

Anxiety in-class Anxiety out-of-class Oral performance
Anxiety in-class 1.00
Anxiety out-of-class 1.58 1.00
Oral performance -.23 -.24 100
Correlations signicant at p = <.01

Table 5. Correlations between Second Language
Speaking Variables and Oral Performance

Anxiety variable Oral performance
Answer teacher r = -.23, p = <01
Informal teacher r = -.24, p = <01
Group discussion r = -.15, p = <05
Role-play r = -.26, p = <01
Oral presentation r = -.06, ns
Formal discussion r = -.12, p = <05
More than 1 NS r = -.17, p = <01
Start conversation NS r = -.18, p = <01
Answer subject lecturer r = -.21, p = <01
Ask subject lecturer r = -.19, p = <01
Answer NS r = -.21, p = <01

A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to exam-
ine the inuence of ethnicity and sex on anxiety. This indicated a sig-
nicant effect for ethnic group: V = 015, F(18,492) = 2.28 p<0.01. There
was no signicant effect for sex: V = .005, F(2,245) = .64 p =.53.
Further univariate analyses of variance (ANOVAS) indicated sig-
nicant main effects of ethnic group on in class anxiety: F(9, 246) = 2.69,
p<.01,
2
= .09 and on out-of- class anxiety: F(9, 246) = 3.45, p<.00001,
2
= .11.
Using a signicance level of .05 Tukeys HSD post hoc tests indicated
signicant differences between European and Korean participants on in
class anxiety and Vietnamese and Korean, Vietnamese and Japanese and
Vietnamese and Taiwanese on out-of-class anxiety. This indicates some
evidence for a distinction between CHCs and other cultures.
To assess the major stressors, interview data were used. The interviews
were audio recorded and transcribed. The interview data were coded
according to categories relating to stressors, reactions and coping strate-
gies. The data revealed that of the forty-seven coded interviews, forty
319

(85%) of the participants claimed to experience second language speaking
anxiety to some extent.
The major stressors reported by the respondents were performing in
front of class and talking to native speakers. Table 6 shows the fre-
quencies of the stressors reported by the interviewees.

Table 6. Reported Stressors Based on Interview Data when Speaking in English

Stressor N %
Performing in English in front of classmates 21 44.7
Giving an oral presentation 20 42.7
Speaking in English to native speakers 18 42.7
Speaking in English in classroom activities 19 19.1
Speaking in English to strangers 19 19.1
Not being able to understand when spoken to 18 17.0
Talking about an unfamiliar topic 18 17.0
Talking to someone of higher status 18 17.0
Speaking in test situations 17 14.9
When interlocutor seems stern 16 12.7
Not being able to make self understood 15 10.6

Information regarding anxiety reactions revealed that more respondents
reported physiological (n = 24, 51.1%) and cognitive reactions (n = 23,
48.9%) than behavioural (n = 16, 34%) reactions. Physiological reactions
included sweating, racing heart and blushing and cognitive reactions
included worrying about performance and mind going blank. Behavioural
reactions included dgeting, talking too much and stuttering.
Emerging from the data, approximately half of the respondents referred
to methods they used to cope with second language speaking anxiety.
Perseverance and developing skills were the most frequently mentioned
coping strategies. Table 7 summarizes some of these responses.

Table 7. Reported Methods of Coping with Second
Language Speaking Anxiety (N = 24)

Coping strategy n %
Perseverance 8 33.3
Improving language /knowledge skills 7 29.2
Positive thinking 4 16.7
Compensation 4 16.7
Relaxation techniques 3 12.5
320

Perseverance refers to not giving up when speaking while improving
language refers to preparing utterances and studying to improve speak-
ing. Positive thinking included positive self-talk while compensation
strategies included smiling and volunteering comments. Various relaxa-
tion techniques were mentioned, such as deep breathing and conscious
efforts to calm oneself.

Discussion

The rst research question refers to the relevance of a dual conceptualiza-
tion of second language speaking anxiety. The results indicate that this is
a useful distinction to make with learners in a second language learning
environment where a great deal of communication in the second language
occurs outside of the classroom. The indicated that while in-class and out-
of-class anxiety are highly correlated (r = .58, p = <.01), they are not the
same construct. The qualitative data also provided support for an in-class
and out-of-class distinction. Some participants reported experiencing out-
of-class anxiety. Michael reported:

I always feel a little anxious when I speak with native speakers and not
inside class but outside class. Because when I speak in class I pay
money for it. I am afraid of nothing. But when I speak in the street
sometimesespecially when maybe young Australians.

This is an interesting viewpoint, the language class here is viewed as a
product.
Harry also reported feeling anxious when speaking in English out-of-
class:

I feel anxiety when I talk with native English speakers because I know
my Englishmy speaking Englishis not correct, so maybe it makes
the native English speakers confused and maybe sometimes what Im
speakingwhat Im talking about is not interesting to native speakers. I
think so these kinds of things.

Harry is concerned with whether the listener can understand.
In contrast some participants referred to in-class anxiety. Phillip states;

When I stand in front of classmates and students and make a presenta-
tion I will feel anxious because I lack practice of speaking.

Whereas Lesley states:

When I speak to my teacher and ask some question to my teacher I
usually feel very anxious. And when I say to the in front of the English
321

class and speak some question some topic I usually very anxious. I cant
remember anything I just maybe ah ah ah.

Whilst the types of anxious learners were not the direct focus of the
research evidence to support a distinction between these types of anxiety
emerged from the interview data. From the above responses it seems that
Philip feels his anxiety is due to lack of practice thus relating to a skills
decit type of anxiety. Lesley, on the other hand seems to be experiencing
information retrieval anxiety, that is, anxiety is preventing the recall of
previously learned material when she cannot remember anything.
The second research question considers the reliability and validity of
the instrumentation. A new instrument was developed to measure anxiety
in a second language environmentthe second language speaking anxiety
scale (SLSAS).The instrumentation achieved validity through providing a
reasonable t to the CFA model. Reliability was established using a
coefcient based on the model that took error into account.
The third research question concerns the relationship between second
language speaking anxiety and oral performance in the second language
using an IELTS type oral assessment. The correlational analysis indi-
cated a negative relationship between both in-class anxiety and out-of-
class anxiety and oral performance. Providing evidence that anxiety can
adversely affect oral communication for students speaking English. These
results replicate the ndings of other researchers in the area (see Table 1).
The negative correlation between oral performance and anxiety is not very
strong. This is understandable because anxiety is just one of a number of
variables inuencing successful communication. However, this research
indicates that anxiety does inuence oral communication. In a larger re-
search project into variables of adaptive learning comprising affect,
motivation and learning strategies anxiety was found to be an important
part of the model (Woodrow 2003).
The fourth research question concerns the stressors reported by the sam-
ple. According to the quantitative data, giving oral presentations was rated
the highest and taking part in group discussions was rated the lowest.
Whilst the cohort as a whole did not demonstrate very high speaking
anxiety there was evidence of variation between nationality groups with
European and Vietmanese participants tending to be less anxious and
Japanese, Korean and Chinese participants tending to be more anxious.
Most previous research into anxiety is situated in a western setting, how-
ever, there are many examples of differences between Confucian heritage
learners and western learners in academic contexts (Watkins and Biggs
322

1996, 2001). Research has indicated a relationship between reticence in
classrooms of Chinese learners and Confucian values of face and value
being place on silence (Liu 2002). Current research has indicated culture
may also be manifested in students willingness to communicate (WTC)
(Wen and Clement 2003; Yashima 2002). Anxiety is hypothesized as one
of the antecendents of WTC (MacIntyre, Baker, Clment and Conrod
2001). There is a need for further research in this area.
The qualitative data indicated that giving oral presentations and per-
forming in front of classmates were the most reported stressors for in-class
situations. However, the correlational data indicated that giving an oral
presentation was the only anxiety variable that was not signicantly cor-
related with oral performance. This would be an interesting avenue for
further research. One possible explanation for this discrepancy is that the
oral assessment task in the research involved the participants producing a
long turn whereby the student was required to speak for one to two
minutes on a topic rather than a formal presentation. In addition, the oral
assessment involved one to one communication rather than one to an audi-
ence. Such long turns frequently occur in normal communication, whereas
giving an oral presentation rarely occurs in everyday communication.
Thus, giving an oral presentation calls upon different communicative skills
than were measured in the oral assessment. The most highly correlated
variables reected interaction. The correlations between the observed vari-
ables and oral performance are presented in Table 6.
Interestingly, nearly all of the interview participants reported experi-
encing some anxiety when speaking in English. Communicating with
native speakers was the most referred to out-of-class stressor. However,
the level of predictability is also a consideration. Miko reported that she
felt most anxious with native speakers, but not in situations where there is
a high degree of linguistic predictability. In answer to a question about the
situations in which she felt most anxious she answered:

of course to speak to native speaker and which is not my teacher or
some people I know, which is stranger. But I am not afraid to speak to
the storekeeper or something. I can speak to them. Just people on the
street or on the train, I am afraid of speaking to them because I worry
about my grammar mistakes basically.

Some participants referred to the number of native speakers involved in
the interaction:
Lu responded to the same question about the situations in which she
felt most anxious:
323


Talk with more than one native speaker. Because when I talk with one
person we can communicate effectively and there is only one listener,
one audience. But more than one person maybe I will think someone
maybe do not agree with me and maybe we will argue. Just a feel-
ingjust a feeling.

The study indicated that the participants attributed anxiety to a range of
factors, but particularly referred to communication with native speakers.
Interaction with non-native speakers was not considered a stressor by most
of the sample. In a similar vein, the study also indicated low anxiety for
group discussions. This lends support to using collaborative techniques
that focus on studentstudent interaction.
Some participants talked about some of the ways they dealt with their
speaking anxiety. Some students referred to perseverance. For example
Hero said:

I think to try speaking again and again is the best way to solve it
(anxiety). Keep or let my mind to calm down, be natural and like
speaking to Japanese people.

In addition to perseverance this student tries to use relaxation tech-
niques to deal with his anxiety. This is a recommended strategy for deal-
ing with anxiety. Skills decit anxious individuals benet from improving
learning strategies and focusing on learning the necessary skills and lin-
guistic features of the language whereas interference retrieval anxious
individuals can focus on relaxation techniques and positive self-talk
(Young 1991; Zeidner 1998).

Conclusions

This study found that a dual conceptualization of second language speak-
ing anxiety as measured by the second language speaking anxiety scale
was relevant to students studying English in Australia. The results indicate
that the instrument is reliable and valid and thus provides researchers with
a new instrument to measure second language speaking. It would be inter-
esting to use this with second language speakers of a lower linguistic level
and also with students after they have started their university courses to
investigate contextual inuences on second language speaking anxiety.
Anxiety is clearly an issue in language learning and has a debilitating
effect on speaking English for some students. So it is important that teach-
ers are sensitive to this in classroom interactions and provide help to
minimize second language anxiety.
324

The study also provided support for the notion of stages of anxiety.
Thus, a student may experience anxiety due to skills decit or retrieval
interference. This has implications at a classroom level. A skills decit
anxious student would benet from instruction in language learning strate-
gies and scaffolding of skills whereas a retrieval interference anxious
student would benet from de-sensitization and relaxation techniques. It is
important to take into consideration communication both in and outside
the classroom and ensure that students have the necessary skills and prac-
tice for everyday communication. This could be achieved by setting out-
of-class tasks utilizing the rich linguistic resources available to learners.
For example, students could join a local library and participate in local
community activities as well as participating in the university community.
Finally, there is a need for empirical evidence concerning how effective
anxiety reducing techniques are in second language learning classrooms.

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327


APPENDIX

Instrument Used in Main Study

In the column Anxiety ll in the circles according to how anxious you feel when you
speak English in the following situations.

1 2 3 4 5
Not at all Slightly Moderately Very Extremely
anxious anxious anxious anxious anxious

Situation Anxiety
1. The teacher asks me a question in English in class.
1 2 3 4 5
2. Speaking informally to my English teacher out of class.
1 2 3 4 5
3. Taking part in a group discussion in class.

1 2 3 4 5
4. Taking part in a role-play or dialogue in front of my class.

1 2 3 4 5
5. Giving an oral presentation to the rest of the class.

1 2 3 4 5
6. When asked to contribute to a formal discussion in class.

1 2 3 4 5
7. Talking to administrative staff of my language school in
English.

1 2 3 4 5
8. Taking part in a conversation out of class with more than
one native speaker of English.

1 2 3 4 5
9. Starting a conversation out of class with a friend or
colleague who is a native speaker of English.

1 2 3 4 5
10. A lecturer/supervisor in my intended university faculty of
study asks me a question in English.

1 2 3 4 5
11. Asking for advice in English from a lecturer/supervisor in
my intended university faculty of study.

1 2 3 4 5
12 A native speaker I do not know asks me questions.

1 2 3 4 5

328


Correlation Matrix for Conrmatory Factor Analysis of Anxiety

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 1.00
2 1.66 1.00
3 1.67 1.53 1.00
4 1.56 1.47 1.53 1.00
5 1.50 1.43 1.48 1.70 1.00
6 1.61 1.49 1.56 1.59 1.58 1.00
7 1.37 1.54 1.36 1.30 1.32 1.39 1.00
8 1.35 1.52 1.42 1.29 1.28 1.37 11.85 1.00
9 1.55 1.49 1.40 1.44 1.42 1.44 11.54 1.52 1.00
10 1.45 1.51 1.38 1.38 1.33 11.39 .54 1.52 1.81 1.00
11 1.37 1.43 1.32 1.35 1.28 11.33 1.60 1.60 1.57 1.58 1.00

Key to variables
1 in-class anxiety Answer question teacher
2 in-class anxiety Speak informally to my teacher
3 in-class anxiety Take part in group discussions
4 in-class anxiety Take part in a role-play
5 in-class anxiety Give an oral presentation
6 in-class anxiety Contribute to formal discussions
7 out-of-class anxiety Take part conversation more than one native speaker
8 out-of-class anxiety Start conversation with native speaker
9 out-of class anxiety Answer question from lecturer
10 out-of-class anxiety Ask lecturer for advice
11 out-of class anxiety Answer question unknown native speaker


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